Hukou - Knowledge (XXG)

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granted with welfare entitlements. Even if the "National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014-2020)” and the "Opinions on Further Promoting the Reform of the Hukou System" implemented in the third reform period intend to create a more people-centered system, they claim that larger cities should have different hukou registration systems from the smaller cities and towns; and that the hukou regulation will continue to be stricter in larger cities. However, the very large cities (such as Beijing) are usually the ones that attract rural migrants the most, given their extensive job opportunities. In this case, although the state has actively implemented many reform policies, the hukou rural/urban division still functions and represents a division system of life chances. Some scholars hence have argued that the hukou reforms indeed have not fundamentally changed the hukou system but have only decentralized the powers of hukou to local governments; and it still remains active and continues to contribute to China's rural and urban disparity. Meanwhile, others have also argued that by concentrating on cities, the hukou reforms have failed to target the poorer regions, where social welfare such as education and medical care are often not offered to the residents. Still, others seem excited, remarking that some cities have been offering a condition that encourages more migrant parents to bring their children along. In short, the majority of rural migrants thus are still largely overlooked due to their lack to urban hukou, which is often seen as starting point for gaining access to life well-being.

4465:(2014-2020) in March to tackle various problems derived from China's fast urbanization process. For instance, the plan aims to shorten the 17.3% gap between urban residents who live in cities but do not carry urban hukou and urban residents with urban hukou in 2012 by 2% by 2020. Meanwhile, the plan also intends to offer welfare entitlements to people who have rural hukou (from rural migrants to urban residents who carry rural hukou), including education, welfare housing, and health care to at least 90% (about 100 million) of migrants by 2020. In fact, with this plan, the state has been putting effort into achieving their goals. For instance, the state has granted many left-behind children the right to attend urban schools so that they can reunite with their rural migrant parents; it has also offered many rural migrants job training. Moreover, in July of the same year, the government also published "Opinions on Further Promoting the Reform of the Hukou System" to abolish the hukou restrictions in towns and small cities, to gradually remove the restrictions middle-sized cities, to relax the restrictions in big cities—but to maintain the restrictions in the very large cities. As a result, according to an announcement of the Ministry of Public Security, by 2016, the state has already issued urban hukou to about 28.9 million rural migrants. Furthermore, in 2016, the local government of 4326: 4421:

integrate rural migrants as part of their urban population and to enable rural migrants to register in their migrant cities. In 1985, the state also implemented a policy called "Interim Provisions on the Management of Transient Population in Cities", which allowed rural migrants to stay in their migrant cities even if they had neither changed their hukou status nor returned to their original rural residency. In the same year, the state also published a document called "The Regulations on Resident Identity Card", which enabled rural migrants to work in cities even if they did not carry an identity card of urban status. However, what followed these policies was not only a 30 million rural-to-urban migration, but also a phenomenon in which many false urban identity cards were sold to rural migrants for gaining urban benefits. It hence stimulated the state to implement another policy, "A Notice on Strictly Controlling Excessive Growth of 'Urbanization,’” in 1989 for regulating rural-to-urban migration. Under this policy, rural migrants were monitored again.

4449:) in 1999. The second kind was not applied to big cities but to certain selected towns and small cities. In 1997, the state implemented a policy that granted urban hukou to the rural migrants who had a stable job in their newly resided towns and small cities. Meanwhile, according to two 1997 government documents, the "Pilot Scheme for Reform of the Hukou System in Small Towns" and "Instructions on Improving the Management of Rural Hukou System", rural migrant workers could register as permanent residents with equal access to urban privileges in certain small towns. These policies were then made official in 2012 with the state document "Notice on Actively Yet Prudently Pushing Forward the Reform of Hukou System Management." Moreover, in 1999, the state also allowed more groups of people to gain urban hukou, including children whose parent(s) had urban hukou, and the elderly whose child(ren) had been granted urban hukou. The third kind was applied to the 4508:

has been gradual over the years, barriers to conversion have been lowered. However, many rural residents are hesitant to give up their agricultural hukou status. As rural hukou holders, they have property rights not afforded to their urban counterparts, which allow them to use land both for agricultural production and for personal use. And with the steady expansion of cities, property values of land near cities have significantly increased. Owners of these tracts of land may elect to give up agriculture in favor of renting out their homes to migrant workers. Furthermore, with the continued process of urbanization, land owners near cities can expect the central government to buy their land for a handsome sum sometime in the future. These benefits combined with the overall improvement in rural social welfare relative to that in cities have caused many rural residents to hesitate in converting their hukou status.

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however, lay in the distinction between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status. Because the central government prioritized industrialization, state welfare programs, which were tied to hukou status, heavily favored urban residents; holders of agricultural hukous were unable to access these benefits and were saddled with inferior welfare policies. Furthermore, transfer of hukou status was highly restricted, with official quotas at 0.15-0.2% per year and actual conversion rates at about 1.5%. In the following years, government oversight over the movement of people was expanded. In 1964, greater limits were imposed on migration to big cities, particularly major ones like Beijing and Shanghai, and in 1977 these regulations were furthered. Throughout this era, the hukou system was used as an instrument of the command economy, helping the central government implement its plan for industrializing the nation.

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counterparts. The central government reformed the education system in 1986 and then again in 1993, yielding greater autonomy to local governments in the regulation of their education system. Limited space and the desire to protect local interests in turn induced local governments to avoid enrolling migrant children in their public schools. Furthermore, because the central government subsidized public schools based on enrolment rates of children with local hukous, migrant children were required to pay higher fees if they wanted to attend. Consequentially, many migrant families elect instead to send their children to private schools that specifically cater to migrants. However, to lower enrolment and attendance fees, these institutions must cut spending in other areas, resulting in a lower quality of education. School facilities are often in poor condition, and many teachers are unqualified.

4490:—also has made it harder for them to find a stable job, let alone a lucrative job. Hence, if wealth is a precondition to change from rural hukou to urban hukou, many rural migrants indeed are unable to gain that access, as many are "unskilled" (because many skills, such as farming, are not categorized as professional skills) and poor. However, in some large cities, even if a rural migrant does carry certain professional skills, it is not a guarantee that one will be granted with urban hukou. This situation is particularly revealed from many highly educated migrants. Despite their education background, many would not be granted with urban hukou unless they become a homeowner. However, given the high price of real estate in many large cities (such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou), many are unable to do so even if some cities do offer housing 2086: 4170:, published a statement detailing his vision for the implementation of the hukou system in the new era. By 1954, rural and urban citizens had been registered with the state, and rigorous regulations on the conversion of hukou status had already been implemented. These required that applicants have paperwork that documented employment, acceptance to a university, or immediate family relations in the city to be eligible. In March of the same year, the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Labor issued the Joint Directive to Control Blind Influx of Peasants into Cities, which proclaimed that henceforth, all employment of rural workers in city firms would be controlled entirely by local labor bureaus. 443: 4357:

throughout the years has maintained a high demand for labor in the cities that continues to be filled by migrant workers, and, in 2000, the Fifth National Population Census revealed that 22.9 million children between the ages of 0-14 were living without either one or both of their parents. In 2010, that number had gone up to 61 million, equal to 37.7% of rural children and 21.88% of all Chinese children. These children are usually cared for by their remaining parent and/or their grandparents, and although there is a 96% school enrolment rate among left-behind children, they are susceptible to a number of developmental challenges.

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children, resulting in little change. Similarly, in 2003, the government called for lower fees for migrant children, but again failed to detail how it would help schools pay for this. And in 2006, the government created the New Compulsory Education Act which asserted equal rights to education and ceded responsibility for enrolling migrant children to provincial governments. However, this too failed to improve the lot of migrant children. Students with non-local hukou had to pay inflated admission fees of 3,000 – 5,000 yuan – out of an average annual household income of 10,000 yuan – and are required to take

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migrants when it came to employment opportunities, and when migrant workers did find jobs, they tended to be positions with little potential for growth. While urban workers were supported by employment benefits and laws that favored them over their employers in case of disputes, rural hukou holders were not privy to such substantial protections. And because city officials' performance was evaluated based on the prosperity of local residents and the local economy, they had little incentive to improve the migrant workers' quality of life.

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must rely on themselves and their families. It appears that the effects of migration on left behind elderly are ambiguous: while parents of migrant children are often better off financially and are happy with their economic situation, they also tend to report lower life satisfaction than do elderly without migrant children. Like the children of migrant workers, parents are known to experience psychological issues such as depression and loneliness, and those who take care of their grandchildren may feel burdened by this responsibility.

