42:
455:
meet the new criteria thus suggests the possibility that the requirements may not be needed even for the limited purpose of preserving the avowed policy of advancement within the
Company. In the context of this case, it is unnecessary to reach the question whether testing requirements that take into account capability for the next succeeding position or related future promotion might be utilized upon a showing that such long-range requirements fulfill a genuine business need. In the present case, the Company has made no such showing.
432:
he was formerly the subject of discrimination, or because he is a member of a minority group. Discriminatory preference for any group, minority or majority, is precisely and only what
Congress has proscribed. What is required by Congress is the removal of artificial, arbitrary, and unnecessary barriers to employment when the barriers operate invidiously to discriminate on the basis of racial or other impermissible classification.
439:. On the contrary, Congress has now required that the posture and condition of the job seeker be taken into account. It has—to resort again to the fable—provided that the vessel in which the milk is proffered be one all seekers can use. The Act proscribes not only overt discrimination, but also practices that are fair in form, but discriminatory in operation. The touchstone is business
621:
462:
The
Company's lack of discriminatory intent is suggested by special efforts to help the undereducated employees through Company financing of two-thirds the cost of tuition for high school training. But Congress directed the thrust of the Act to the consequences of employment practices, not simply the
466:
The facts of this case demonstrate the inadequacy of broad and general testing devices, as well as the infirmity of using diplomas or degrees as fixed measures of capability. History is filled with examples of men and women who rendered highly effective performance without the conventional badges of
431:
for voter registration on the ground that the test would abridge the right to vote indirectly on account of race. Congress did not intend by Title VII, however, to guarantee a job to every person regardless of qualifications. In short, the Act does not command that any person be hired simply because
454:
The evidence, however, shows that employees who have not completed high school or taken the tests have continued to perform satisfactorily, and make progress in departments for which the high school and test criteria are now used. The promotion record of present employees who would not be able to
399:
As such, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits employment tests (when used as a decisive factor in employment decisions) that are not a "reasonable measure of job performance," regardless of the absence of actual intent to discriminate. Since the aptitude tests involved, and the high school
458:
The Court of
Appeals held that the Company had adopted the diploma and test requirements without any "intention to discriminate against Negro employees". 420 F.2d at 1232. We do not suggest that either the District Court or the Court of Appeals erred in examining the employer's intent; but good
450:
On the record before us, neither the high school completion requirement nor the general intelligence test is shown to bear a demonstrable relationship to successful performance of the jobs for which it was used. Both were adopted, as the Court of
Appeals noted, without meaningful study of their
420:
The Court of
Appeals' opinion, and the partial dissent, agreed that, on the record in the present case, "whites register far better on the Company's alternative requirements" than Negroes. This consequence would appear to be directly traceable to race. Basic intelligence must have the means of
411:
333:, while 34% of white males in North Carolina had high-school diplomas, only 18% of blacks did. The disparities of aptitude tests were far greater; with the cutoffs set at the median for high-school graduates, 58% of whites passed, compared to 6% of blacks.
313:
took effect, Duke Power added two employment tests, which would allow employees without high-school diplomas to transfer to higher-paying departments. These two tests were the
Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, a test of
740:
For example, between July 2, 1965, and
November 14, 1966, the percentage of white employees who were promoted but who were not high school graduates was nearly identical to the percentage of nongraduates in the entire white
627:
451:
relationship to job performance ability. Rather, a vice-president of the
Company testified, the requirements were instituted on the Company's judgment that they generally would improve the overall quality of the workforce.
1115:
421:
articulation to manifest itself fairly in a testing process. Because they are
Negroes, petitioners have long received inferior education in segregated schools, and this Court expressly recognized these differences in
459:
intent or absence of discriminatory intent does not redeem employment procedures or testing mechanisms that operate as "built-in headwinds" for minority groups and are unrelated to measuring job capability.
1015:
1648:
354:, the appellate court upheld the ruling that the intelligence tests administered by Duke Power did not reflect any discriminatory intention, and so they were not unlawful under the Civil Rights Act.
782:
Wake Forest Law Review; George Washington University Law School, Legal Studies Research Paper Series; George Washington University Law School, Public Law & Legal Theory Research Paper Series
302:
employees to its "Labor" department, where the highest-paying position paid less than the lowest-paying position in the four other departments. In 1955, the company added the requirement of a
1653:
370:
groups, businesses must demonstrate that such tests are "reasonably related" to the job for which the test is required. Because Title VII was passed pursuant to Congress's power under the
1658:
1429:
862:
529:
400:
diploma requirement, were broad-based and not directly related to the jobs performed, Duke Power's employee transfer procedure was found by the Court to be in violation of the Act.
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920:
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motivation. More than that, Congress has placed on the employer the burden of showing that any given requirement must have a manifest relationship to the employment in question.
