379:; however, it died in Congress sometime in the next year. The bill was introduced based on findings that science had progressed to the point where human and nonhuman species could be merged to create new forms of life. Because of this, ethical issues might arise as the line blurred between humans and other animals, and according to the bill with this blurring of lines would come a show of disrespect for human dignity. The final claim brought up in The Human Chimera Prohibition Act was that there was an increasing amount of
325:(possessing two different colored eyes). However, these signs do not necessarily mean an individual is a chimera and should only be seen as possible symptoms. Again, forensic investigation or curiosity over an unexpected maternity/paternity DNA test result usually leads to the accidental discovery of this condition. By simply undergoing a DNA test, which usually consists of either a swift cheek swab or a blood test, the discovery of the once unknown second genome is made, therefore identifying that individual as a chimera.
295:. This involved injecting human stem cells into monkey embryos. The embryos were only allowed to grow for a few days, but the study demonstrated that some of these embryos still had human stem cells surviving at the end of the experiments. Because humans are more closely related to monkeys than other animals, it means there is more chance of the chimeric embryos surviving for longer periods so that organs can develop. The project has opened up possibilities into organ
1281:
Cristina A.; Hishida, Tomoaki; Sánchez-Bautista, Sonia; Martinez-Martinez, M. Llanos; Wang, Huili; Nohalez, Alicia; Aizawa, Emi; Martinez-Redondo, Paloma; Ocampo, Alejandro; Reddy, Pradeep; Roca, Jordi; Maga, Elizabeth A.; Esteban, Concepcion
Rodriguez; Berggren, W. Travis; Nuñez Delicado, Estrella; Lajara, Jeronimo; Guillen, Isabel; Guillen, Pedro; Campistol, Josep M.; Martinez, Emilio A.; Ross, Pablo Juan; Izpisua Belmonte, Juan Carlos (January 2017).
452:, motivated by his moral and scientific opposition to the notion that living things can be patented at all. Prior legal precedent had established that genetically engineered entities, in general, could be patented, even if they were based on beings occurring in nature. After a seven-year process, Newman's patent finally received a flat rejection. The legal process had created a paper trail of arguments, giving Newman what he claimed was a victory.
1280:
Wu, Jun; Platero-Luengo, Aida; Sakurai, Masahiro; Sugawara, Atsushi; Gil, Maria
Antonia; Yamauchi, Takayoshi; Suzuki, Keiichiro; Bogliotti, Yanina Soledad; Cuello, Cristina; Morales Valencia, Mariana; Okumura, Daiji; Luo, Jingping; Vilariño, Marcela; Parrilla, Inmaculada; Soto, Delia Alba; Martinez,
308:
Non-artificial chimerism has traditionally been considered to be rare due the low amount of reported cases in medical literature. However, this may be due to the fact that humans might not often be aware of this condition to begin with. There are usually no signs or symptoms for chimerism other than
486:
Hybrid embryos are embryos created by mixing human sperm and animal ova, or animal sperm and human ova. Human chimera embryos are human embryos that have had animal cells added to them during early development. … Lastly, transgenic human embryos are human embryos that have had animal genes inserted
427:
The bill would have prohibited the attempts to create a human-animal chimera, the transfer or attempt to transfer a human embryo into a nonhuman womb, the transfer or attempt to transfer a nonhuman embryo into a human womb, and the transport or receipt of an animal chimera for any purpose. Proposed
159:
when DNA evidence appeared to show that she was not the mother of her children. A lawyer for the prosecution heard of the case of Karen Keegan in New
England, and suggested the possibility to the defense, who were able to show that Fairchild, too, was a chimera with two sets of DNA, and that one of
1975:
Hermaphroditism in the strict sense of the term does not exist in the human species. … may be equipped with both masculine and feminine gonads always more or less abnormal, incapable of simultaneously producing male and female gametes and not functional. This abnormal individual is therefore not a
597:
In the current embryological (which is also the classical) sense, a "chimaera" is an organism whose cells derive from two or more distinct zygote lineages, and this is the sense which the term "genetical chimaera" is here intended to convey. "Genetical mosaic" is less suitable, because a mosaic is
277:
In 2017, a human-pig chimera was reported to have been created; the chimera was also reported to have 0.001% human cells, with the balance being pig. The embryo consisted mostly pig cells and some human cells. Scientists stated that they hope to use this technology to address the shortage of donor
1330:
Tan, Tao; Wu, Jun; Si, Chenyang; Dai, Shaoxing; Zhang, Youyue; Sun, Nianqin; Zhang, E; Shao, Honglian; Si, Wei; Yang, Pengpeng; Wang, Hong; Chen, Zhenzhen; Zhu, Ran; Kang, Yu; Hernandez-Benitez, Reyna; Martinez