3941: 4000:. Their tight check on migration into urban areas has helped prevent the emergence of a number of problems faced by many other developing countries. For example, the appearance of slums outside of urban areas due to a massive influx of individuals searching for work has not been an issue, nor have poor health conditions due to high population density. And regardless of its other imperfections, the hukou system's ability to maintain stability has contributed to China's economic rise. 4386:) at their hukou locality, where it is often harder to get into college. Since 2012, some regions began to relax the requirements and allow some children of migrants to take College Entrance Exam in the regions. By 2016, Guangdong's policies are the most relaxed. A child of migrants can take Entrance Exam in Guangdong if he or she has attended 3 years of high school in the province, and if the parent(s) have legal jobs and have paid for 3 years of social insurance in the province. 4366: 5552:"Chinese apartheid: Migrant labourers, numbering in hundreds of millions, who have been ejected from state concerns and co-operatives since the 1980s as China instituted market capitalism, have to have six passes before they are allowed to work in provinces other than their own. In many cities, private schools for migrant labourers are routinely closed down to discourage migration." "From politics to health policies: why they're in trouble", 2069: 4166:

rates of movement that characterized the years following the establishment of the nation impeded the central government's plan for society and the economy. Although the hukou system in its current form was not officially brought into being until 1958, the years preceding its establishment were characterized by growing efforts by the Chinese Communist Party to assert control over its populace. In 1950, the Minister of Public Security,

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prevent uprisings against the state, particularly in the early years when it was especially susceptible to rebellion. The structure of the hukou system also bolstered the power of the central government over its urban citizens: by making city residents dependent upon the government for all aspects of daily life, the central government could force obedience from problematic individuals.

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be disregarded. In a study conducted at the end of the 1990s, 46% of migrant workers were missing three or more months of pay, and some workers had not been paid in a decade. Fortunately, over the past couple of decades, the prevalence of wage arrears have decreased, and in a study conducted from 2006 to 2009, it was found that 8% of migrant workers had experienced wage arrears.

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to the same benefits as possessed by urban residents. However, with living outside the system now much more practical than it used to be, a number of migrant workers do not acquire the temporary residency permits – primarily because they do not have the resources or concrete employment offers to do so – and, as such, live in danger of being forced to return to the countryside.

4144:(1644–1912) with the 1911 Huji Law. Although movement was nominally free under this statute, registration of individuals with the government was required, and it was used by the government to pursue communist forces and as a basis for taxation for the funding of wars. The law also expanded upon the baojia system, and was intended to establish a sense of stability. 4553:, they must relinquish their household registration, therefore losing citizen rights in mainland China. However, they can settle in the SARs for seven years to be eligible for permanent resident status (which is associated with citizen rights) in the SARs. Therefore, in the period before they get permanent resident status, though still a 3929: 4261:

be their only source of food. With institutionalized exaggeration of output figures by local Communist leaders and massive declines in production, state taxes during those years confiscated nearly all food in many rural communes, leading to mass starvation and the deaths of more than 65 million Chinese people.

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Beijing implemented a 40-day "clean-up" campaign which was claimed as a way of getting rid of the unsafe structures and shantytowns in the city (where at least 8.2 million rural migrants lived). However some saw the campaign as intended to send millions of rural migrants back to their original rural areas.

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are more likely to resist authority and experience problems interacting with their peers; they are more likely to exhibit unhealthy behaviors such as foregoing breakfast and smoking, and have an increased likelihood of developing mental health issues, including loneliness and depression. And although

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is still heavily regulated. Greater autonomy has also been ceded to local governments in deciding quotas and eligibility criteria for converting hukou status. Legislation has been enacted that allow migrant workers to obtain temporary residency permits, although these permits do not allow them access

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On 9 January 1958, the People's Republic of China Hukou Registration Regulation was signed into law. This divided the populace into nongmin (rural citizen), with an agricultural hukou, and shimin (urban citizen), with a non-agricultural hukou, and grouped all citizens by locality. The key difference,

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At the time of its founding in 1949, the People's Republic of China was a highly agricultural nation. About 89% of its citizens lived in rural areas – about 484 million resided in the countryside, versus about 58 million in the city. However, with efforts to increase industrialization and Soviet help

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each claim the territories under the other's control as part of their respective state. Thus, legally, each treats the people on the other side's territory as their citizens. However, citizenship rights are only available to the people under their own control respectively — this is defined by law as

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The Floating Population Dynamic Monitoring Surveys, which have been conducted every year since 2010 by the National Health and Family Planning Commission, have reported that a significant number of migrant workers are in fact not interested in converting their hukou status. While hukou policy reform

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It hence is worth asking the question whether or not the hukou system has been sufficiently improved to a more people-centered system. In fact, many large cities are still strict about granting rural migrants with urban hukou and about using the hukou system to determine whether or not one should be

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to migrants. Given their lack of urban hukou, many not only face the difficulty of purchasing an apartment—let alone purchasing a house—but also the disadvantage of being a renter. Because of the lack of rent control in many large cities, even if one rents a room—or rarely, an apartment—one can face

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1992-2013 can be identified as the second hukou reform period. There were various kinds of reform implemented by the state. Beginning in the late 1980s, one was to offer a "lan yin", or "blue stamp", hukou to those who possessed professional skills and/or ability to make some sort of investments (at

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from 1958 to 1962, having an urban versus a rural hukou could mean the difference between life and death. During this period, nearly all of the approximately 600 million rural hukou residents were collectivized into village communal farms, where their agricultural output -– after state taxes – would

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Until very recently, each citizen was classified in an agricultural or non-agricultural hukou (commonly referred to as rural or urban) and further categorized by location of origin. This two-fold organization structure was linked to social policy, and those residents who held non-agricultural (i.e.,

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Migrant workers are also disproportionately affected by wage arrears, which occur when employers either fail to pay employees on time or in full. Although such incidences are technically illegal and punishable by seven years' jail time, wage arrears still occur, and labor contracts and pensions may

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Under the hukou system implemented by the central government in 1958, while holders of the non-agricultural hukou status were given ration cards for everyday necessities, including food and textiles, rural residents were forced to produce everything themselves. Whereas the state provided housing in

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The central government asserted that because rural areas had greater capacity to absorb and use excess labor, the majority of the population should be concentrated in these regions. Furthermore, free movement of people was considered dangerous, as it would lead to overpopulation of cities and could

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has taken steps toward reforming the hukou system by implementing a variety of reform policies. 1979-1991 can be identified as the first reform period. Specifically, in October 1984, the state issued "A Document on the Issue of Peasants Settling Down in Cities", which required local governments to

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As rural workers provide their workforce in the urban areas, which also profit from the respective taxes, while their families use public services in the rural areas (e.g. schools for their children, health care for the elderly), the system leads to a wealth transfer to the wealthier urban regions

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During China's transition from state socialism to market socialism (1978-2001), migrants, most of whom were women, worked in newly created export-processing zones in city suburbs under sub-standard working conditions. There were restrictions upon the mobility of migrant workers that forced them to

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The legacy of the Chinese hukou system may be traced back to the pre-dynastic era, as early as the 21st century BC. In its early forms, the household registration system was used primarily for the purposes of taxation and conscription, as well as regulating migration. Two early models of the hukou

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announced that they would abolish the official distinction between urban hukou and non-urban hukou within Beijing, meaning that all residents living in Beijing would be identified as Beijing residents regardless of their original hukou status. Having said that, in November 2017, the government of

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in the 1970s, the average age in China has undergone an upward shift: 82% of migrant workers were between the ages of 15–44 in 2000. This has called into question the traditional custom of filial piety, and while retired urban workers are supported by government retirement programs, rural workers

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The difficulties faced by migrant children cause many to drop out, and this is particularly common in the middle school years: in 2010, only 30% of migrant children were enrolled in secondary education. Migrant children also disproportionately deal with mental health issues – 36% versus 22% among

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Children of rural workers who do migrate with their parents also face challenges. Without a local, non-agricultural hukou, migrant children have limited access to public social infrastructure. For example, urban students' educational opportunities are far superior to that of their migrant student

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In 2008, the central government passed the Labor Contract Law, which guaranteed equal access to jobs, established a minimum wage, and required employers to provide contracts to full-time employees that included employment benefits. However, a 2010 study revealed that rural workers earned 40% less

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With the loosening of restrictions on migration in the 1980s came a large influx of rural residents seeking better opportunities in the cities. However, these migrant workers have had to confront a number of challenges in their pursuit of financial security. Urban residents received priority over

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The 100 million urban hukou residents, however, were fed by fixed food rations established by the central government, which declined to an average of 1500 calories per day at times but still allowed survival for almost all during the famine. An estimated 95% or higher of all deaths occurred among

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In the period following the fall of the Qing dynasty, China was ruled by various actors, each of which employed some system of household or personal identification. During the Japanese occupation, the Japanese employed a system used to identify those under their rule and to fund their war effort.

