64:
135:
154:
193:
71:
260:
Activists gathered in the summer of 1984 to discuss remedies to the imbalance of power they perceived between communities within the greater city of Boston, as it had expanded through annexations in the 19th century. Leaders spoke of the relationship between Black residents and City Hall as that of a
319:
A non-binding referendum question about succession appeared on the ballot in 1986, on
November 4. Nearly 50,000 people voted in the referendum. The proposal failed, with 73 percent voting against it. The measure did not win in any precinct, and fared worst in the predominantly Black neighborhoods.
311:
Jones said that Black neighborhoods had "a colonial relationship with the city of Boston" because they were not given adequate public funds. Opponents, including some of Boston's black ministers, Roxbury state representative
273:
The proposal to create
Mandela sought to carve out a new, 12-square-mile city in the heart of Boston, which would comprise about 22 percent of Boston's 600,000 population, including most of its black residents.
261:"colony," in an era when apartheid in the Republic of South Africa, notions of community control were under discussion, and a decade after the upheavals created in Boston by efforts at school desegregation and
328:
The plan was put back on the ballot in 1988, when it was also defeated. In 1989, Jones proposed a longer-range commission that would study the impacts of turning a neighborhood into an independent city.
1092:
1072:
1077:
791:
1082:
1087:
965:""Separatist City": The Mandela, Massachusetts (Roxbury) Movement and the Politics of Incorporation, Self-Determination, and Community Control, 1986–1988"
720:""Separatist City": The Mandela, Massachusetts (Roxbury) Movement and the Politics of Incorporation, Self-Determination, and Community Control, 1986–1988"
196:
A map of Boston, Massachusetts, USA highlighting in blue the precincts that would have been included in the proposed new city of
Mandela, Massachusetts.
95:
695:
63:
301:
316:
and Mayor
Raymond L. Flynn, claimed the new municipality would undermine gains and create a community with annual deficit of $ 135 million.
178:
747:." Ph.D. diss. University of Southern California, 2002 (especially chapter 7, "The Greater Roxbury Incorporation Project," pages 229–285).
262:
166:
1067:
935:
995:
909:
824:
305:
300:
Other community-based organizations in Boston doing work around local Black and Brown residents' land control included the
171:
1026:
894:
285:) were the sponsors of the Mandela initiative; the co-leaders of the GRIP campaign were journalist and filmmaker
243:
215:
127:
868:
1097:
286:
744:
211:
766:
1054:
from Urban League of
Eastern Massachusetts records, Special Collections, Northeastern University Library
52:
precincts that would have formed
Mandela, Massachusetts in the 1986 and 1988 ballot question language.
17:
745:
Recapturing
Suburbia: Urban Secession and the Politics of Growth in Los Angeles, Boston, and Seattle
1051:
690:
1003:
976:
799:
731:
700:
223:
293:
was also a proponent, and ran in 1983 as mayoral candidate against then city council member,
231:
227:
203:
was a proposed city that would have been formed as a result of some districts seceding from
964:
719:
705:
313:
246:
1061:
1041:
1027:
https://electionstats.state.ma.us/data/serve_file_pages_for_item/5550/BallotQuestion/
895:
https://electionstats.state.ma.us/data/serve_file_pages_for_item/5607/BallotQuestion/
294:
159:
139:
235:
234:, and the movement was driven by Black community leaders. The name was inspired by
192:
183:
146:
1007:
980:
803:
735:
110:
97:
239:
848:
Kennedy, Marie; Tilly, Chris (1986). "The
Mandela Campaign, An Overview".
332:
In 2017, Epicenter
Community held a panel discussion about the movement.
290:
219:
1045:
204:
49:
740:(substantial and comprehensive article with extensive bibliography).
191:
1052:
Greater
Roxbury incorporation project: A new municipality.
936:"Bostonians Debating Drive to Carve Out a Black City"
252:
The proposal was defeated in 1986 and again in 1988.
177:
165:
145:
126:
32:
1073:African and Black nationalism in the United States
1093:Post–civil rights era in African-American history
963:Miletsky, Zebulon; González, Tomás (2016-09-22).
910:"Mandela, MA and the bid to separate from Boston"
825:"Mandela, MA and the bid to separate from Boston"
718:Miletsky, Zebulon; González, Tomás (2016-09-22).
