157:
178:
349:. Hero writes that euthytones were arrow-throwing, while palintones usually stone throwing, but sometimes could also shoot arrows or both. The precise meaning of these terms is disputed. According to Schramm, Marsden and their followers, this distinction reflects the difference in the shape of the detail of the frame which is called "hole carrier". According to the so-called "French school", the arms of a euthytone extended outside the frame, while the arms of a palintone moved inside the frame. The problem arises because the ancient descriptions that we have do not contain original pictures, and the meaning of certain technical terms is unclear.
89:
71:
553:
200:
133:
223:
111:
357:
Much research was done by
Hellenistic Greek scientists and craftsmen on the design of artillery pieces. The main parameter that determines the sizes of all parts of the machine is the weight of the projectile or the length of the bolt (arrow). The fundamental size characteristic is called the hole
580:
Many attempts were made in modern times to reproduce the ancient artillery pieces, following their ancient descriptions, and to test them. The first success was due to German general E. Schramm in collaboration with A. Rehm. They used horse hair for the springs, and achieved the distance of over
420:
and archaeological evidence indicate that these metal artillery pieces were widely used by the Romans. An important detail, washer used in the stretching of the spring was always made of metal, and these washers are the only pieces of
Hellenistic artillery, besides the stone balls and arrowheads
408:
for the stone-throwing machines, where W is the weight of the projectile in Attic minas (1 mina = 436.6 grams (15.40 oz)), and the hole diameter is measured in dactyls (1 dactyl = 19.3 millimetres (0.76 in)). Then the dimensions of all parts are defined as fixed multiples of the hole
334:(καταπελτης λιτοβολος or πετροβολος) was a more powerful machine primarily designed for throwing stones. At some time between 100 CE and 300 CE a change occurred in the nomenclature. Thus, in the 4th century CE catapulta indicates a one-armed stone-throwing engine, also known as
540:
The artillery pieces were transported in disassembled state, and it took long time to assemble, install and adjust them. In many cases only few essential parts of artillery pieces were transported, the rest could be made on the place of a siege if timber was available.
581:
300 m (980 ft) with 1 lb (0.45 kg) lead shot, and using another machine, 370 m (1,210 ft) with 1 m (3 ft 3 in) bolt. This bolt penetrated an iron-plated shield 3 cm (1.2 in) thick to half of the bolts length.
924:
156:
358:
diameter; it is the same as the diameter of the spring (which is a bunch of sinew rope). Vitruvius gives the following formulas for the hole diameter: it is the length of the bolt divided by 9 for the bolt-throwing machines, or :
177:
917:
88:
506:
The main use of artillery was in the siege of fortified places. The heavy stone-throwing pieces were used to destroy the walls, while the lighter arrow-shooting pieces to clear the walls from the enemy defending them
910:
510:
Sometimes ballistae were used to fire extraordinary projectiles, like pots with snakes, or even parts of dead bodies, with the purpose of terrifying the enemy. For example, the Romans catapulted to the camp of
448:(60 minae = 26.2 kilograms (58 lb))) at the distance of 400 yd (370 m). There existed heavy ballistae able to throw stones weighing 3 talents and more. Much longer ranges were claimed by
649:
mentions catapults. Although their silence cannot prove that no catapults existed, it nevertheless complements the broad picture of the development of bowmachines in the years leading up to 399 BC"
452:"...a three-span catapult shot 700 yd (640 m) (three and half stades); its springs weighted twelve minae. A four-cubit palintone engine shot 800 yd (730 m) (four stades)".
70:
533:
Several attempts to use artillery in the field are recorded but they were mostly unsuccessful, except when the artillery could be deployed in some protected place. For example, in the
498:
According to
Schramm, the best arrow-throwing catapults could be trusted to hit a man at 100 yd (91 m), so the accuracy was better than of an early 19th-century musket.
406:
544:
Artillery was used in naval battles, as mentioned in
Diodorus, book XX. Both Alexander and Demetrius mounted catapults on ships for the purpose of attacking fortresses.
23:. There was heavy siege artillery, but more mobile and lighter field artillery was already known and used in pitched battles, especially in Roman imperial period.