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Internal migration was also tightly controlled by the central government, and only in the past few decades have these restrictions been loosened. While this system has played a major role in China's fast economic growth, hukou has also promoted and aggravated social stratification and contributed

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A major objective of the hukou system implemented by the central government was thus to control the stream of resources moving away from the agricultural sector. According to academic Kam Wing Chan, the hukou system effectively "forbid the peasantry to exit agriculture." The instability and high

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11th–8th centuries BC) was used as a method of organizing and categorizing urban and rural land. The function of the baojia system, propagated by Lord Shang Yang of the 4th century BC, was to create a system of accountability within groups of citizens: if one person within the group violated the

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to carry two hukous: Their original hukou and another hukou related to their job in the special zones and districts. This policy hence made it easier for rural migrants to gain access to different urban opportunities in the special zones and districts. However, in 2003, the state published the

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enacted policies based on the notions of stability and rapid modernization, and the hukou system was no exception. Urban areas have historically been where authoritarian regimes are most vulnerable: to combat this, the central government gave preferential treatment to city residents, hoping to

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In subsequent years, the central government has enacted a number of reforms, with limited impact. In 2001, it asserted that public schools should be the primary form of education for the nation's children, but did not specify how it would financially support schools in enrolling more migrant

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Following Mao's death in 1976 came economic reforms that caused a surge in demand in the labor market. Rural residents rushed to fill this void, but without the support of hukou status-based government social programs, many of them were forced to leave their families behind. Economic growth

4193:'s rise to power in 1978 came the initiation of reforms that steadily began to alleviate some of the disparity between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou holders. Restrictions have been loosened on movement from rural areas to smaller cities, although migration to large cities such as 4298:

who have left their land remain trapped at the margins of the urban society. They are often blamed for rising crime and unemployment and, under pressure from their citizens, the city governments have imposed discriminatory rules. For example, the children of farm workers (Chinese:

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Cheng, Z., Nielsen, I., & Smyth, R. (n.d.). Determinants of Wage Arrears and Implications for the Socioeconomic Wellbeing of China's Migrant Workers: Evidence from Guangdong Province. In Handbook of Chinese Migration: Identity and Wellbeing (pp. 105-125). Edward Elgar Publishing

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It has been brought into question whether the reforms mentioned above apply to the majority of rural-to-urban migrants. Specifically, many reform policies, especially those during the first and second periods, appear to require rural migrants to possess some sort of capital, either

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In recent years, steps have been taken to alleviate the inequalities promulgated by the hukou system, with the most recent major reforms announced in March and July 2014, which included a provision that eliminated the division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status.

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system upon migrant labourers became onerous in the 1980s after hundreds of millions were ejected from state corporations and cooperatives. Since the 1980s, an estimated 200 million Chinese live outside their officially registered areas and under far less eligibility for

4186:'s death in 1976, the central government tightened its control over migration, and by 1978, intranational movement was controlled entirely by the government. Because living "outside the system" was virtually impossible, nearly all movement of people was state-sponsored. 4478:(such as professional skills and titles) or property-related capital (such as the ability to become an urban homeowner) or both. Some scholars hence also call some reform policies as ways of "selling" hukou. Meanwhile, many migrants have claimed that their lack of 622: 4152:

utilized the system to monitor the activities of their opponents, the Chinese Communist Party, and the Chinese Communist Party in turn used a system called lianbao, which bundled families into groups of five to aid tracking and impede counterrevolutionaries.

4244:, arranged employment, and provided retirement benefits for city residents, and provided none of these services for their rural citizens. These disparities have left the rural populace highly disadvantaged, and tragedies such as the famine of the 4325: 3868:

Due to its connection to social programs provided by the government, which assigns benefits based on agricultural and non-agricultural residency status (often referred to as rural and urban), the hukou system is sometimes likened to a form of

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left-behind children may have greater academic opportunities due to their parents' expanded financial capacity, they are also often under greater pressure to perform academically and thus are more vulnerable to school-related stress.

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notes that three copies of documents were kept in different places. The administrative divisions in Zhou dynasty were a function of the distance to the state capital. The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi (Chinese:

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Li, C. (2013). Institutional and non-institutional paths: Migrants and non-migrants' different processes of socioeconomic status attainment in China. In China's Internal and International Migration (pp. 29-39). New York, New York:

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rural hukou holders. With the suppression of news internally, many city residents were not aware that mass deaths were occurring in the countryside at all. This was essential to preventing organized opposition to Mao's policies.

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their local hukou counterparts – and 70% experience academic anxiety. They frequently face stigmatization and discrimination based on differences in how they dress and speak, and have difficulty interacting with other students.

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The system descends in part from ancient Chinese household registration systems. The hukou system also influenced similar systems within the public administration structures of neighboring East Asian countries, such as Japan

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the possibility of being asked to leave. Many of those educated migrant youths hence are also called "yi zu", literally "a group of ants", as many do not have their own room and have to live in a tiny room with many others.

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than urban workers, and only 16% receive employment benefits. Migrant workers' labor rights are also frequently violated – they work excessively long hours in poor conditions, and face physical and psychological harassment.

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Wang, Fei-Ling (2010). "Renovating the Great Floodgate: The Reform of China's Hukou System", in Martin King Whyte ed., One Country, Two Societies: Rural-Urban Inequality in Contemporary China, Harvard University Press,

6539: 1360: 2470: 604: 2057: 2032: 6350: 1975: 577: 3388: 879: 6547: 2037: 1123: 4458:"Administrative Permit Laws", which sent rural migrants back to their original residency in rural areas. Under this policy, rural migrants' life chances were once again determined by their hukou status. 4398:

Not only has the mass exodus of rural residents from the countryside in search of work impacted the children of migrant workers, it has also affected the elderly left behind. With the institution of the

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sought to attribute an urban hukou to 100 million people by 2020. It relaxed restrictions on small cities (fewer than 500,000 people) and medium cities (more than 1 million people). It maintained strong

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Gao, S., & Xue, J. (n.d.). Future Orientation and School Bonding among Left-Behind Children in Mainland China. In Chinese Migration and Families-at-Risk (pp. 78-104). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

3803:" in English). A household registration record officially identifies a person as a permanent resident of an area and includes identifying information such as name, parents, spouse and date of birth. A 4091:

7th century BC, imposed different taxation and conscription policies on different areas. In addition, Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of families without permission. In

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Zhuo, Y., & Liang, Z. (n.d.). Migration and Wellbeing of the Elderly in Rural China. In Handbook of Chinese Migration: Identity and Wellbeing (pp. 126-147). Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

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threaten agricultural production. Under the hukou system, the rural population was structured to serve as support for urban industrialization, both in agricultural production and workers for

3204: 2780: 1678: 4309:) are not allowed to enroll in the city schools, and even now must live with their grandparents or other relatives to attend school in their hometowns. They are commonly referred to as the 4162:(156 projects), more and more rural residents flocked to the cities in search of better economic opportunities: between 1957 and 1960, there was a 90.9% increase in the urban labor force. 3877:

in 1949, as urban residents received benefits that ranged from retirement pension to education to health care, while rural citizens were often left to fend for themselves. Since 1978, the

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Sun, X., & Chen, M. (n.d.). Inequality in Educational Opportunities of Migrant Children in China. In Chinese Migration and Families-at-Risk (pp. 52-77). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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Chen, M., & Sun, X. (n.d.). Parenting and Grandparenting of Left-Behind Children in Rural China. In Chinese Migration and Families-at-Risk (pp. 37-51). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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has undertaken reforms of the system in response to protests and a changing economic system, while some Western experts question whether these changes have been of substance.

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Duan, C., Gao, S., & Zhu, Y. (n.d.). The Phenomenon of Internal Migration in China. In Chinese Migration and Families-at-Risk (pp. 14-36). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

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from the poorer regions on the public sector level. Intra-family payments from the working-age members to their relatives in the rural areas counteract that to some extent.

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Froissart, Chloé (2024). "Adapting the Hukou to Modernise the Country While Maintaining Social Polarisation and Stratification". In Doyon, Jérôme; Froissart, Chloé (eds.).

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by disallowing them from renting or buying housing in more eastern parts of China, and that any who do manage to leave are commonly forced to return through the system.

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Wang, Fei-Ling (2014). "The Hukou (Household Registration) System". in Oxford Bibliography in Chinese Studies. Ed. Tim Wright. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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Maurer-Fazio, M., Connelly, R., & Tran, N. T. (2015). Negative native-place stereotypes and discriminatory wage penalties in China's migrant labour markets. In

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are subject to immigration control in Taiwan, but after they settle in Taiwan they can establish a household registration there to become a full citizen.

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In 2014, the central government announced reform that among other things eliminated the division between agricultural and non-agricultural hukou status.

1772: 1536: 1132: 525: 4433:), allowing them to live in cities and enjoy urban welfare entitlements. This "blue stamp hukou" was then conducted by many other big cities (including 2285: 2172: 6325: 4379: 2749: 2550: 2243: 2194: 1394: 481: 3293: 3273: 2570: 2121: 1541: 1108: 779: 680: 1473: 6473: 4628: 4523: 4517: 3569: 3117: 2871: 1566: 949: 3597: 3533: 1796: 1755: 964: 958: 930: 737: 5267: 6266: 4453:

that were established particularly for economic growth (such as Shenzhen). Specifically, in 1992, the state allowed all people living in the

3016: 2965: 2261: 1092: 937: 568: 3476: 3456: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3278: 2757: 2158: 2146: 2140: 1571: 5229:

Wang, Xin-Rui; Hui, Eddie Chi-Man; Choguill, Charles; Jia, Sheng-Hua (2015). "The new urbanization policy in China: Which way forward?".