996:"Boston's Black Areas Mount New Secession Drive"
1078:Proposed populated places in the United States
767:"Irate Blacks Pushing for Secession in Boston"
27:Proposed City in Massachusetts, United States
8:
890:
888:
29:
994:Hays, Constance L. (December 10, 1989).
339:
757:
242:activist and political prisoner, later
125:
90:
56:
45:
696:History of African Americans in Boston
306:Greater Roxbury Neighborhood Authority
934:Butterfield, Fox (October 12, 1986).
302:Dudley Street Neighborhood Initiative
279:Greater Roxbury Incorporation Project
176:
164:
144:
18:Greater Roxbury Incorporation Project
7:
1083:Ethnic enclaves in the United States
958:
956:
904:
902:
823:Pattison-Gordon, Jule (2017-09-13).
792:"In Boston, a Dream of Independence"
1088:African-American history in Boston
210:The districts, including parts of
25:
790:Hornblower, Margot (1986-10-13).
83:Location within the United States
152:
133:
69:
62:
869:"Boston Chooses to Stay Intact"
765:Shlachter, Barry (1986-09-07).
70:
48:Interactive map outlining the
1:
867:Page, Clarence (1986-11-09).
34:Mandela County, Massachusetts
289:and architect Curtis Davis.
1042:1986 news broadcast footage
343:State Legislative District
226:, were populated mainly by
1114:
691:Timeline of Boston history
324:1988 referendum and beyond
348:
345:
342:
244:President of South Africa
91:
57:
46:
39:
1068:Neighborhoods in Boston
856:(5) – via EBSCO.
256:Background and impetus
197:
287:Andrew Philemon Jones
205:Boston, Massachusetts
195:
111:42.35806°N 71.06361°W
914:The Bay State Banner
829:The Bay State Banner
629:Seventeenth Suffolk
579:Fourteenth Suffolk
550:Thirteenth Suffolk
269:Referendums in 1986
116:42.35806; -71.06361
107: /
1048:about the proposal
743:Hogen-Esch, Tom. "
604:Fifteenth Suffolk
336:Referendum results
198:
771:Los Angeles Times
701:Black nationalism
682:
681:
349:1988 Referendum
346:1986 Referendum
228:African-Americans
190:
189:
16:(Redirected from
1105:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1015:
1014:
991:
985:
984:
960:
951:
950:
948:
946:
931:
925:
924:
922:
921:
906:
897:
892:
883:
882:
880:
879:
864:
858:
857:
845:
839:
838:
836:
835:
820:
814:
813:
811:
810:
787:
781:
780:
778:
777:
762:
739:
521:Twelfth Suffolk
463:Seventh Suffolk
340:
158:
156:
155:
138:
137:
136:
122:
121:
119:
118:
117:
112:
108:
105:
104:
103:
100:
73:
72:
66:
30:
21:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1058:
1057:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1025:
1021:
1012:
1010:
993:
992:
988:
962:
961:
954:
944:
942:
933:
932:
928:
919:
917:
908:
907:
900:
893:
886:
877:
875:
873:Chicago Tribune
866:
865:
861:
850:Radical America
847:
846:
842:
833:
831:
822:
821:
817:
808:
806:
796:Washington Post
789:
788:
784:
775:
773:
764:
763:
759:
754:
717:
714:
712:Further reading
706:Urban secession
687:
338:
326:
314:Thomas Finneran
271:
258:
186:
153:
151:
134:
132:
115:
113:
109:
106:
101:
98:
96:
94:
93:
87:
86:
85:
84:
81:
80:
79:
78:
74:
53:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1111:
1109:
1101:
1100:
1098:Nelson Mandela
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1037:
1036:External links
1034:
1031:
1030:
1019:
1002:. p. 42.