Martinez, Llanos; Nuñez Delicado, Estrella; Berggren, W. Travis; Schwarz, May; Ai,
188:
In 2008, a man was killed in a traffic accident that occurred in Seoul, South Korea. A DNA analysis to identify him revealed that his blood, along with some of his organs, appeared to show that he was female. It was later determined that he had received a bone marrow transplant from his
349:
animal species commonly reproduce in this way, and it has been observed in a rabbit. However, no such case of functional self-fertilization has ever been documented in humans; and it is non-existent or extremely rare in mammals, especially in humans. While humans are known to have sex
2001:
they certainly do not possess the complete and active sexual organs of both sexes, and so are not true hermaphrodites: they are known as false or pseudo-hermaphrodites … These false hermaphrodites may appear to possess the genital organs of both sexes, but they do not really do
1821:
Of note, the otherwise well-studied insects, birds, and mammals are strikingly absent here—with not a single species among these groups showing hermaphroditism (for details on a supposedly hermaphroditic scale insect, however, see
Gardner and Ross,
639:
Mosaicism originates by intrinsic genetic variations caused, among other processes, by somatic mutations, while chimerism originates from allogenic fusion or grafting. As such, chimerism is much rarer and involves a much larger genetic change than
1530:
Many people assume this is how all intersex people came to be. My mom even said when I was a baby, people hypothesized that I was twins (I'm not). Chimeras seem to play into an old cultural myth that a "hermaphrodite" must essentially be two
428:
penalties for violations of this bill included fines and/or imprisonment of up to 10 years. The bill was referred to the
Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations on October 11, 2016, but died there.
184:
The DNA content of semen from an assault case in 2004 matched that of a man who had been in prison at the time of the assault, but who had been a bone marrow donor for his brother, who was later determined to have committed the
96:. Specific types of transplants that could induce this condition include bone marrow transplants and organ transplants, as the recipient's body essentially works to permanently incorporate the new blood stem cells into it.
1850:
Hermaphroditism is rare in vertebrates; fish are the most advanced forms that display it, and it does not occur in mammals except as partial hermaphroditism resulting from natural or experimentally imposed hormone
1991:
The
Causation of Sex in Man: A New Theory of Sex Based on Clinical Materials Together with Chapters on Forecasting Or Predicting the Sex of the Unborn Child and on the Determination Or Production of Either Sex at
131:. A woman was found to have blood containing two different blood types. Apparently this resulted from her twin brother's cells living in her body. A 1996 study found that such blood group chimerism is not rare.
840:
Yu, Neng; Kruskall, Margot S.; Yunis, Juan J.; Knoll, Joan H.M.; Uhl, Lynne; Alosco, Sharon; Ohashi, Marina; Clavijo, Olga; Husain, Zaheed; Yunis, Emilio J.; Yunis, Jorge J.; Yunis, Edmond J. (16 May 2002).
458:
ran an article on the controversy that stated that it had raised "profound questions about the differences—and similarities—between humans and other animals, and the limits of treating animals as property."
117:
was expelled from the 1950 national team after she refused a mandatory sex test in July 1950; later investigations revealed a Y-chromosome in her body cells, and the analysis showed that she was probably a
2078:
Some intersex people have reclaimed this word for themselves, but it is usually considered a slur. … it is not possible for one person to have both a fully developed penis and vagina.
1864:
1016:
194:
Another instance of treatment-related human chimerism was published in 1998, where a male human had some partially developed female organs due to chimerism. He had been conceived by
144:
was unexpectedly identified after she underwent preparations for kidney transplant. Those preparations for the transplant required the patient and her immediate family to undergo
1255:
1203:
1645:
Frankenhuis, M. T.; Smith-Buijs, C. M.; de Boer, L. E.; Kloosterboer, J. W. (16 June 1990). "A case of combined hermaphroditism and autofertilisation in a domestic rabbit".
969:
1911:
But although hermaphroditism is common among invertebrates and occurs in some fish and other vertebrates, contrary to urban legends, human hermaphrodites do not exist.
271:
579:
Anderson, D.; Billingham, R. E.; Lampkin, G. H.; Medawar, P. B. (1951-12-01). "The use of skin grafting to distinguish between monozygotic and dizygotic twins in".
1945:
was widely applied in such cases, but humans are not hermaphroditic. In a truly hermaphroditic species, individuals have functional sets of male and female organs.