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The hukou system has origins in China that date back to ancient times, but the system in its current form came into being with the 1958

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literally means "mouth", which originates from the practise of regarding family members as "mouths to feed", similar to the phrase "

3663: 3602: 2345: 2340: 2333: 1008: 463: 2302: 442: 4781:

Koh, Eunkang (2008). "Gender issues and Confucian scriptures: Is Confucianism incompatible with gender equality in South Korea?".

2068: 6611: 6278: 6232:

Wang, Fei-Ling (2005), Organization through Division and Exclusion: China's Hukou System, Stanford CA: Stanford University Press.

4574: 3976:“...maintain social order, protect the rights and interests of citizens and to be of service to the establishment of socialism". 2855: 2677: 2591: 2396: 38: 4681: 4454: 4450: 3912:

is used colloquially to refer to the entire system, and it has been adopted by English-language audiences to refer to both the

3862: 3837:) is issued per family, and usually includes the births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and moves, of all members in the family. 3722: 3506: 2891: 2222: 6314: 3820: 3158: 2682: 2362: 1994: 1933: 1531: 1513: 859: 229: 77: 4313:. There are around 130 million such left-behind children, living without their parents, as reported by Chinese researchers. 4231: 6107: 4358: 4310: 3988:

In reality, the hukou system served other motives as well. After establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949, the

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strict rules in place, everyone in the group suffered. This structure was later utilized and expanded upon during the

3584: 3244: 2718: 2712: 2357: 1962: 896: 874: 5450: 3640: 3610: 2072: 6570: 6013:

Suda, Kimoko (2016). "A Room of One's Own: Highly Educated Migrants' Strategies for Creating a Home in Guangzhou".

3715: 3678: 3342: 3239: 2728: 2705: 2670: 2318: 2295: 990: 299: 147: 5985: 5959: 5268:"Inside a Uyghur's 'quarantine' room: Video shows shackles, filthy conditions and propaganda - The Globe and Mail" 4235:

While the government invests heavily in education in the cities, little to no investment in rural education occurs

475: 6606: 6160:

Chan, Chuanbo; Fan, C. Cindy (October 2016). "China's Hukou Puzzle: Why Don't Rural Migrants Want Urban Hukou?".

4616: 4557:, they cannot exercise citizen rights anywhere (like voting in elections, getting a passport) and are considered 2903: 2850: 2279: 1777: 901: 791: 487: 6329: 6318: 4136:

Precursors to the hukou system were used during the Qing dynasty to monitor individuals and raise funds for war

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This article is about the system in the People's Republic of China (PRC). For the Republic of China (ROC), see

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The central government's efforts to contain migration has been a major factor in the rapid development of the

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Wong DF, Chang, YL, He XS (2007). "Rural migrant workers in urban China: living a marginalised life".

4911:"China's New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society", p. 86, by Daniel A. Bell 4627:

or any other citizen rights in Taiwan; those rights require household registration in Taiwan. Persons

3940: 6601: 6452: 5768: 4829: 4558: 4369:

Children who migrate with their parents face difficulties not experienced by their local counterparts

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urban) hukou status received benefits not available to their rural counterparts, and vice versa.

3434: 3268: 2924: 2910: 2411: 2379: 1596: 1464: 1400: 1374: 1045: 1023: 1015: 824: 654: 3908:

is the registered residency status of a particular individual in this system. However, the term

5491: 5304: 5084: 5074: 5018: 5008: 4880: 4857: 4761: 4736: 4711: 4671: 4365: 3579: 3229: 3199: 2992: 2930: 2881: 2596: 2099: 433: 283: 275: 131: 123: 5892:

Fan, C. Cindy (2008). "Migration, Hukou and the City". In Yusuf, Shahid; Saich, Tony (eds.).

4900: 4899:"Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance", by Elizabeth J. Perry, Mark Selden, page 4003:

Human rights activists state that the hukou system has also been used to systematically deny

6421: 6287: 6245: 6192: 6022: 5865: 5620: 5246: 5238: 4847: 4837: 4790: 4612: 4400: 4118: 3997: 3850: 3788: 3774: 3748: 3519: 3136: 2128: 1720: 1660: 1002: 817: 546: 367: 254: 102: 6591: 5627: 5606: 5575: 4620: 4534:) though identification cards are mandatory for residents there. Instead, both SARs grant 4053: 3808: 3574: 3178: 2106: 493: 411: 5568: 4920:"Trust and Distrust: Sociocultural Perspectives", p. 63, by Ivana Marková, Alex Gillespie 4290:

and government services, living therefore in a condition similar in many ways to that of

5071:

Cities and stability : urbanization, redistribution, & regime survival in China

4833: 6457: 6384: 6373: 4852: 4818:"Discrimination against Rural-to-Urban Migrants: The Role of the Hukou System in China" 4817: 4624: 4597: 4535: 4479: 4291: 4064:), who was responsible for recording births, deaths, emigrations and immigrations. The 3766: 3449: 3038: 3002: 2972: 2916: 2565: 2020: 1938: 1906: 1387: 891: 5199: 3936:

booklet. The local police station held a copy of these records in its central register

6585: 6249: 5390: 5378: 5242: 4475: 4190: 4065: 4029: 3080: 2664: 2497: 1926: 1729: 1702: 1688: 1028: 772: 634: 6299: 5782: 4461:

The third reform period began in 2014, when the state published and implemented the

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Chan, Kam Wing; Buckingham, Will (2008). "Is China Abolishing the Hukou System?".

6040: 5589:

China's Workers Under Assault: The Exploitation of Labor in a Globalizing Economy

4842: 4045:(221–207 BC) for the purposes of taxation, population control, and conscription. 5412: 4589: 4167: 4106: 4042: 3305: 3187: 3093: 2946: 2861: 2523: 2486: 2474: 1981: 1436: 1251: 1237: 762: 608: 560: 236: 84: 6291: 5324: 4794: 4733:

China's Urban Billion: The Story behind the Biggest Migration in Human History

4638: 4240:

the city, individuals had to construct their own homes. The state invested in

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Chan, Kam Wing (2013). "China: Internal Migration". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.).

5088: 5022: 4056:

published in 1317, there was a minister for population management during the

3873:

system. It has been the source of much inequality over the decades since the

3865:

had a similar purpose and served as a model for modern China's hukou system.

5487: 4783:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

4542: 4527: 4442: 4287: 3234: 3059: 2837: 2822: 2795: 2312: 1695: 1630: 1489: 1341: 1282: 1195: 970: 599: 313: 161: 17: 4861: 4541:

When a person with household registration in mainland China is settling in

6326:

UW geographer devises a way for China to resolve its ‘immigration’ dilemma

5870: 5853: 4140:

The first formal codification of the hukou system arose at the end of the

5455: 5204: 4538:

to certain persons who are allowed to reside permanently in the regions.

4446: 4430: 4426: 4012: 4008: 3972:

In its original legislation, the hukou system was justified as created to

3361: 2150: 2132: 1955: 1899: 1668: 1274: 1231: 1191: 590: 515: 320: 168: 6197: 6181:"The Hukou System, Rural Institutions, and Migrant Integration in China" 6180: 5943:

Chan, Kam Wing (2014). "Achieving Comprehensive Hukou Reform in China".

4802: 2164:

State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense

5251: 4491: 4466: 4438: 4434: 4334: 4295: 4198: 4194: 4102: 4004: 2722: 1382:

Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission

341: 189: 5122:"China Is Ending Its 'Apartheid.' Here's Why No One Is Happy About It" 5005:

China's hukou system : markets, migrants and institutional change

6026: 4666: 4593: 4487: 4483: 4073:), top division in more distant areas were named Xiang (Chinese: 3842: 3828: 3023: 2814: 2787: 1616: 1309: 1296: 1243: 1206: 1199: 980: 4099:

also described his policy restricting immigrations and emigrations.

3928: 3960:

significantly to the deprivation of many of China's rural workers.

6562: 6368: 6108:"How Hukou Reform is Changing the Makeup of Chinese Factory Towns" 4601: 4546: 4531: 4417: 4324: 4230: 4016: 3939: 3927: 3870: 3461: 3064: 5182:

Chan, K. W. (2015). Five Decades of the Chinese Hukou System. In

3857:

system was abolished in January 2008. While unrelated in origin,

5351:

China's Hukou System: Markets, Migrants and Institutional Change

4661: 3854: 3846: 6339: 4182:

From the establishment of the People's Republic of China until

5569:"Chinese workers and peasants in three phases of accumulation" 4708:

Teacher Educator International Professional Development as Ren

2808:

Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization

1809:

State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission

393: 349: 197: 5769:"Nearly 10,000 migrant students sit for gaokao in Guangdong" 4879:. Lexington Books (published 15 October 2015). p. 104. 5186:(pp. 23-47). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. 4217:

restrictions on cities of more than 5 million inhabitants.

2781:

Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture

5762:"Chinese cities to relax school entry for rural migrants" 5621:

http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFD2005-QLTS200502000.htm

325: 173: 3950:

People's Republic of China Hukou Registration Regulation

304: 152: 6315:

Despite China's Modernization, The Hukou System Remains

5894:

China Urbanizes: Consequences, Strategies, and Policies

5916:"China's Hukou Reforms and the Urbanization Challenge" 5148:"China's Hukou Reforms and the Urbanization Challenge" 5649:

Handbook of Chinese Migration: Identity and Wellbeing

5184:

Handbook of Chinese Migration: Identity and Wellbeing

4429:) in specific cities (usually the big cities such as 2254:

Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)

280: 266: 128: 114: 4129:

system as the basis of tax revenue and conscription.

