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federal studies," and most other participants administered trials because "reimbursements generated from such trials made it possible to maintain a financially viable, as well as profitable, practice." Cook and Hoas found that most of the physicians and coordinators could not explain directly if they actually told their patients or subjects about any financial compensation they received. Respondents worry that discussing funding or compensation would affect enrollment, effectively swaying participants from joining a research study. In most respondents' experience, most patients do not even ask for that information, so they assume that they do not have to discuss it with them and not jeopardize enrollment. When asked if information about funding or compensation would be important to provide to patients, one physician replied "...certainly it may influence or bring up in their mind questions whether or not, you know, we want them to participate because we're gonna get paid for this, you know, budget dollar amount. But, you know, when you talk about full disclosure, is that something that we should be doing? That's an interesting question."
1398:. Many considered this a violation of the requirement for informed consent in human subjects research. Because the data was collected by Facebook, a private company, in a manner that was consistent with its Data Use Policy and user terms and agreements, the Cornell IRB board determined that the study did not fall under its jurisdiction. It has been argued that this study broke the law nonetheless by violating state laws regarding informed consent. Others have noted that speaking out against these research methods may be counterproductive, as private companies will likely continue to experiment on users, but will be dis-incentivized from sharing their methods or findings with scientists or the public. In an "Editorial Expression of Concern" that was added to the online version of the research paper, PNAS states that while they "deemed it appropriate to publish the paper... It is nevertheless a matter of concern that the collection of the data by Facebook may have involved practices that were not fully consistent with the principles of obtaining informed consent and allowing participants to opt out."
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shock to the learner when the learner answered incorrectly to a set of questions. The intensity of this electric shock was to be increased for every incorrect answer. The learner was a confederate (i.e. actor), and the shocks were faked, but the subjects were led to believe otherwise. Both prerecorded sounds of electric shocks and the confederate's pleas for the punishment to stop were audible to the "teacher" throughout the experiment. When the subject raised questions or paused, the experimenter insisted that the experiment should continue. Despite widespread speculation that most participants would not continue to "shock" the learner, 65 percent of participants in
Milgram's initial trial complied until the end of the experiment, continuing to administer shocks to the confederate with purported intensities of up to "450 volts". Although many participants questioned the experimenter and displayed various signs of discomfort, when the experiment was repeated, 65 percent of subjects were willing to obey instructions to administer the shocks through the final one.
1103:. Twenty-four male students were assigned to a random role of a prisoner or guard to simulate a mock prison in one of Stanford's basements. After only six days, the abusive behavior of the guards and the psychological suffering of prisoners proved significant enough to halt the two-week-long experiment. The goal of the experiment was to determine whether dispositional factors (the behavior of guards and prisoners) or positional factors (the social environment of prisons) are the major cause of conflict within such facilities. The results of this experiment showed that people will readily conform to the specific social roles they are supposed to play. The prison environment played a part in making the guards behavior more brutal, due to the fact that none of the participants showed this type of behavior beforehand. Most of the guards had a hard time believing they had been acting in such a way. The evidence concludes this to be positional behavior, meaning the behavior was due to the hostile environment of the prison.
1230:. In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith devised a situation in which participants would undergo excessively tedious and monotonous tasks. After the completion of these tasks, the subjects were instructed to help the experiment continue in exchange for a variable amount of money. All the subjects had to do was simply inform the next "student" waiting outside the testing area (who was secretly a confederate) that the tasks involved in the experiment were interesting and enjoyable. It was expected that the participants would not fully agree with the information they were imparting to the student, and after complying, half of the participants were awarded $ 1 (roughly the same as $ 10 now), and the others were awarded $ 20 (like $ 209 now). A subsequent survey showed that, by a large margin, those who received less money for essentially "lying" to the student came to believe that the tasks were far more enjoyable than their highly paid counterparts.
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of the benefits as well as the risks of human subject research. Justice is important because it causes the researchers to be fair in their research findings and share what they have found, whether the information is good or bad. The selection process of the subject is supposed to be fair and not separate due to race, sexual orientation or ethnic group. Lastly, respect for persons explains that at any point a person who is involved in a study can decide whether they want to participate, not to participate or withdraw themselves from the study altogether. Two rules of respect for persons involve the person being autonomous and persons with diminished autonomy and entitled to protection. The sole purpose of these guidelines is to ensure autonomy and to protect against those with a lesser chance to remain autonomous because of something out of their control.
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to students studying to be health care professionals as well as have more discussions surrounding the issues and importance of informed consent. There have also been a bigger push to protect participants in clinical trials. Rules and regulations of clinical trials can vary by country. Suggestions to remedy this include installing a committee to keep better track of this information and ensure that everything is properly documented. Research coordinators and physicians involved in clinical studies have their own concerns, particularly that an implementation of ethics rules could potentially disrupt the logistics of preparing a research study, specifically when it comes to enrolling patients. Another concern that research teams may have is that even if the rules are ethically sound, they may not be logical or helpful for conducting their studies.