477:
567:
A chimera is an organism whose cells are derived from two or more zygotes as opposed to a mosaic whose different cell lines are derived from a single zygote
398:
a human embryo into which a nonhuman cell or cells (or the component parts thereof) had been introduced to render the embryo's membership in the species
1099:
2015:
1960:
Human
Afflictions and Chromosomal Aberrations: International Series of Monographs in Pure and Applied Biology: Modern Trends in Physiological Sciences
1228:
1924:
88:
that was inherited genetically at the time of the formation of the human embryo and the other that was introduced through a procedure, including
478:""Hybrids and Chimeras: A Consultation on the Ethical and Social Implications of Creating Human/Animal Embryos in Research" (2007), by the HFEA"
387:
2047:
1968:
1934:
1904:
1874:
1843:
1770:
1731:
516:
282:
1129:
Tentler, J. J.; Tan, A. C.; Weekes, C. D.; Jimeno, A; Leong, S; Pitts, T. M.; Arcaroli, J. J.; Messersmith, W. A.; Eckhardt, S. G. (2012).
423:
a nonhuman life form engineered such that it contained a human brain or a brain derived wholly or predominantly from human neural tissues.
1331:
Zongyong; Li, Tianqing; Deng, Hongkui; Rodriguez
Esteban, Concepcion; Ji, Weizhi; Niu, Yuyu; Izpisua Belmonte, Juan Carlos (April 2021).
810:
135:
1989:
1958:
1894:
693:
1481:"National Society of Genetic Counselors : Blogs : Chimerism Explained: How One Person Can Unknowingly Have Two Sets of DNA"
1259:
1207:
436:
In the U.S., efforts into creating a chimeric entity appeared to be legal when the topic first came up. Developmental biologist
2091:
931:
181:), exhibited only the genetic content of his bone marrow donor. Swabs from his lips, cheek and tongue showed mixed DNA content.
2188:
1719:
1480:
1082:
448:, applied for a patent on a human-animal chimera in 1997 as a challenge to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the
997:
787:
Van Dijk, B. A.; Boomsma, D. I.; De Man, A. J. (1996). "Blood group chimerism in human multiple births is not rare".
337:
individuals are not chimeras, and most human chimeras are not observed to have intersex traits. Theoretically, if a
2193:
2024:
It is now considered pejorative and outdated, although a small number of intersex people have reclaimed the term.
1996:
251:
1103:
936:
613:
Santelices, B. (2004-11-01). "Mosaicism and chimerism as components of intraorganismal genetic heterogeneity".
441:
218:
37:
35:. In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from a human and an animal is called a
420:
a nonhuman life form engineered such that human gametes developed within the body of a nonhuman life form; or
1107:
523:
Another form of chimera is the mosaic, which is a composite individual derived from a single fertilized egg.
127:
796:
689:"Sex and gender issues in competitive sports: investigation of a historical case leads to a new viewpoint"
449:
372:
195:
171:
141:
386:
On 22 August 2016, another bill, The Human-Animal
Chimera Prohibition Act of 2016, was introduced to the
2183:
1514:
355:
296:
148:, the result of which had suggested that she was not the biological mother of two of her three children.
89:
2150:
1567:
Irmak, M. Kemal (November 2010). "Self-fertilization in human: Having a male embryo without a father".
652:
Rinkevich, B (June 2001). "Human natural chimerism: an acquired character or a vestige of evolution?".
70:
of the genetic material in a cell, giving rise to a subset of cells that are different from the rest.
970:"Man who had transplant finds out months later his DNA has changed to that of donor 5,000 miles away"
417:
an embryo containing at least haploid sets of chromosomes from both a human and a nonhuman life form;
391:
350:
characteristics that diverge from typical males or typical females, these individuals fall under the
322:
78:
2122:
2016:""I Want to Be Like Nature Made Me": Medically Unnecessary Surgeries on Intersex Children in the US"
1381:"Human–Monkey Hybrids: Have We Crossed a Boundary? | The American Spectator | USA News and Politics"
801:
341:
human chimera were to have fully functioning male and female gonad tissue, such an individual could
2155:
454:
225:
208:
2203:
1750:
1697:
1627:
1362:
822:
333:
The concept of a "human hermaphrodite" resulting from chimerism is largely a misconception. Most
286:
54:
32:
1021:
2043:
1964:
1930:
1900:
1870:
1839:
1812:
1766:
1727:
1715:
1689:
1654:
1619:
1584:
1462:
1421:
1404:
Boklage, Charles (2006). "Embryogenesis of chimeras, twins and anterior midline asymmetries".
1380:
1354:
1312:
1160:
1065:
1044:"A True Hermaphrodite Chimera Resulting from Embryo Amalgamation after in Vitro Fertilization"
913:
864:
814:
769:
720:
669:
630:
558:
512:
351:
318:
310:
259:
237:
93:
60:
383:, and that the creation of human-animal chimeras might allow these diseases to reach humans.