4081:). Families were organized under the Baojia system. 3795:

is the registration of an individual in the system (

3075:

Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs

623:

Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members

27:

Household registration system used in mainland China

6533: 6503: 6487: 6470: 6430: 6414: 6393: 6381: 5651:(pp. 71-104). No, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. 4329:

Many rural migrants find work as laborers in cities

3849:), as well as the Southeast Asian country Vietnam ( 3326:

Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits

410: 405: 387: 382: 366: 361: 340: 333: 319: 312: 298: 291: 274: 260: 253: 248: 228: 214: 209: 188: 181: 167: 160: 146: 139: 122: 108: 101: 96: 76: 62: 57: 48: 5484:The Chinese Communist Party: a 100-Year Trajectory 5986:"Beijing's Heavy-Handed Solution to Urbanization" 5852:Cui, Rong; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (1 September 2015). 1562:Environment Protection and Resources Conservation 4828:(11). PLOS (published 5 November 2012): e46932. 4486:”)—which in some sense is also accumulated with 4274:live precarious lives in company dormitories or 3787:'household origin'), and has origins in 5760:Hornby, Lucy; Mao, Sabrina (30 December 2012). 4816:Liu, Li; Kuang, Lei (2012). Denson, Tom (ed.). 4623:to them. However, this does not grant them the 3875:establishment of the People's Republic of China 3811:in many contexts since the household register ( 3761:'household individual') is a system of 3502:State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs 5602:"China reviews `apartheid' for 900m peasants" 4278:where they were exposed to abusive treatment. 2729:Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police 727:"People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1) 6351: 4758:China's Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know? 4032:. The xiangsui system, established under the 3769:. The system itself is more properly called " 3723: 2846:National Press and Publication Administration 1547:Education, Science, Culture and Public Health 234: 220: 82: 68: 8: 3425:International Development Cooperation Agency 2877:National Radio and Television Administration 2043:Reform & Organizational Structure Office 1773:National Development & Reform Commission 1351:Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 1215:Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission 5783:"one-child policy | Definition & Facts" 5194: 5192: 5105:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4760:. Oxford University Press. pp. 73–75. 4581:People's Republic of China (Mainland China) 3944:The inside pages of hukou booklet in China. 3782: 3756: 1650:State Council (Central People's Government) 1260:Financial & Economic Affairs Commission 6484: 6390: 6358: 6344: 6336: 6134:The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration 5548: 5546: 5366:China's Urbanization and the World Economy 5325:"Qin dynasty | China [221-207 BC]" 5101:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5035:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4248:primarily ravaged rural Chinese citizens. 3730: 3716: 738:Constitutional oath of office (Article 27) 428: 379: 245: 93: 6617:History of the People's Republic of China 6516:Mainland Travel Permit (Hong Kong, Macau) 6196: 5869: 5250: 4851: 4841: 4380:The National College Entrance Examination 3482:International Military Cooperation Office 2750:Office for Safeguarding National Security 1395:Central Leading Group for Inspection Work 753:Highest state organ of power (Article 57) 4364: 4311:"stay-at-home" or "left-behind" children 4131: 3924:Household registration in mainland China 3294:Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs 3274:Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement 2122:National Defense Mobilization Commission 1329:Office of the Central Secrecy Commission 6238:International Journal of Social Welfare 6008: 6006: 5938: 5936: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5839: 4698: 4524:special administrative regions of China 4518:Special administrative regions of China 4512:Special administrative regions of China 3570:Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence 2639:CCP Central Politics and Law Commission 2319:People's Procuratorates Judicial Police 2275: 2218: 1831: 1645: 1591: 1063: 954: 743:Protection of human rights (Article 33) 431: 6376:-related identity and travel documents 6155: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6143: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5854:"Reform and the HuKou System in China" 5837: 5835: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5740: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5368:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 29. 5224: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5094: 5028: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4958: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4946: 3932:An individual household's register or 3598:China and the World Trade Organization 3534:Visa requirements for Chinese citizens 2671:Public Security Organs People's Police 965:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 282: 130: 45: 6082:"China Going Nowhere on Hukou Reform" 5914:Sheehan, Spencer (22 February 2017). 5809: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5738: 5736: 5734: 5732: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5722: 5720: 5710: 5708: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5435: 5433: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5170: 5168: 5146:Sheehan, Spencer (22 February 2017). 5064: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5048: 5046: 4944: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4926: 3017:Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission 2966:Overseas censorship of Chinese issues 2706:State Security Organs People's Police 2262:Commission Against Corruption (Macau) 2195:CMC Leading Group for Military Reform 2028:Politics and Legal Affairs Commission 7: 5402:Guanzi: 禁迁徙、止流民、圉分异 chapter 2:使民无得擅徙 5200:"China rethinks peasant 'apartheid'" 4455:special economic zones and districts 4451:special economic zones and districts 4412:Over the past few decades since the 3457:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 3279:Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement 5451:"Enter the dragon: Here comes 2024" 4875:Guo, Zhonghua; Guo, Sujian (2015). 4609:Government of the Republic of China 4463:National New-Type Urbanization Plan 4210:National New-Type Urbanization Plan 4117:, "Households Code") as one of the 3562:National Immigration Administration 2607:Federation of Industry and Commerce 2244:Anti-corruption campaign since 2012 2002:National Defense Mobilization Dept. 803:General Principles of the Civil Law 5538:Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine 5525:Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine 5512:Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine 4588:holding household registration in 3896:The formal name for the system is 3350:Central Foreign Affairs Commission 3032:Cyberspace Administration of China 1039:Two Establishes and Two Safeguards 25: 6448:Hong Kong and Macao Travel Permit 5449:Kine, Phelim (21 December 2023). 5353:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 30. 5003:Young, Jason (3 June 2013). "2". 3603:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 2460:Political Consultative Conference 2048:Int'l Military Cooperation Office 2033:Science and Technology Commission 1989:Training and Administration Dept. 1836:Central Military Commission (CMC) 1009:Scientific Outlook on Development 733:Democratic centralism (Article 3) 6367: 6279:Eurasian Geography and Economics 6250:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2007.00475.x 5514:. New York: Holt, 1998. 220-232. 5413:"Qing dynasty | Chinese history" 5243:10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.02.001 4641: 4575:Household registration in Taiwan 3690: 2856:State Council Information Office 2678:State Immigration Administration 2094: 2084: 2067: 2015:Discipline Inspection Commission 1537:Supervisory and Judicial Affairs 748:Freedom of religion (Article 36) 441: 39:Household registration in Taiwan 6521:Mainland Travel Permit (Taiwan) 6179:Tyner, Adam; Ren, Yuan (2016). 5984:Pabon, John (4 December 2017). 4682:Resident registration in Russia 3863:resident registration in Russia 3507:Overseas Chinese Affairs Office 2892:China Global Television Network 2872:Ministry of Culture and Tourism 2736:Bureau of Prison Administration 2296:People's Courts Judicial Police 2223:National Supervisory Commission 1304:Office of the General Secretary 350: 326: 305: 198: 174: 153: 4877:Theorizing Chinese Citizenship 4629:without household registration 4418:the People's Republic of China 4305: 4300: 4105:, the first Chancellor of the 3833: 3824: 3816: 3626:China–European Union relations 3118:Special administrative regions 2303:Supreme People's Procuratorate 1542:Financial and Economic Affairs 394: 281: 267: 235: 221: 129: 115: 83: 69: 1: 6265:Chan, Kam Wing (March 2009). 6185:Journal of East Asian Studies 5896:. Washington: The World Bank. 5299:Stevenson-Yang, Anne (2024). 4600:(in the People's Republic of 4522:Hukou is not employed in the 4037: 4028:system were the xiangsui and 3646:China–United States relations 3631:China–Latin America relations 3492:NPC Foreign Affairs Committee 3088:HK & Macau Affairs Office 2831:Central Propaganda Department 2683:Local public security bureaus 2058:Offices Administration Agency 1567:Agriculture and Rural Affairs 6561:by the People's Republic of 5540:. New York: Holt, 1998. 