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study, its purpose, its funding, as well as expectations of what participation might entail." Ultimately, only 24% of the respondents said they would be willing to participate with a majority of them stating they would need full transparency and an indication that there would be some personal benefit in order for them to even consider participating. Some had a list of criteria that had to be met. Eleven percent indicated that they would not at all be willing to enroll in a research study. One respondent commented "If it involved taking a medication, no. Never. I would be in a clinical trial if there was something, like...track mammogram… I am already subjecting myself to." Cook and Hoas stated that these answers were "particularly puzzling" because "these respondents still reported that their patient/participants received 'optimal care
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the perspectives of the researchers and whether they would consent to being a subject in a clinical trial. To assess the shift to rural communities, they surveyed 34 physicians or researchers and 46 research coordinators from states that have "large rural populations and have historically demonstrated limited participation in clinical research." Proper consent forms were provided and signed at the start of the study. Of the physicians and research coordinators that participated in this study, 90% were from hospital centers or worked in a hospital-clinic setting. Of all the participants, only 66% of research coordinators and 53% of physicians received training in research methods, while 59% of the coordinators received any ethics training. Only 17% of the physicians had ethics research training prior to this study.
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a provider that they trust recommends the study. Most respondents seem to agree that patients consent to participate because they believe that through this study, they would be receiving "more attention than my regular patients" and that "there are an awful lot of additional opportunities for interaction." One respondent commented "...the way that we're required to actually recruit patients, which is to have their providers be the point of contact, some ways is--I mean, I don't want to use the word 'coercion', but it's kind of leaning in that direction because basically here's this person that they entrust themselves to, who they're very dependent on for, you know, getting their healthcare."
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process, 5) make sure data is not identifiable or searchable (avoid direct quotes that may be identifiable with an online search), 6) consider developing project privacy policies in advance, and 7) be aware that each state has its own laws regarding informed consent. Social media sites offer great potential as a data source by providing access to hard-to-reach research subjects and groups, capturing the natural, "real-world" responses of subjects, and providing affordable and efficient data collection methods.
1173:, Oklahoma. The twelve-year-old boys bonded with their own groups for a week before the groups were set in competition with each other in games such as tug-of-war and football. When competing, the groups resorted to name-calling and other displays of resentment, such as burning the other group's team flag. The hostility continued and worsened until the end of the three-week study, when the groups were forced to work together to solve problems.
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Although this research provides positive contributions, there are some drawbacks and resistance to human subject research for crash testing due to the liability of injury and the lack of facilities that have appropriate machinery to perform such experiments. Research with live persons provides additional data which might be unobtainable when testing with
1144:'s classic conformity experiment in 1951 involved one subject participant and multiple confederates; they were asked to provide answers to a variety of different low-difficulty questions. In every scenario, the multiple confederates gave their answers in turn, and the participant subject was allowed to answer last. In a
1539:, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were prosecuted for the unethical treatment of concentration camp inmates, who were often used as research subjects with fatal consequences. Of those 23, 15 were convicted, 7 were condemned to death, 9 received prison sentences from 10 years to life, and 7 were acquitted.
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Typical ethical issues that arise in this type of research trials include participant enrollment, the question of coercion if a physician refers their own patients, and any misunderstandings regarding treatment benefits. Patients are more likely to enroll in a trial if their primary care physician or
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is described as protecting the well-being of the persons and respecting their decisions by being ethical and protecting the subjects from harm. The two rules of beneficence are maximizing the benefits of research and minimizing any possible risks. It is the job of the researcher to inform the persons
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became commonly known as the
Nuremberg Code, the first international document to clearly articulate the concept that "the voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential". Individual consent was emphasized in the Nuremberg Code in order to prevent prisoners of war, patients, prisoners,
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The term research subject has traditionally been the preferred term in professional guidelines and academic literature to describe a patient or an individual taking part in biomedical research. In recent years, however, there has been a steady shift away from the use of the term 'research subject' in
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designers improve upon safety restraints for vehicles. This research allows designers to gather more data on the tolerance of the human body in the event of an automobile accident, in order to better improve safety features in automobiles. Some of the tests conducted ranged from sled runs evaluating
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Respondents more often pointed out practical or logistical issues with the overall process rather than ethical issues. There was a general consensus that the whole practice of conducting research studies was more focused on the business aspects like funding and enrolling participants in the study in
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Cook and Hoas found that funding played a significant role in participant selection. One of Hoas's and Cook's participants commented that "in his practice, the income from conducting pharmaceutical trials sometimes used to offset the losses of conducting scientifically interesting but poorly funded
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Ann Cook and
Freeman Hoas from the University of Montana's Department of Psychology conducted a study to gain more understanding about what influences potential candidates to consent to participation in any given clinical trial. They published their findings in February 2015. Cook and Hoas asked for
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As science and medicine evolve, the field of bioethics struggles to keep up with updating guidelines and rules to follow. There has been an interest in revisiting the ethics behind human subject trials. Members of the health field have commented that it may be useful to have ethics classes available
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to describe the ethical behaviors that involve researching human subjects. It is most heavily used by the current United States system for protecting human subjects in research trials. By looking primarily at biomedical and behavioral research that involve human subjects, the report was generated to
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conclude that if access to the social media content is public, information is identifiable but not private, and information gathering requires no interaction with the person who posted it online, then the research is unlikely to qualify as human subjects research. Defining features of human subject
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and their restraint systems. From thousands of tests involving human subjects, results indicate no serious injuries were persistent. This is largely due to the preparation efforts of researchers to ensure all ethical guidelines are followed and to ensure the safety and well-being of their subjects.