2123:"Text - H.R.6131 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Human-Animal Chimera Prohibition Act of 2016"
1802:
1758:
1681:
1611:
1576:
1452:
1413:
1344:
1302:
1294:
1150:
1142:
1055:
903:
895:
854:
806:
759:
751:
710:
702:
661:
622:
588:
548:
504:
380:
376:
314:
229:
214:
156:
371:
On 11 July 2005, a bill known as The Human Chimera Prohibition Act was introduced into the
1333:"Chimeric contribution of human extended pluripotent stem cells to monkey embryos ex vivo"
1233:
338:
241:
152:
299:
as well as ethical concerns particularly concerning human brain development in primates.
1307:
1282:
1155:
1130:
908:
883:
764:
739:
715:
688:
508:
445:
290:
233:
114:
2037:
1602:
Bayraktar, Zeki (28 February 2017). "Potential autofertility in true hermaphrodites".
1543:
665:
408:
a chimera human/animal embryo produced by fertilizing a nonhuman egg with human sperm;
405:
a chimera human/animal embryo produced by fertilizing a human egg with nonhuman sperm;
2198:
2177:
1366:
626:
437:
346:
145:
2099:
1701:
1631:
941:
41:, while an organism that contains a mixture of human and non-human cells would be a
974:
826:
177:
In 2019, the blood and seminal fluid of a man in Reno, Nevada (who had undergone a
85:
1685:
1615:
1881:
No cases of hermaphroditism or parthenogenesis are found among birds and mammals.
1762:
884:"A mythical beast. Increased attention highlights the hidden wonders of chimeras"
1060:
1043:
738:
Bowley, C. C.; Ann M. Hutchison; Joan S. Thompson; Ruth Sanger (July 11, 1953).
119:
1580:
1457:
1440:
1349:
1332:
1298:
553:
536:
270:
The first stable human-animal chimeras to actually exist were first created by
1146:
1042:
Strain, Lisa; John C.S. Dean; Mark P. R. Hamilton; David T. Bonthron (1998).
899:
706:
1488:
1417:
811:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19960122)61:3<264::AID-AJMG11>3.0.CO;2-R
274:
scientists in 2003, the result of having fused human cells with rabbit eggs.
178:
2092:"S.659 – Human Chimera Prohibition Act of 2005 (Introduced in Senate - IS)"
1816:
1693:
1623:
1588:
1466:
1425:
1358:
1316:
1179:
1164:
1131:"Patient-derived tumour xenografts as models for oncology drug development"
917:
868:
773:
724:
673:
634:
562:
281:
In 2021, a human-monkey chimera was created as a joint project between the
1672:
Bayraktar, Zeki (2018). "Potential autofertility in true hermaphrodites".
1658:
1069:
818:
755:
859:
842:
342:
334:
263:
224:
Human-animal chimeras include humans having undergone non-human to human
67:
28:
1866:
Physical and Biological Bases of Life Stability: Man, Biota, Environment
843:"Disputed Maternity Leading to Identification of Tetragametic Chimerism"
592:
245:
1807:
1790:
414:
an embryo produced by introducing a human nucleus into a nonhuman egg;
411:
an embryo produced by introducing a nonhuman nucleus into a human egg;
109:
Natural chimerism has been documented in humans in several instances.
63:
to be a form of chimerism, while others consider them to be distinct.
2063:
74:
2042:. Internet Archive. Hagerstown, Md. : University Pub. Group.
262:
mice, and is a research technique frequently used in pre-clinical
255:
24:
1777:
Animals are less often hermaphrodites-no mammals or birds are so
1283:"Interspecies Chimerism with Mammalian Pluripotent Stem Cells"
1509:
1507:
1505:
140:
described a woman, later identified as Karen Keegan, in whom
73:
Natural chimerism is the fusion of more than one fertilized
1836:
The Sex Imperative: An Evolutionary Tale of Sexual Survival
998:"DNA at the Fringes: Twins, Chimerism, and Synthetic DNA"
170:
Several cases of chimera phenomena have been reported in
1256:"Human-Pig Hybrid Created in the Lab—Here Are the Facts"
1204:"Human-Pig Hybrid Created in the Lab—Here Are the Facts"
1724:
Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine
160:
those sets could have been the mother of the children.
1674:
The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
1604:
The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine
356:
some consider the term "hermaphrodite" to be a slur
687:Ballantyne, KN; Kayser, M; Grootegoed, JA (2011).
1726:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 185.
608:
606:
1957:Turpin, Raymond; Lejeune, JĂ©rĂ´me (2013-10-22).
1093:
1091:
1017:"Bone marrow transplant could give you new DNA"
598:formed of the cells of a single zygote lineage.