220. 5527:. New York: Holt, 1998. 270. 5069:L., Wallace, Jeremy (2014). 4843:10.1371/journal.pone.0046932 4677:Propiska in the Soviet Union 3859:propiska in the Soviet Union 3593:China and the United Nations 3497:CCP International Department 3477:Ministry of National Defense 3404:Diplomatic missions of China 3264:Taiwan independence movement 2985:Publishing industry in China 2518:United Front Work Department 2363:Regular Disciplined Services 2353:Law enforcement in Hong Kong 2159:Ministry of Veterans Affairs 2141:Ministry of National Defense 1176:National Security Commission 1016:Harmonious Socialist Society 907:Death sentence with reprieve 881:Administrative Procedure Law 6136:. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. 6080:Li, Bingqin (19 May 2017). 6015:Population, Space and Place 5619:"从1000万到1.3亿:农村留守儿童到底有多少", 5266:V, Nathan (4 August 2020). 5120:Lu, Rachel (31 July 2014). 4756:Kroeber, Arthur R. (2016). 4352:Children of migrant workers 4119:nine basic law codes of Han 3916:system and an individual's 3585:Community of Common Destiny 3375:Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3245:Republic of China on Taiwan 2655:Ministry of Public Security 1976:Equipment Development Dept. 1143:Central Military Commission 6633: 6571:political status of Taiwan 6548:Taiwan (Republic of China) 6292:10.2747/1539-7216.50.2.197 5958:白, 墨 (20 September 2016). 5591:, M.E. Sharpe, 2001, p. 9. 4706:Liu, Laura Blythe (2016). 4585:Republic of China (Taiwan) 4568: 4515: 4332: 4224: 4221:Effect on rural population 4060:named Simin (Chinese: 3240:Political status of Taiwan 2690:Ministry of State Security 2390:Public Prosecutions Office 2190:Military reform since 2015 1802:Deputy Secretaries-General 1572:Social Development Affairs 1453:National People's Congress 991:Primary stage of socialism 959:Admission Oath (Article 6) 526:Current provincial leaders 36: 29: 6555: 5945:Paulson Policy Memorandum 4795:10.1017/s0041977x08000578 4482:(part of what is called “ 4321:Migrant workers in cities 4122: 4114: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4061: 3778: 3752: 3621:China–Caribbean relations 3205:Mainland & Macau CEPA 2904:China Radio International 2851:China Film Administration 2038:Strategic Planning Office 1768:Cabinet-level departments 860:Intellectual property law 423: 416: 378: 372: 244: 92: 53: 6597:Chinese family registers 6330:University of Washington 6319:University of Washington 5767:Jin, Dan (7 June 2016). 5574:26 February 2008 at the 4710:. Springer. p. 37. 4087:, Prime Minister of the 4077:) and Sui (Chinese: 3664:Administrative divisions 3445:Belt and Road Initiative 3142:Hong Kong SAR Government 3113:One country, two systems 3101:Hong Kong Liaison Office 2887:China Central Television 2397:Secretariat for Security 2073:People's Liberation Army 1814:most Central Enterprises 1557:Overseas Chinese Affairs 996:Four Cardinal Principles 230:Traditional Chinese 210:Alternative Chinese name 78:Traditional Chinese 6612:Contemporary migrations 5787:Encyclopedia Britannica 5417:Encyclopedia Britannica 5329:Encyclopedia Britannica 4735:. Bloomsbury Academic. 4657:Public records in China 4394:Impact on rural elderly 4125:), and established the 4109:, added the chapter of 3990:Chinese Communist Party 3853:). In South Korea, the 3636:China–Pacific relations 3515:Chinese nationality law 2407:Unitary Police Services 2064:National armed forces: 1480:Council of Chairpersons 1336:Organization Department 1068:National Party Congress 773:Socialist law tradition 650:Organization Department 216:Simplified Chinese 64:Simplified Chinese 6567:cross-Strait relations 6401:Resident Identity Card 5626:24 August 2021 at the 5231:Habitat Internatioinal 4571:Cross-Strait relations 4565:Cross-strait relations 4503:Hukou conversion today 4416:in 1978, the state of 4370: 4330: 4236: 4178:1978-Present: Post-Mao 4137: 4093:the Book of Lord Shang 3983:state owned businesses 3978: 3968:Rationale and function 3945: 3937: 3763:household registration 3641:China–Russia relations 3611:China–Africa relations 3440:China Development Bank 3416:Foreign aid from China 3257:"Taiwan Province", PRC 3225:Cross-Strait relations 3218:Cross-Strait relations 3171:Mainland & HK CEPA 2612:People's organizations 2419:Public Security Police 2368:Hong Kong Police Force 2329:Judiciary of Hong Kong 2280:Supreme People's Court 2185:Military modernization 1963:Logistic Support Dept. 696:Previous constitutions 569:Communist Party leader 464:Leadership generations 32:Hukou (disambiguation) 6559:claimed as a province 6443:Exit and Entry Permit 5960:"观察：户籍改革里程碑北京取消农业户口" 5871:10.33182/ml.v12i3.283 5303:. London: Bui Jones. 4559:second-class citizens 4368: 4328: 4234: 4157:1949-1978: Maoist era 4135: 3974: 3943: 3931: 3313:Taiwan Affairs Office 3164:Independence movement 3149:Politics of Hong Kong 2385:Court of Final Appeal 2346:Prosecutions Division 2341:Department of Justice 2334:Court of Final Appeal 2090:People's Armed Police 1783:National Audit Office 1414:Provincial committee 645:Collective leadership 640:Democratic centralism 521:Current state leaders 476:Hu–Wen Administration 6538:Documents issued by 6453:Taiwan Travel Permit 4731:Miller, Tom (2012). 4359:Left-behind children 4258:Great Chinese Famine 4252:Surviving the famine 4050:Examination of Hukou 3807:can also refer to a 3616:China–Arab relations 3548:Visa policy of China 3467:New Development Bank 3430:Ministry of Commerce 3193:Macau SAR Government 3106:Macau Liaison Office 2899:China National Radio 2582:Historical parties: 2402:Macau Security Force 1950:Political Work Dept. 1588:State representative 1532:Constitution and Law 1317:Central Guard Bureau 986:Deng Xiaoping Theory 763:Chinese legal system 578:State representative 540:Orders of precedence 503:20th Party Politburo 482:Xi–Li Administration 30:For other uses, see 6324:Armstrong, Doree. " 6198:10.1017/jea.2016.18 6067:The China Quarterly 5567:Whitehouse, David. 5208:, 10 November 2005. 4834:2012PLoSO...746932K 4011:from moving out of 3821:traditional Chinese 3394:Diplomatic missions 3366:Secretary-General: 3284:Chinese unification 3128:Hong Kong Basic Law 2998:Internet censorship 2956:Censorship in China 2713:Ministry of Justice 2239:Corruption in China 1611:Presidential Office 1250:Secretary-General: 1133:Central Secretariat 1034:Four Comprehensives 838:Labour Contract Law 768:Civil law tradition 605:Conference Chairman 494:4th Leadership Core 469:Succession of power 6406:Household Register 6394:Identity documents 5558:, 6 February 2007. 5272:The Globe and Mail 4425:least 100 million 4371: 4331: 4294:. The millions of 4292:illegal immigrants 4281:The impact of the 4246:Great Leap Forward 4237: 4227:Migration in China 4138: 3946: 3938: 3879:central government 3813:simplified Chinese 3435:Exim Bank of China 3269:Anti-Secession Law 3159:Pro-democracy camp 2925:China News Service 2911:Xinhua News Agency 2465:National Committee 2380:Judiciary of Macau 2309:Procurator-General 1522:Special Committees 1470:Standing Committee 1428:Deputy secretaries 1418:Standing committee 1361:Standing Committee 1322:Central Guard Unit 1120:Standing Committee 1024:Xi Jinping Thought 981:Mao Zedong Thought 897:Capital punishment 875:Administrative law 614:Commander-in-chief 587:Head of government 512:14th State Council 6579: 6578: 6529: 6528: 6488:Identity document 6466: 6465: 6332:. 14 August 2013. 6229:pp. 335–364. 5858:Migration Letters 5764:. Beijing, China. 5288:. 19 August 2020. 4672:Internal passport 4611:considers ethnic 4594:Republic of China 4048:According to the 3785: 3759: 3740: 3739: 3679:Ethnic minorities 3580:Beijing Consensus 3520:Chinese passports 3360:Deputy Director: 3343:Foreign relations 3230:Chinese Civil War 3200:Politics of Macau 2993:Internet in China 2882:China Media Group 2821:Deputy Director: 2758:Urban Management 2507:Political parties 2494:Secretary-General 2481:Vice-Chairpersons 2215:Supervisory organ 2100:China Coast Guard 1934:Joint Staff Dept. 1845:supreme commander 1797:Secretary-General 1756:Secretary-General 1510:Secretary-General 1496:Vice-Chairpersons 1273:Deputy Director: 1228:Deputy Directors: 1109:Central Politburo 1089:General Secretary 1078:Central Committee 938:Principal leaders 596:Congress Chairman 488:Xi Administration 484:(2012–2017) 478:(2002–2012) 434:Politics of China 427: 426: 401: 400: 357: 356: 255:Standard Mandarin 205: 204: 103:Standard Mandarin 16:(Redirected from 6624: 6607:Civil registries 6504:Travel documents 6495:Residence Permit 6485: 6431:Travel documents 6391: 6372: 6371: 6360: 6353: 6346: 6337: 6321:. February 2010. 6313:Joseph, Nancy. " 6310: 6309:on 16 July 2015. 6308: 6302:. 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Basingstoke. 5002: 5001: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4874: 4873: 4869: 4815: 4814: 4810: 4780: 4779: 4775: 4768: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4743: 4730: 4729: 4725: 4718: 4705: 4704: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4647: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4577: 4567: 4555:Chinese citizen 4520: 4514: 4505: 4480:social networks 4414:economic reform 4410: 4396: 4354: 4337: 4323: 4271: 4254: 4229: 4223: 4180: 4159: 4148:Similarly, the 4054:Wenxian Tongkao 4025: 3998:Chinese economy 3970: 3926: 3894: 3809:family register 3736: 3707: 3703:Other countries 3691: 3689: 3684: 3683: 3674:Family planning 3659: 3651: 3650: 3607: 3589: 3575:Panda diplomacy 3566: 3511: 3488: 3473: 3412: 3400: 3345: 3335: 3334: 3304:Deputy Leader: 3290: 3220: 3210: 3209: 3184:Chief Executive 3179:Macao Basic Law 3175: 3133:Chief Executive 3124: 3070: 3069: 3049: 3048: 3041: 3026: 2989: 2952: 2840: 2825: 2817: 2802: 2790: 2776: 2766: 2765: 2754: 2738: 2725: 2702: 2667: 2649: 2641: 2633: 2632: 2628:Law enforcement 2617: 2616: 2601: 2575: 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6463: 6461: 6460: 6458:One-way Permit 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6434: 6432: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6424: 6418: 6416: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6408: 6403: 6397: 6395: 6388: 6379: 6378: 6374:Mainland China 6365: 6363: 6362: 6355: 6348: 6340: 6334: 6333: 6322: 6311: 6286:(2): 197–221. 