1000:New York Times
986:
969:Trotter Review
952:
940:New York Times
926:
898:
884:
859:
840:
815:
782:
756:
755:
753:
750:
749:
748:
741:
724:Trotter Review
713:
710:
709:
708:
703:
698:
693:
686:
683:
680:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
651:
650:
648:
646:
644:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
626:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
601:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
576:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
547:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
518:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
493:
492:Ninth Suffolk
489:
488:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
460:
459:
456:
453:
450:
447:
444:
441:
438:
435:
434:Sixth Suffolk
431:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
405:Fifth Suffolk
402:
401:
399:
397:
395:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
380:Third Suffolk
377:
376:
373:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
355:
351:
350:
347:
344:
337:
334:
325:
322:
270:
267:
257:
254:
247:Nelson Mandela
188:
187:
181:
175:
174:
169:
163:
162:
149:
143:
142:
130:
124:
123:
89:
88:
82:
76:
75:
68:
67:
61:
60:
59:
58:
55:
54:
47:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1110:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
990:
987:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
957:
953:
941:
937:
930:
927:
915:
911:
905:
903:
899:
896:
891:
889:
885:
874:
870:
863:
860:
855:
851:
844:
841:
830:
826:
819:
816:
805:
801:
797:
793:
786:
783:
772:
768:
761:
758:
751:
746:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
716:
715:
711:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
688:
684:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
652:
649:
647:
645:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
628:
627:
624:
622:
620:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
602:
599:
597:
595:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
577:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
548:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
519:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
490:
486:
483:
480:
477:
474:
471:
468:
465:
462:
461:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
442:
439:
436:
433:
432:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
403:
400:
398:
396:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
378:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
352:
341:
335:
333:
330:
323:
321:
317:
315:
309:
307:
303:
298:
296:
295:Raymond Flynn
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
268:
266:
264:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
241:
237:
236:South African
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
208:
206:
202:
194:
185:
182:
180:
173:
170:
168:
161:
160:Massachusetts
150:
148:
141:
140:United States
131:
129:
120:
92:Coordinates:
65:
51:
41:Proposed City
38:
31:
19:
1022:
1011:. Retrieved
999:
989:
972:
968:
943:. Retrieved
939:
929:
918:. Retrieved
916:. 2017-09-13
913:
876:. Retrieved
872:
862:
853:
849:
843:
832:. Retrieved
828:
818:
807:. Retrieved
795:
785:
774:. Retrieved
770:
760:
727:
723:
331:
327:
318:
310:
299:
282:
278:
276:
272:
259:
251:
209:
200:
199:
304:(DSNI) and
184:New England
114: /
1062:Categories
1013:2020-08-17
920:2020-08-18
878:2020-08-18
834:2020-08-18
809:2020-08-18
776:2020-08-18
752:References
216:Dorchester
102:71°03′49″W
99:42°21′29″N
1008:0362-4331
981:2373-7743
945:17 August
804:0190-8286
736:2373-7743
240:Apartheid
224:South End
685:See also
308:(GRNA).
291:Mel King
222:and the
220:Mattapan
675:32,890
672:21,248
669:11,642
663:47,383
660:35,273
657:12,110
232:Latinos
212:Roxbury
201:Mandela
172:Suffolk
128:Country
77:Mandela
1006:
979:
802:
734:
678:35.4%
666:25.6%
654:TOTAL
641:26.7%
638:4,457
635:3,266
632:1,191
616:20.2%
613:5,110
610:4,076
607:1,034
591:26.6%
588:5,956
585:4,371
582:1,585
574:29.2%
571:6,752
568:4,781
565:1,971
562:24.2%
559:4,356
556:3,301
553:1,055
545:35.4%
542:6,238
539:4,027
536:2,211
533:27.7%
530:5,279
527:3,819
524:1,460
516:40.9%
513:5,986
510:3,540
507:2,446
504:26.0%
501:5,189
498:3,841
495:1,348
487:41.7%
484:5,179
481:3,021
478:2,158
475:28.1%
472:5,137
469:3,691
466:1,446
458:32.7%
455:4,975
452:3,350
449:1,625
446:25.9%
443:2,646
440:1,962
429:32.7%
426:3,760
423:2,529
420:1,231
417:23.6%
414:4,349
411:3,322
408:1,027
392:26.1%
389:4,904
386:3,624
383:1,280
375:% YES
372:TOTAL
363:% YES
360:TOTAL
263:busing
179:Region
167:County
157:
50:Boston
1044:from
975:(1).
730:(1).
238:anti-
147:State
1046:WGBH
1004:ISSN
977:ISSN
947:2020
800:ISSN
732:ISSN
437:684
366:YES
354:YES
283:GRIP
277:The
230:and
369:NO
357:NO
1064::
998:.
973:23
971:.
967:.
955:^
938:.
912:.
901:^
887:^
871:.
854:20
852:.
827:.
798:.
794:.
769:.
728:23
726:.
722:.
297:.
265:.
249:.
218:,
214:,
207:.
1016:.
983:.
949:.
923:.
881:.
837:.
812:.
779:.
738:.
281:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