165:Non-intentional chimerism related to treatments
84:In artificial chimerism, an individual has one
2064:"What is Intersex? Frequently Asked Questions"
1385:The American Spectator | USA News and Politics
963:
961:
959:
482:The Embryo Project at Arizona State University
2144:
2142:
1085:. Definition by the World Health Organization
345:; this hypothesis is backed by the fact that
125:In 1953, a human chimera was reported in the
8:
1929:. University of Toronto Press. p. 309.
476:Sarah Taddeo, Jason S. Robert (2014-11-04).
254:are created by xenotransplantation of human
2151:"U.S. Denies Patent for a Too-Human Hybrid"
394:. It identified a human-animal chimera as:
1896:What Is Life?: A Guide to Biology w/Prep-U
1791:"The varied ways of being male and female"
1976:hermaphrodite but an intersex individual.
1869:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1806:
1515:"Intersex and the City: C is for Chimera"
1456:
1348:
1306:
1154:
1059:
907:
858:
800:
763:
714:
552:
1100:"Animal-Human Hybrids Spark Controversy"
1738:No species of mammal is hermaphroditic.
468:
27:with a subset of cells with a distinct
16:Human with cells of different genotypes
2068:interACT: Advocates for Intersex Youth
1795:Molecular Reproduction and Development
1548:interACT: Advocates for Intersex Youth
1180:"Human-pig 'chimera embryos' detailed"
388:United States House of Representatives
289:in China and published in the journal
7:
2121:Smith, Christopher H. (2016-10-11).
1445:European Journal of Medical Genetics
1229:"Scientists create human/pig hybrid"
789:American Journal of Medical Genetics
541:European Journal of Medical Genetics
81:. It is much rarer than mosaicism.
1048:The New England Journal of Medicine
1863:Gorshkov, Victor G. (2012-12-06).
1441:"Natural human chimeras: A review"
1098:Maryann, Mott (January 25, 2005).
694:British Journal of Sports Medicine
537:"Natural human chimeras: A review"
509:10.1016/B978-0-12-374984-0.00228-X
501:Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics
272:Shanghai Second Medical University
31:than other cells, that is, having
14:
2149:Weiss, Rick (February 13, 2005).
1439:Madan, Kamlesh (September 2020).
1135:Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology
940:. August 15, 2006. Archived from
499:Stewart, C.L. (2001). "Chimera".
367:The Human Chimera Prohibition Act
2090:Brownback, Samuel (2005-03-17).
627:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00813.x
309:a few physical symptoms such as
155:was denied public assistance in
1178:Gallagher, James (2017-01-26).
1015:Schlueter, Roger (2018-02-01).
882:Wolinsky, Howard (March 2007).
847:New England Journal of Medicine
615:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
487:into them early in development.
137:New England Journal of Medicine
2096:The Library of Congress THOMAS
1988:Dawson, Ernest Rumley (1917).
996:Murphy, Erin E. (2015-10-07).
968:Murphy, Heather (2019-12-09).
1:
2039:Intersex in the age of ethics
1686:10.1080/14767058.2017.1291619
1616:10.1080/14767058.2017.1291619
740:"A human blood-group chimera"
666:10.1016/s0198-8859(01)00249-x
535:Madan, Kamlesh (2020-09-01).
1834:Maxwell, Kenneth E. (2013).
1763:10.1007/978-1-4684-7862-4_12
1258:. 2017-01-26. Archived from
1206:. 2017-01-26. Archived from
2014:Knight, Kyle (2017-07-25).
1061:10.1056/NEJM199801153380305
354:conditions and traits, and
352:social umbrella of intersex
134:In 2002, an article in the
2220:
1997:H. K. Lewis & Co. Ltd.
1923:Mills, Alex (2018-01-01).
1899:. Macmillan. p. 243.
1893:Phelan, Jay (2009-03-02).
1581:10.1016/j.mehy.2010.04.021
1458:10.1016/j.ejmg.2020.103971
1350:10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.020
1299:10.1016/j.cell.2016.12.036
554:10.1016/j.ejmg.2020.103971
252:Patient derived xenografts
212:
206:
146:histocompatibility testing
52:
1963:. Elsevier. p. 230.
1838:. Springer. p. 152.
1147:10.1038/nrclinonc.2012.61
1755:Did Darwin Get It Right?
1104:National Geographic News
900:10.1038/sj.embor.7400918
707:10.1136/bjsm.2010.082552
442:New York Medical College
1789:Schärer, Lukas (2017).
1753:(1988). "Boy or Girl".
744:British Medical Journal
128:British Medical Journal
77:in the early stages of
1941:In the past, the term
1544:"Intersex Definitions"
373:United States Congress
358:when applied to them.