6260: 6257: 6255: 6254: 6233: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6204: 6191:(3): 331–348. 6171: 6139: 6124: 6098: 6072: 6057: 6032: 6021:(2): 146–157. 6002: 5976: 5950: 5932: 5899: 5877: 5864:(3): 327–335. 5815: 5799: 5774: 5752: 5716: 5704: 5682: 5663: 5653: 5631: 5612: 5593: 5580: 5560: 5542: 5529: 5516: 5503: 5496: 5469: 5441: 5429: 5404: 5395: 5383: 5371: 5356: 5341: 5316: 5309: 5291: 5277: 5258: 5210: 5188: 5164: 5138: 5126:Foreign Policy 5112: 5079: 5042: 5013: 4922: 4913: 4904: 4892: 4886:978-1498516693 4885: 4867: 4808: 4789:(2): 345–362. 4773: 4767:978-0190239039 4766: 4748: 4742:978-1780321417 4741: 4723: 4717:978-3662516485 4716: 4697: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4636: 4633: 4625:right of abode 4566: 4563: 4551:One-way Permit 4549:by means of a 4536:right of abode 4513: 4510: 4504: 4501: 4409: 4406: 4395: 4392: 4353: 4350: 4333:Main article: 4322: 4319: 4303:; pinyin: 4270: 4267: 4253: 4250: 4222: 4219: 4208:The 2014-2020 4189:However, with 4179: 4176: 4158: 4155: 4121:(Chinese: 4113:(Chinese: 4030:baojia systems 4024: 4021: 3969: 3966: 3925: 3922: 3893: 3885:Nomenclature: 3883: 3767:mainland China 3738: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3720: 3712: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3699: 3686: 3685: 3682: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3660: 3658:Related topics 3657: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3588: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3545: 3531: 3517: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3487: 3486: 3485: 3484: 3472: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3459: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3450:Silk Road Fund 3442: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3411: 3410: 3399: 3398: 3397: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3372: 3371: 3370: 3364: 3358: 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5951: 5946: 5939: 5937: 5933: 5921: 5917: 5910: 5908: 5906: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5888: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5872: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5848: 5846: 5844: 5842: 5840: 5838: 5836: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5808: 5806: 5804: 5800: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5775: 5770: 5763: 5756: 5753: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5709: 5705: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5676: 5674: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5657: 5654: 5650: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5629: 5625: 5622: 5616: 5613: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5587:Chan, Anita. 5584: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5549: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5520: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5504: 5499: 5497:9781760466244 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5458: 5457: 5452: 5445: 5442: 5436: 5434: 5430: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5387: 5384: 5380: 5375: 5372: 5367: 5360: 5357: 5352: 5349:Jason Young. 5345: 5342: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5317: 5312: 5310:9781739424312 5306: 5302: 5295: 5292: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5273: 5269: 5262: 5259: 5253: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5201: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5153: 5149: 5142: 5139: 5127: 5123: 5116: 5113: 5108: 5104: 5098: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5080:9780199378982 5076: 5072: 5065: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5014:9781137277305 5010: 5006: 4999: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4987: 4985: 4983: 4981: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4923: 4917: 4914: 4908: 4905: 4902: 4896: 4893: 4888: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4809: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4774: 4769: 4763: 4759: 4752: 4749: 4744: 4738: 4734: 4727: 4724: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4702: 4699: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4619:, and issues 4618: 4614: 4610: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4598:Mainland Area 4595: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4572: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4519: 4511: 4509: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4476:human capital 4471: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4427:Renminbi yuan 4422: 4419: 4415: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4367: 4363: 4360: 4351: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4336: 4327: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4277: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4259: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4233: 4228: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4203: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4191:Deng Xiaoping 4187: 4185: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4169: 4163: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4145: 4143: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4067: 4066:Rites of Zhou 4059: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4044: 4035: 4031: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3999: 3994: 3991: 3986: 3984: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3951: 3942: 3935: 3930: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3900:. Within the 3899: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3882: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3845:) and Korea ( 3844: 3838: 3836: 3830: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3789:ancient China 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3750: 3746: 3745: 3733: 3728: 3726: 3721: 3719: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3688: 3687: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3590: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3479: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3464: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3451: 3448: 3447: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3389:Spokespersons 3387: 3385: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3344: 3339: 3338: 3327: 3324: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3311: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3301: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3292: 3291: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3251: 3248: 3247: 3246: 3243: 3242: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3227: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3213: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3194: 3191: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3150: 3147: 3143: 3140: 3139: 3138: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3090: 3089: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3081:Ding Xuexiang 3078: 3077: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3066: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3052: 3040: 3035: 3034: 3033: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3019: 3018: 3015: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2995: 2994: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2983: 2979: 2976: 2975: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2961:Radio jamming 2959: 2958: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2933: 2932: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2859: 2858: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2833: 2832: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2789: 2784: 2783: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2748: 2742: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2692: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2665:Wang Xiaohong 2662: 2658: 2657: 2656: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2642: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2620: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2584: 2581: 2580: 2572: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2533: 2531: 2525: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2498:Wang Dongfeng 2495: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2467: 2466: 2463: 2462: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2449: 2448: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2413: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2382: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2369: 2366: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2332: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2301: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2282: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2263: 2260: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2240: 2237: 2236: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2219: 2202: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2116:State Council 2114: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2046: 