83:
262:
The Supreme Court ruled that the company's employment requirements did not pertain to applicants' ability to perform the job, and so were unintentionally discriminating against
701:
420 F.2d 1225, 1239 n. 6. citing U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population: 1960, Vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 35, Table 47; and Decision of EEOC,
1357:
1678:
1131:
525:
1463:
1059:
1001:
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redefined discrimination from meaning unequal treatment to meaning failure to make special allowances for the historically-imposed circumstances of protected groups.
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for employment in any department other than Labor, and offered to pay two-thirds of the high-school training tuition for employees without a diploma.
234:
1441:
1663:
1155:
1024:
435:
Congress has now provided that tests or criteria for employment or promotion may not provide equality of opportunity merely in the sense of the
350:
initially ruled in favor of Duke Power, accepting that Duke Power's former racial discrimination policy has been abandoned. On referral to the
427:, 395 U.S. 285 (1969). There, because of the inferior education received by Negroes in North Carolina, this Court barred the institution of a
1365:
851:
1107:
1381:
1222:
1139:
1123:
883:
493:) burden to producing only evidence of business justification. In 1991, the Civil Rights Act was amended to overturn that portion of the
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1032:
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46:
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and tests are useful servants, but Congress has mandated the common sense proposition that they are not to become masters of reality.
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167:
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Whites were almost ten times more likely than blacks to meet these new employment and transfer requirements. According to the
132:
Broad aptitude tests used in hiring practices that disparately impact ethnic minorities must be reasonably related to the job.
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560:
1373:
1206:
578:
347:
1238:
646:
Indirect discrimination: a case study into the development of the legal concept of indirect discrimination under EC law
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375:
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also held that the employer had the burden of producing and proving the business necessity of a test. However, in
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decision—although legislators included language designed to exempt the Wards Cove company itself.
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theory, and was decided on March 8, 1971. It is generally considered the first case of its type.
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958:
443:. If an employment practice which operates to exclude Negroes cannot be shown to be related to
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1358:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. City of Jacksonville
122:
1970). Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, granted.
1602:
1481:
778:"The Supreme Court's Surprising and Strategic Response to the Civil Rights Act of 1991"
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410:
319:
295:
199:
179:
17:
1637:
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has now provided that tests or criteria for employment or promotion may not provide
555:
78:
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669:
Perry Alan Zirkel; Sharon Nalbone Richardson; Steven Selig Goldberg (2001).
90:
777:
1535:
1515:
1505:
1495:
844:
The Crusade for Equality in the Workplace: The Griggs v. Duke Power Story
468:
119:
1156:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
1622:
1525:
393:
1116:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
976:
378:, the disparate impact test later articulated by the Supreme Court in
532:
Amendments. Thus, lawsuits against public employers may be barred by
510:
Although private employers with 15 or more employees are subject to
705:¶ 17,304.53 (December 2, 1966). See also Decision of EEOC 70-552,
409:
224:
Brennan took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
520:(1976) that the disparate impact doctrine does not apply to the
440:
112:
997:
467:
accomplishment in terms of certificates, diplomas, or degrees.
41:
392:
cases, while Title VII's prohibition on disparate impact is a
247:, 401 U.S. 424 (1971), was a court case argued before the
628:
public domain material from this U.S government document
673:
A Digest of Supreme Court Decisions affecting Education
1108:
Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate
1649:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
566:
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 401
388:
test for disparate impact is used in constitutional
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1043:
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212:
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126:
107:
102:
70:
60:
53:
34:
1132:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
807:
670:
1654:United States employment discrimination case law
1060:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
1659:United States statutory interpretation case law
1148:Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board
408:
1009:
437:fabled offer of milk to the stork and the fox
276:fabled offer of milk to the stork and the fox
8:
1674:United States racial discrimination case law
1287:Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati
814:. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp.
266:employees. The judgment famously held that "
1199:Hazelwood School District v. United States
1040:
1016:
1002:
994:
677:. Phi Delta Kappa International. pp.
489:(1989), the Court reduced the employer's (
384:, 426 US 229 (1976) is inapplicable. (The
31:
1679:United States affirmative action case law
1447:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
364:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
235:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
1442:Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
639:
637:
1025:Affirmative action in the United States
597:
29:1971 United States Supreme Court case
7:
1382:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta
1374:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater
1223:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
1334:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
366:, if such tests disparately impact
362:The Supreme Court ruled that under
251:on December 14, 1970. It concerned
1366:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
249:Supreme Court of the United States
47:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
1684:Race and intelligence controversy
1644:United States Supreme Court cases
1271:Piscataway School Board v. Taxman
1239:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
927:424 (1971) is available from:
512:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act
1263:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
1255:Johnson v. Transportation Agency
1140:Fisher v. University of Texas II
863:"Toward a Definitive History of
752:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
718:North Carolina History Project,
619:
551:Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
486:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
320:Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test
40:
1342:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
1124:Fisher v. University of Texas I
648:. Intersentia nv. p. 515.
644:Christa Tobler (July 5, 2005).
352:Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals
65:Griggs et al. v. Duke Power Co.
1664:1971 in United States case law
846:. University Press of Kansas.