329:Chimerism and intersex
304:Chimera identification
196:in-vitro fertilization
172:bone marrow recipients
142:tetragametic chimerism
2189:Intersex and medicine
1716:MD, Randolph M. Nesse
1647:The Veterinary Record
1519:Intersex and the City
1418:10.1093/humrep/dei370
756:10.1136/bmj.2.4827.81
207:Further information:
203:Human-animal chimeras
90:organ transplantation
66:Mosaicism involves a
53:Further information:
1343:(8): 2020–2032.e14.
932:"She's Her Own Twin"
860:10.1056/NEJMoa013452
503:. pp. 516–518.
392:Christopher H. Smith
323:heterochromia iridum
321:, body asymmetry or
79:prenatal development
43:human-animal chimera
2156:The Washington Post
2036:Dreger, AD (1999).
1757:. pp. 98–104.
1751:Smith, John Maynard
1720:Williams, George C.
1262:on January 26, 2017
1210:on January 26, 2017
1110:on January 27, 2005
1083:Xenotransplantation
1022:Herald & Review
944:on October 28, 2013
593:10.1038/hdy.1951.38
455:The Washington Post
226:xenotransplantation
219:Human–animal hybrid
209:Xenotransplantation
113:The Dutch sprinter
38:human–animal hybrid
2020:Human Rights Watch
1569:Medical Hypotheses
1406:Human Reproduction
1293:(3): 473–486.e15.
1237:. January 26, 2017
311:hyper-pigmentation
287:Kunming University
55:Chimera (genetics)
2194:Genetic anomalies
2049:978-1-55572-125-1
1970:978-1-4831-4668-3
1936:978-1-4875-9337-7
1906:978-1-4292-8079-2
1876:978-3-642-85001-1
1845:978-1-4899-5988-1
1808:10.1002/mrd.22775
1772:978-0-412-03821-1
1733:978-0-307-81600-9
853:(20): 1545–1552.
518:978-0-08-096156-9
440:, a professor at
381:zoonotic diseases
315:hypo-pigmentation
260:immunocompromised
105:Natural chimerism
94:blood transfusion
33:genetic chimerism
2211:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2098:. Archived from
2087:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2074:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1810:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1564:
1558:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1511:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1496:
1487:. Archived from
1477:
1471:
1470:
1460:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1352:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1310:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1242:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1158:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1106:. Archived from
1095:
1086:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1063:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1012:
1006:
1005:
993:
987:
986:
984:
982:
965:
954:
953:
951:
949:
928:
922:
921:
911:
879:
873:
872:
862:
837:
831:
830:
804:
784:
778:
777:
767:
735:
729:
728:
718:
684:
678:
677:
654:Human Immunology
649:
643:
642:
621:(6): 1187–1188.
610:
601:
600:
576:
570:
569:
556:
532:
526:
525:
496:
490:
489:
473:
377:Samuel Brownback
319:Blaschko's lines
157:Washington state
2219:
2218:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2174:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2161:
2159:
2148:
2147:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2105:
2103:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1971:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1937:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1846:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1775:. p. 102:
1773:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1734:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1653:(24): 598–599.
1644:
1643:
1639:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1550:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1524:
1522:
1513:
1512:
1503:
1494:
1492:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1403:
1402:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1265:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1240:
1238:
1234:The Independent
1227:
1226:
1222:
1213:
1211:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1188:
1186:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1081:
1077:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1027:
1025:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1002:The Daily Beast
995:
994:
990:
980:
978:
967:
966:
957:
947:
945:
930:
929:
925:
881:
880:
876:
839:
838:
834:
802:10.1.1.149.9001
786:
785:
781:
737:
736:
732:
686:
685:
681:
651:
650:
646:
612:
611:
604:
578:
577:
573:
534:
533:
529:
519:
498:
497:
493:
475:
474:
470:
465:
434:
369:
364:
339:gynandromorphic
331:
306:
297:transplantation
230:transplantation
228:, which is the
222:
211:
205:
167:
153:Lydia Fairchild
107:
102:
57:
51:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2217:
2215:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2138:
2113:
2082:
2055:
2048:
2028:
2006:
1980:
1969:
1949:
1935:
1926:Biology of Sex
1915:
1905:
1885:
1875:
1855:
1844:
1826:
1781:
1771:
1742:
1732:
1707:
1680:(4): 542–547.
1664:
1637:
1610:(4): 542–547.
1594:
1575:(5): 448–451.
1559:
1535:
1501:
1472:
1431:
1412:(3): 579–591.
1396:
1372:
1322:
1272:
1247:
1220:
1195:
1170:
1121:
1087:
1075:
1054:(3): 166–169.
1034:
1007:
988:
955:
923:
894:(3): 212–214.