19:
The Greeks and Romans both made extensive use of artillery for shooting large arrows, bolts or spherical stones or metal balls. Occasionally they also used ranged
836:
315:
The names of the artillery pieces changed with time. Though all inventions in the field of artillery were made by the Greeks, the best known are the Latin names,
421:
which are found by archaeologists. The preferred material for the springs was sinew and human hair. Horse hair was considered an inferior substitute. In 250 BC,
526:
the
Rhodians fired 800 cylinders with some incendiary substance; the cylinders being subsequently collected and counted; they managed to set fire on Demetrius'
474:
were throwing stones of 10 talents (262 kilograms (578 lb))). The largest weight of projectiles mentioned in
Vitruvius is 460 lb (210 kg).
222:
132:
199:
303:– there is no record of their actual use. Metal springs were not sufficiently resilient at that time, and both the traction and counterweight
467:
110:
489:
writes that "the stone balls that were being hurled weighted one talent and traveled two or more stades (400 yd (370 m))".
523:
1114:
495:
writes that the stone walls have to be at least 10 cubits (about 3 m (9.8 ft)) thick to be unaffected by stone-shot.
437:
gave Rhodes a present of hair weighing 1000 talents. This gift was a part of international relief program after a catastrophic
696:
169:
777:
471:
295:
Although other power systems such as metal springs and pneumatically powered machines were experimented with by
288:
or hair, human or horse. Stone-throwing torsion-powered machines had their first recorded use in 332 BC at the
1119:
438:
266:
XIV.41.3, says that these were the first catapults, and describes the impression new weapons made during the
462:, which could throw a three talent stone at the distance of one stade. This catapult was installed on a ship.
902:
863:
478:
259:
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520:
289:
117:
31:
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335:
20:
685:
38:
of
Demetrius. The Romans obtained their knowledge from the Greeks, and employed the Greek specialists.
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42:
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232:
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184:
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gathered there an assembly of expert craftsmen to conduct a research on new armament.
30:
in about 399 BC to the most advanced torsion artillery in about 300 BC at the time of
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1093:
1048:
971:
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426:
248:
188:
148:
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572:
138:
78:
27:
341:
The authors of Greek treatises classified artillery pieces into two categories:
416:
proposed metal frame and metal cylinders to enclose the springs. Depictions on
1078:
1017:
807:
642:
608:
459:
430:
441:. This shows that a large trade in human hair existed in Hellenistic period.
16:
Artillery for shooting large arrows, bolts or spherical stones or metal balls
1032:
991:
976:
883:
613:
562:
527:
455:
316:
304:
296:
251:. According to Marsden's analysis of ancient sources, they were invented in
122:
62:
761:
Campbell, Duncan (2011). "Ancient catapults: some hypotheses reexamined".
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1012:
981:
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486:
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320:
143:
35:
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pieces were probably invented in
Macedonia, shortly before the times of
1068:
247:
The earliest artillery pieces, like gastraphetes, were driven by large
850:
519:. Artillery was also used as flame carriers. During the last night of
412:
Most of the frame detail were made in the
Hellenistic period of wood.
422:
330:(καταπέλτης ὀξυβελής) meant an arrow- or bolt-throwing engine, and a
256:
466:(VIII,7,9) writes that catapults used to defend Syracuse during the
639:
http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/pdf/uploads/hesperia/hesperia.80.4.0677.pdf
986:
551:
482:
338:, while ballista means a two-armed piece which shoots bolts only.
285:
537:
Alexander used catapults to clear the further bank of the river.
409:
diameter, for example the length of the arm is 7 hole diameters.
906:
26:
The technology was developed quite rapidly, from the earliest
284:
of a spring made of an appropriate organic material, usually
41:
Five Greek and Roman sources have survived: two treatises by
34:. No improvement, except in details, was ever made upon the
933:
Ancient mechanical artillery and hand-held missile weapons
584:
Nowadays many working replicas of various types exist.
364:
556:
Reproductions of ancient Greek artillery, including
1041:
1005:
959:
938:
566:(to the left in the foreground) and a large, early
778:"La Chiroballiste (French translation by V. Prou)"
743:
684:
444:A typical ballista could throw a stone weighing 1
400:
746:Greek and Roman Artillery. Historical development
864:"A Modern Reconstruction of Vitruvius' Scorpion"
687:Greek and Roman artillery. Technical treatises
458:of Naucratis mentions a catapulte designed by
433:about 3/4 of a ton of women's hair. In 225 BC
918:
8:
670:Hellenistic naval and military developments
925:
911:
903:
835:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
710:
708:
737:
735:
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731:
729:
385:
381:
363:
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576:(mounted on the wall in the background)
307:were unknown to the Greeks and Romans.