2044: 2041: 2039: 2036: 2034: 2031: 2029: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2016: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1952: 1951: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1932: 1928: 1927:Zhong Shaojun 1924: 1923: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1917:Departments: 1916: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1889: 1887: 1886: 1884: 1876: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1864: 1862: 1861: 1859: 1858:Vice Chairmen 1856: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1832: 1815: 1812: 1811: 1810: 1807: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1766: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1731: 1730:Wang Xiaohong 1727: 1726: 1724: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1703:Zhang Guoqing 1700: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1689:Ding Xuexiang 1686: 1685: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1675:Vice-Premiers 1673: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1618: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1582: 1579: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1449: 1448: 1438: 1435: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1349: 1343: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1320: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1302: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1276: 1271: 1268: 1263: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1233: 1226: 1223: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1187: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1160:Vice Chairmen 1157: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1106: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1076: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1060: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1029:Chinese Dream 1027: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1017: 1013: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1001: 997: 994: 992: 989: 988: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 968: 966: 962: 960: 957: 956: 955: 951: 947: 939: 936: 935: 932: 929: 928: 925: 920: 919: 908: 905: 903: 900: 899: 898: 895: 894: 893: 890: 889: 883: 882: 878: 877: 876: 873: 872: 866: 863: 862: 861: 858: 854: 853: 849: 848: 847: 844: 840: 839: 835: 833: 832: 828: 827: 826: 823: 821: 820: 816: 813: 812: 808: 805: 804: 800: 799: 793: 790: 788: 787: 783: 782: 781: 778: 774: 771: 769: 766: 765: 764: 761: 760: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 728: 724: 723: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 701: 699: 698: 697: 694: 693: 692: 689: 688: 682: 679: 677: 674: 673: 669: 668: 661: 660:Civil service 658: 656: 653: 651: 648: 646: 643: 641: 638: 636: 635:Unified power 633: 632: 628: 627: 624: 621: 619: 615: 612: 610: 606: 603: 601: 597: 594: 592: 588: 585: 583: 579: 576: 574: 570: 567: 562: 558: 554: 553: 552: 548: 545: 544: 541: 538: 536: 533: 532: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 513: 510: 508: 504: 501: 499: 495: 492: 491: 490:(since 2017) 489: 486: 483: 480: 477: 474: 473: 470: 467: 465: 462: 461: 458: 453: 452: 449: 448: 444: 440: 439: 435: 430: 422: 415: 413: 409: 404: 392: 390: 386: 381: 377: 371: 369: 365: 360: 348: 346: 343: 339: 336: 332: 324: 322: 318: 315: 311: 303: 301: 297: 294: 290: 284: 279: 277: 273: 265: 263: 259: 256: 252: 247: 243: 238: 233: 231: 227: 219: 217: 213: 208: 196: 194: 191: 187: 184: 180: 172: 170: 166: 163: 159: 151: 149: 145: 142: 138: 132: 127: 125: 121: 113: 111: 107: 104: 100: 95: 91: 86: 81: 79: 75: 67: 65: 61: 56: 52: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 6304:the original 6283: 6277: 6268: 6241: 6237: 6207: 6188: 6184: 6174: 6165: 6162:China Review 6161: 6133: 6127: 6115:. Retrieved 6112:Asia Society 6111: 6106:Fish, Eric. 6101: 6089:. Retrieved 6085: 6075: 6066: 6060: 6048:. Retrieved 6044: 6041:"蚁族：在现实中找出路" 6035: 6018: 6014: 5993:. Retrieved 5990:The Diplomat 5989: 5979: 5967:. Retrieved 5963: 5953: 5944: 5923:. Retrieved 5920:The Diplomat 5919: 5893: 5861: 5857: 5790:. Retrieved 5786: 5777: 5755: 5656: 5648: 5615: 5605: 5596: 5588: 5583: 5563: 5553: 5537: 5532: 5524: 5519: 5511: 5506: 5486:. Canberra: 5483: 5460:. Retrieved 5454: 5444: 5420:. Retrieved 5416: 5407: 5398: 5393::禁迁徙、止流民、圉分异 5386: 5374: 5365: 5359: 5350: 5344: 5332:. Retrieved 5328: 5319: 5300: 5294: 5280: 5271: 5261: 5234: 5230: 5203: 5198:Luard, Tim. 5183: 5155:. Retrieved 5152:The Diplomat 5151: 5141: 5129:. Retrieved 5125: 5115: 5073:. New York. 5070: 5004: 4916: 4907: 4895: 4876: 4870: 4825: 4821: 4811: 4786: 4782: 4776: 4757: 4751: 4732: 4726: 4707: 4701: 4649:China portal 4606: 4578: 4540: 4521: 4506: 4497: 4472: 4460: 4423: 4411: 4397: 4388: 4383: 4376: 4372: 4355: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4315: 4306:nóngmín gōng 4304: 4282: 4280: 4276:shanty towns 4272: 4263: 4255: 4238: 4214: 4207: 4204: 4188: 4184:Chairman Mao 4181: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4146: 4142:Qing dynasty 4139: 4126: 4110: 4101: 4083: 4058:Zhou dynasty 4049: 4047: 4034:Western Zhou 4026: 4002: 3995: 3987: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3947: 3933: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3867: 3839: 3832: 3804: 3796: 3792: 3770: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3669:Hukou system 3008:Great Cannon 2945: 2938:Global Times 2936: 2929: 2915: 2860: 2759: 2647:Chen Wenqing 2513:CCP (ruling) 2485:Top-ranked: 2453:United front 2053:Audit Office 1868:Zhang Youxia 1778:Central bank 1760:Wu Zhenglong 1737:Wu Zhenglong 1710:Liu Guozhong 1502:Li Hongzhong 1500:Top-ranked: 1165:Zhang Youxia 1059:Organization 946:Constitution 892:Criminal law 880: 852:Property Law 851: 846:Property law 837: 830: 819:Marriage Law 818: 810: 802: 785: 691:Constitution 676:Constitution 362:Tibetan name 335:Southern Min 300:Romanization 262:Hanyu Pinyin 183:Southern Min 148:Romanization 110:Hanyu Pinyin 58:Chinese name 43: 18:Hukou permit 6602:Chinese law 5462:21 December 5422:16 November 5364:Fan Zhang. 5334:16 November 5252:10397/27398 5237:: 279–284. 4590:Taiwan Area 4256:During the 4168:Luo Ruiqing 4107:Han dynasty 4043:Qin dynasty 3306:Wang Huning 3250:Taiwan Area 3188:Ho Iat-seng 3094:Xia Baolong 2947:China Today 2862:China Daily 2760:(chengguan) 2739: [ 2645:Secretary: 2524:Shi Taifeng 2487:Shi Taifeng 2475:Wang Huning 2427: [ 2410: [ 2019:Secretary: 1982:Xu Xueqiang 1437:Party group 1386:Secretary: 1252:Wang Huning 1238:Wang Huning 814:(From 2021) 609:Wang Huning 561:Peng Liyuan 406:Uyghur name 6586:Categories 6557:Taiwan is 6086:Asia Times 5792:24 October 5661:Routledge. 4688:References 4569:See also: 4516:See also: 4225:See also: 4150:Kuomintang 4097:Shang Yang 4085:Guan Zhong 3904:system, a 3356:Xi Jinping 3354:Director: 3317:Director: 3300:Xi Jinping 3092:Director: 3037:Director: 3022:Director: 2813:Director: 2800:Shen Yiqin 2774:Propaganda 2700:Chen Yixin 2229:Liu Jinguo 2227:Director: 2201:Xi Jinping 2008:Liu Faqing 2006:Director: 1993:Director: 1980:Director: 1967:Director: 1954:Director: 1943:Liu Zhenli 1925:Director: 1893:Liu Zhenli 1875:He Weidong 1851:Xi Jinping 1744:Shen Yiqin 1605:Xi Jinping 1295:Director: 1267:Xi Jinping 1265:Director: 1222:Xi Jinping 1220:Director: 1183:Xi Jinping 1181:Chairman: 1169:He Weidong 1153:Xi Jinping 1100:Xi Jinping 865:Patent law 831:Labour Law 825:Labour law 811:Civil Code 618:Xi Jinping 582:Xi Jinping 573:Xi Jinping 557:First lady 551:Xi Jinping 507:Xi Jinping 498:Xi Jinping 457:Leadership 6540:Hong Kong 6481:residents 6471:Issued to 6387:residents 6382:Issued to 6244:: 32–40. 5488:ANU Press 5301:Wild Ride 5157:14 August 5131:14 August 5097:cite book 5089:871534491 5031:cite book 5023:847140377 4693:Citations 4617:nationals 4543:Hong Kong 4528:Hong Kong 4492:subsidies 4443:Guangzhou 4288:education 4269:Post-1978 4242:education 4036:dynasty ( 3552:Hong Kong 3538:Hong Kong 3524:Hong Kong 3235:One China 3060:Hong Kong 2838:Li Shulei 2823:Li Shulei 2796:Li Shulei 2313:Ying Yong 2290:Zhang Jun 2286:President 1995:Wang Peng 1969:Zhang Lin 1885:Members: 1696:He Lifeng 1631:Han Zheng 1597:President 1581:Presidium 1490:Zhao Leji 1465:Elections 1423:Secretary 1371:Secretary 1342:Li Ganjie 1283:He Lifeng 1196:Zhao Leji 1046:Democracy 971:Communism 806:(to 2020) 655:Elections 600:Zhao Leji 351:hō͘-che̍k 6534:See also 6422:Passport 6415:Passport 6385:Mainland 6300:53549312 6117:25 April 6091:25 April 6050:26 April 5995:22 April 5969:26 April 5925:22 April 5680:Limited. 5624:Archived 5572:Archived 5555:The Star 5456:Politico 5205:BBC News 4862:23144794 4822:PLOS ONE 4803:40378774 4635:See also 4596:) or in 4592:(in the 4583:and the 4447:Shenzhen 4431:Shanghai 4296:peasants 4089:Qi state 4013:Xinjiang 4009:Tibetans 3834:hùkǒu bù 3801:per head 3765:used in 3420:to China 3408:in China 3380:Minister 3362:Li Qiang 3319:Song Tao 3298:Leader: 3079:Leader: 2786:Leader: 2719:Minister 2696:Minister 2661:Minister 2471:Chairman 2199:Leader: 2151:Dong Jun 2147:Minister 2133:Li Qiang 2129:Chairman 1956:Miao Hua 1900:Miao Hua 1841:Chairman 1669:Li Qiang 1486:Chairman 1399:Leader: 1275:Li Qiang 1232:Li Qiang 1192:Li Qiang 1149:Chairman 950:ideology 591:Li Qiang 516:Li Qiang 395:them-tho 321:Jyutping 199:hō͘-kháu 169:Jyutping 6219:Sources 6168:: 9–39. 4853:3489849 4830:Bibcode 4615:as its 4484:guan xi 4467:Beijing 4439:Tianjin 4435:Nanjing 4335:Mingong 4199:Tianjin 4195:Beijing 4103:Xiao He 4023:History 4005:Uyghurs 3851:hộ khẩu 3775:Chinese 3749:Chinese 3384:Wang Yi 3368:Wang Yi 2723:He Rong 2107:Militia 1663: ( 1661:Premier 1615:Chief: 1308:Chief: 931:History 419:‎ 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