874:
832:
779:
730:
679:
660:(6): 651–657.
644:
602:
587:(3): 379–397.
571:
527:
517:
491:
467:
466:
464:
461:
446:Valhalla, N.Y.
433:
430:
425:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
368:
365:
363:
360:
347:hermaphroditic
343:self-fertilize
330:
327:
305:
302:
301:
300:
285:in the US and
283:Salk Institute
279:
275:
204:
201:
200:
199:
192:
191:
190:
186:
182:
166:
163:
162:
161:
149:
132:
123:
122:mosaic female.
115:Foekje Dillema
106:
103:
101:
98:
59:Some consider
50:
47:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2216:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2114:
2102:on 2016-07-04
2101:
2097:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2041:
2040:
2032:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1999:p. 154.
1998:
1994:
1993:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1943:hermaphrodite
1938:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1898:
1897:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1837:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1801:(2): 94–104.
1800:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1598:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1560:
1549:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1532:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1491:on 2020-02-02
1490:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1451:(9): 103971.
1450:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1397:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1273:
1261:
1257:
1251:
1248:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1141:(6): 338–50.
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1035:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1011:
1008:
1003:
999:
992:
989:
977:
976:
971:
964:
962:
960:
956:
948:September 17,
943:
939:
938:
933:
927:
924:
919:
915:
910:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
878:
875:
870:
866:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
836:
833:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
803:
798:
794:
790:
783:
780:
775:
771:
766:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
734:
731:
726:
722:
717:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
695:
690:
683:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
648:
645:
641:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
609:
607:
603:
599:
594:
590:
586:
582:
575:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
550:
547:(9): 103971.
546:
542:
538:
531:
528:
524:
520:
514:
510:
506:
502:
495:
492:
488:
483:
479:
472:
469:
462:
460:
457:
456:
451:
450:U.S. Congress
447:
443:
439:
438:Stuart Newman
431:
429:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
397:
396:
395:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
366:
361:
359:
357:
353:
348:
344:
340:
336:
328:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
303:
298:
294:
293:
288:
284:
280:
276:
273:
269:
268:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
220:
216:
210:
202:
197:
193:
187:
183:
180:
176:
175:
173:
169:
168:
164:
158:
154:
150:
147:
143:
139:
138:
133:
130:
129:
124:
121:
116:
112:
111:
110:
104:
99:
97:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
71:
69:
64:
62:
56:
48:
46:
44:
40:
39:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:human chimera
2184:Reproduction
2160:. Retrieved
2154:
2130:. Retrieved
2127:congress.gov
2126:
2116:
2104:. Retrieved
2100:the original
2095:
2085:
2077:
2071:. Retrieved
2067:
2058:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2009:
2000:
1990:
1983:
1974:
1959:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1925:
1918:
1910:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1865:
1858:
1849:
1835:
1829:
1820:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1776:
1754:
1745:
1737:
1723:
1710:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1650:
1646:
1640:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1551:. Retrieved
1547:
1538:
1529:
1523:. Retrieved
1521:. 2014-07-31
1518:
1493:. Retrieved
1489:the original
1484:
1475:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1388:. Retrieved
1384:
1375:
1340:
1336:
1325:
1290:
1286:
1275:
1264:. Retrieved
1260:the original
1250:
1239:. Retrieved
1232:
1223:
1212:. Retrieved
1208:the original
1198:
1187:. Retrieved
1183:
1173:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1112:. Retrieved
1108:the original
1078:
1051:
1047:
1037:
1026:. Retrieved
1020:
1010:
1001:
991:
981:December 12,
979:. Retrieved
975:The Guardian
973:
946:. Retrieved
942:the original
935:
926:
891:
888:EMBO Reports
887:
877:
850:
846:
835:
795:(3): 264–8.
792:
788:
782:
750:(4827): 81.
747:
743:
733:
701:(8): 614–7.
698:
692:
682:
657:
653:
647:
638:
618:
614:
596:
584:
580:
574:
566:
544:
540:
530:
522:
500:
494:
485:
481:
471:
453:
435:
426:
400:Homo sapiens
399:
385:
370:
332:
307:
291:
250:
248:to another.
223:
136:
126:
108:
86:cell lineage
83:
72:
65:
58:
42:
36:
20:
18:
375:by Senator
362:Legislation
258:cells into
120:46,XX/46,XY
2178:Categories
2132:2019-11-14
2073:2022-10-31
1553:2022-10-31
1525:2022-10-31
1495:2020-03-15
1390:2021-06-26
1266:2017-01-27
1241:2017-06-03
1214:2017-06-03
1189:2017-06-03
1028:2020-02-08
640:mosaicism.