66:
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663:
661:
659:
657:
655:
353:Dimensions, materials and performance
97:artillery tower with arrow shooters (
7:
795:. Oxford: Oxbow books. p. 355.
823:Die antiken Geschutze der Saalburg
76:Greek non-torsion siege crossbow (
14:
765:. Vol. 80. pp. 677–700.
691:. Oxford at the Clarendon press.
162:Roman imperial era bolt shooter (
750:. Oxford at the Clarendon Press.
641:"It is significant that neither
401:{\displaystyle 1.1(100W)^{1/3},}
221:
198:
176:
155:
131:
109:
87:
69:
793:Greek and Roman oared warships
378:
368:
237:) used predominantly in sieges
1:
205:Handheld Roman imperial era
280:. These were driven by the
1136:
1006:Crew-served stone-throwers
960:Crew-served arrow-throwers
183:Roman imperial era mobile
946:Greek and Roman artillery
515:the head of his brother
1115:Ancient Greek artillery
791:Morrison, J.S. (1996).
548:Testing modern replicas
851:"Catapulta and onager"
742:Marsden, E.A. (1969).
683:Marsden, E.A. (1971).
577:
402:
141:1-talent (75-pounder)
32:Demetrius Polyiorcetes
672:. Chicago: Ares Publ.
555:
403:
21:early thermal weapons
951:Torsion siege engine
884:"Historical Library"
821:Schramm, E. (1918).
808:"The deipnosophists"
776:Heron d'Alexandrie.
477:When describing the
450:Athenaeus Mechanicus
362:
274:Torsion siege engine
101:and stone throwers (
53:; and the books by
43:Heron of Alexandria
1084:Repeating crossbow
720:Historical library
604:Hellenistic armies
578:
535:Battle of Jaxartes
493:Philo of Byzantium
479:siege of Jerusalem
414:Hero of Alexandria
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139:Roman imperial era
59:Philo of Byzantium
1102:
1101:
1042:Hand-held weapons
668:Tarn, W. (1975).
429:for her war with
170:defensive warfare
55:Biton of Pergamon
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1120:Roman artillery
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1054:Cheiroballistra
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896:"The histories"
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810:. p. V.43.
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599:Cheiroballistra
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418:Trajan's column
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299:– according to
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185:field artillery
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1064:Gastraphetes
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560:such as the
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79:gastraphetes
77:
50:
46:
40:
28:gastraphetes
25:
18:
806:Athenaeus.
260:Dionysius I
1109:Categories
1079:Mesangylon
1018:Lithobolos
698:0198142692
643:Thucydides
625:References
609:Lithobolos
460:Archimedes
439:earthquake
431:Mitridates
347:palintones
343:euthytones
103:palintona)
99:euthytona)
47:Belopoeika
1033:Trebuchet
992:Polybolos
977:Catapulta
831:cite book
825:. Berlin.
614:Polybolos
563:polybolos
558:catapults
521:Demetrius
517:Hasdrubal
472:Marcellus
456:Athenaeus
328:catapulta
317:catapulta
305:trebuchet
297:Ctesibius
123:polybolos
63:Vitruvius
36:catapults
1059:Crossbow
1023:Mangonel
1013:Catapult
982:Oxybeles
967:Ballista
892:Polybius
763:Hesperia
647:Xenophon
588:See also
568:crossbow
513:Hannibal
487:Josephus
464:Polybius
435:Seleucus
425:sent to
332:ballista
321:ballista
264:Diodorus
253:Syracuse
147:used in
144:ballista
1074:Kestros
1069:Javelin
997:Scorpio
282:torsion
165:scorpio
1028:Onager
695:
446:talent
427:Sinope
423:Rhodes
336:onager
257:tyrant
234:onager
1089:Sling
987:Oyumi
483:Titus
468:siege
301:Philo
286:sinew
837:link
693:ISBN
645:nor
345:and
319:and
61:and
49:and
1049:Bow
502:Use
481:by
470:by
372:100
366:1.1
211:or
1111::
894:.
882:.
833:}}
829:{{
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722:.
701:.
637:[
396:,
391:3
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383:1
379:)
375:W
369:(
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187:(
126:)
81:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