776:Selmi, Michael (May 5, 2011).
561:Intelligence and public policy
447:, the practice is prohibited.
424:Gaston County v. United States
1:
309:On July 2, 1965, the day the
1207:United Steelworkers v. Weber
882:(1): 197–237. Archived from
579:United Steelworkers v. Weber
406:wrote the majority opinion.
1231:Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC
722:, accessed 18 February 2024
709:¶ 6139 (February 19, 1970).
274:merely in the sense of the
1700:
977:Oyez (oral argument audio)
626:This article incorporates
491:Wards Cove Packing Company
1247:United States v. Paradise
865:Griggs v. Duke Power, Co.
861:Garrow, David J. (2014).
810:How We Got Here: The '70s
342:First instance and appeal
298:had a policy restricting
253:employment discrimination
233:
223:
141:
131:
39:
1421:Civil Rights Act of 1866
1175:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
1068:United States v. Fordice
917:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
903:A Casebook on Labour Law
605:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
481:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
311:Civil Rights Act of 1964
244:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
54:Argued December 14, 1970
35:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
1426:Equal Protection Clause
842:Belton, Robert (2014).
390:equal protection clause
292:Dan River Steam Station
272:equality of opportunity
1326:Fullilove v. Klutznick
1215:Firefighters v. Stotts
1191:Schlesinger v. Ballard
905:(Hart 2019) ch 13, 595
707:CCH Empl. Prac. Guide,
703:CCH Empl. Prac. Guide,
473:
417:
176:William J. Brennan Jr.
111:Reversed in part, 420
18:Griggs v Duke Power Co
1452:Executive Order 11246
1436:Executive Order 10925
1037:lower court decisions
875:Vanderbilt Law Review
413:
56:Decided March 8, 1971
1430:Fourteenth Amendment
1419:Section 1981 of the
1100:Grutter v. Bollinger
731:401 U.S. at 430-434.
720:Griggs v. Duke Power
586:Piscataway v. Taxman
415:Chief Justice Burger
404:Chief Justice Burger
1318:Califano v. Webster
1052:DeFunis v. Odegaard
968:Library of Congress
524:requirement of the
517:Washington v. Davis
386:Washington v. Davis
381:Washington v. Davis
316:mechanical aptitude
304:high school diploma
1618:Stephan Thermstrom
1613:Abigail Thermstrom
1598:Richard Kahlenberg
1532:State Question 759
1279:Ricci v. DeStefano
1092:Gratz v. Bollinger
572:Ricci v. DeStefano
546:Affirmative action
534:sovereign immunity
418:
216:Burger, joined by
164:William O. Douglas
152:Associate Justices
89:91 S. Ct. 849; 28
1631:
1630:
1608:Stuart Taylor Jr.
1573:Peter Arcidiacono
1400:
1399:
1183:Morton v. Mancari
853:978-0-7006-1953-5
784:. Rochester, NY.
514:, it was held in
326:created in 1939.
240:
239:
192:Thurgood Marshall
168:John M. Harlan II
16:(Redirected from
1691:
1390:Vitolo v. Guzman
1353:(D.C. Cir. 1992)
1350:Lamprecht v. FCC
1076:Hopwood v. Texas
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889:on July 31, 2017
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522:equal protection
257:disparate impact
148:Warren E. Burger
137:Court membership
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1627:
1593:Arthur Fletcher
1561:
1558:, 2020, failed)
1548:, 2019, failed)
1522:Proposition 107
1508:, 2008, failed)
1472:Proposition 209
1457:
1409:
1396:
1393:(6th Cir. 2021)
1301:
1299:
1293:
1290:(6th Cir. 2022)
1162:
1151:(4th Cir. 2023)
1111:(9th Cir. 2006)
1084:Texas v. Lesage
1079:(5th Cir. 1996)
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445:job performance
372:Commerce Clause
368:ethnic minority
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1310:Kahn v. Shevin
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1274:(3d Cir. 1996)
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1578:Edward Blum
1464:initiatives
1407:legislation
804:Frum, David
331:1960 Census
188:Byron White
1638:Categories
1583:Carl Cohen
1492:Proposal 2
1167:Employment
836:References
741:workforce.
530:Fourteenth
501:David Frum
495:Wards Cove
396:mandate.)
318:, and the
288:Duke Power
156:Hugo Black
95:U.S. LEXIS
93:158; 1971
1044:Education
441:necessity
394:statutory
337:Judgments
218:unanimous
91:L. Ed. 2d
71:Citations
1405:Federal
986:WorldLII
915:Text of
893:July 30,
806:(2000).
764:642, 657
540:See also
469:Diplomas
268:Congress
255:and the
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374:of the
324:IQ test
127:Holding
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1438:(1961)
1432:(1868)
1412:edicts
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526:Fifth
322:, an
300:black
282:Facts
264:black
108:Prior
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925:U.S.
895:2017
848:ISBN
820:ISBN
786:SSRN
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