463:References
402:uncertain;
266:research.
232:of living
49:Mechanisms
2204:Chimerism
2162:August 8,
1851:imbalance
1367:233247345
1114:August 6,
797:CiteSeerX
432:Patenting
244:from one
189:daughter.
179:vasectomy
151:In 2002,
61:mosaicism
1817:28032683
1722:(2012).
1702:22100505
1694:28282768
1632:22100505
1624:28282768
1589:20452130
1485:nsgc.org
1467:32565253
1426:16253966
1359:33861963
1317:28129541
1184:BBC News
1165:22508028
937:ABC News
918:17330063
869:12015394
774:13051584
725:21540190
674:11390041
635:15525401
581:Heredity
563:32565253
335:intersex
264:oncology
100:Examples
68:mutation
29:genotype
1659:2382355
1308:5679265
1156:3928688
1070:9428825
909:1808039
827:9787758
819:8741872
765:2028470
716:3375582
278:organs.
246:species
238:tissues
215:hybrids
2106:20 May
2046:
1967:
1933:
1903:
1873:
1842:
1822:2011).
1815:
1769:
1730:
1700:
1692:
1657:
1630:
1622:
1587:
1531:people
1465:
1424:
1365:
1357:
1315:
1305:
1163:
1153:
1068:
916:
906:
867:
825:
817:
799:
772:
762:
723:
713:
672:
633:
561:
515:
242:organs
217:, see
185:crime.
75:zygote
1698:S2CID
1628:S2CID
1363:S2CID
823:S2CID
256:tumor
234:cells
25:human
23:is a
2199:Twin
2164:2015
2108:2015
2044:ISBN
1992:Will
1965:ISBN
1931:ISBN
1901:ISBN
1871:ISBN
1840:ISBN
1813:PMID
1767:ISBN
1728:ISBN
1690:PMID
1655:PMID
1620:PMID
1585:PMID
1463:PMID
1422:PMID
1355:PMID
1337:Cell
1313:PMID
1287:Cell
1161:PMID
1116:2015
1066:PMID
983:2019
950:2013
914:PMID
865:PMID
815:PMID
770:PMID
721:PMID
670:PMID
631:PMID
559:PMID
513:ISBN
292:Cell
213:For
2002:so.
1803:doi
1759:doi
1682:doi
1651:126
1612:doi
1577:doi
1453:doi
1414:doi
1345:doi
1341:184
1303:PMC
1295:doi
1291:168
1151:PMC
1143:doi
1056:doi
1052:338
904:PMC
896:doi
855:doi
851:346
807:doi
760:PMC
752:doi
711:PMC
703:doi
662:doi
623:doi
589:doi
549:doi
505:doi
444:in
390:by
240:or
92:or
2180::
2153:.
2141:^
2125:.
2094:.
2076:.
2066:.
2022:.
2018:.
1995:.
1973:.
1939:.
1909:.
1879:.
1848:.
1819:.
1811:.
1799:84
1797:.
1793:.
1765:.
1736:.
1718:;
1696:.
1688:.
1678:31
1676:.
1649:.
1626:.
1618:.
1608:31
1606:.
1583:.
1573:75
1571:.
1546:.
1528:.
1517:.
1504:^
1483:.
1461:.
1449:63
1447:.
1443:.
1420:.
1410:21
1408:.
1383:.
1361:.
1353:.
1339:.
1335:.
1311:.
1301:.
1289:.
1285:.
1231:.
1182:.
1159:.
1149:.
1137:.
1133:.
1102:.
1090:^
1064:.
1050:.
1046:.
1019:.
1000:.
972:.
958:^
934:.
912:.
902:.
890:.
886:.
863:.
849:.
845:.
821:.
813:.
805:.
793:61
791:.
768:.
758:.
746:.
742:.
719:.
709:.
699:46
697:.
691:.
668:.
658:62
656:.
637:.
629:.
619:17
617:.
605:^
595:.
583:.
565:.
557:.
545:63
543:.
539:.
521:.
511:.
484:.
480:.
317:,
313:,
236:,
174:.
45:.
19:A
2166:.
2135:.
2110:.
2052:.
1805::
1761::
1704:.
1684::
1661:.
1634:.
1614::
1591:.
1579::
1556:.
1498:.
1469:.
1455::
1428:.
1416::
1393:.
1369:.
1347::
1319:.
1297::
1269:.
1244:.
1217:.
1192:.
1167:.
1145::
1139:9
1118:.
1072:.
1058::
1031:.
1004:.
985:.
952:.
920:.
898::
892:8
871:.
857::
829:.
809::
776:.
754::
748:2
727:.
705::
676:.
664::
625::
591::
585:5
551::
507::
221:.
198:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.