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Most of the coordinators and researchers showed some hesitation when they were asked if they would enroll as a subject in a clinical trial, not necessarily their own, but any study. When asked to elaborate on their hesitation, many said that they would be "concerned about the motivations behind the
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In general, it can be said that experimental infections in humans are tightly linked to a history of scandals in medical research, with scandals being followed by stricter regulatory rules. Ethical guidelines that govern the use of human subjects in research are a fairly new construct. In 1906 some
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led a series of experiments to determine to what extent an individual would obey instructions given by an experimenter. Placed in a room with the experimenter, subjects played the role of a "teacher" to a "learner" situated in a separate room. The subjects were instructed to administer an electric
699:– information about behavior that occurs in a context in which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place, and information which has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and which the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public.
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profiles of students at an "anonymous, northeastern
American university" that was quickly identified as Harvard, potentially placing the privacy of the human subjects at risk. The data set was removed from public access shortly after the issue was identified. The issue was complicated by the fact
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In each of these experiments, participants were confronted with a type of emergency, such as the witnessing of a seizure or smoke entering through air vents. A common phenomenon was observed that as the number of witnesses or "bystanders" increases, so does the time it takes for individuals to
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s recommended considerations for social media research are: 1) determine if the study qualifies as human subject research, 2) consider the risk level of the content, 3) present research and motives accurately when engaging on social media, 4) provide contact information throughout the consent
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Recently there has been a shift from conducting research studies at research institution facilities or academic centers to rural communities. There is concern surrounding the topics addressed during the discussions with this specific demographic of participants, particularly having to do with
584:. Human subject research can be either medical (clinical) research or non-medical (e.g., social science) research. Systematic investigation incorporates both the collection and analysis of data in order to answer a specific question. Medical human subject research often involves analysis of
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of participants, the percentage of error was less than one percent. However, when the confederates unanimously chose an incorrect answer, 75 percent of the subject participants agreed with the majority at least once. The study has been regarded as significant evidence for the power of
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that involves human subjects. Some of these guidelines included the principles that "research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee prior to initiation" and that "research with humans should be based on results from laboratory animals and experimentation".
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1672:, to provide for protection of human subjects in experiments. The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was established and was tasked with establishing the boundary between research and routine practice, the role of
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in Africa without the informed consent of participants or without providing adequate access to healthcare. These practices raise questions about the exploitation of vulnerable populations and the prioritization of commercial interests over the rights of participants.
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promise that ethical standards are followed during research of human subjects. There are three standards that serve as the baseline for the report and how human subjects are to be researched. The three guidelines are beneficence, justice and respect for persons.
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approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is 'safe' or effective, only that the trial may be conducted.
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research, according to federal regulations, are that the researchers interact directly with the subject or obtain identifiable private information about the subject. Social media research may or may not meet this definition. A research institution's
659:(HHS) defines a human research subject as a living individual about whom a research investigator (whether a professional or a student) obtains data through 1) intervention or interaction with the individual, or 2) identifiable private information (
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1169:'s Robber's Cave experiment shed light on how group competition can foster hostility and prejudice. In the 1961 study, two groups of ten boys each who were not "naturally" hostile were grouped together without knowledge of one another in
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There was a large amount of respondents who thought that research participants did not read or understand the documents provided for informed consent. However, those respondents did not believe that was an ethical or moral concern.
1701:. He wanted to observe if cancer could be transmitted as well as if people could become immune to cancer by developing an acquired immune response. Many believe that this experiment violated the bioethical principles of
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Cook, Ann
Freeman; Hoas, Helena (2015-02-20). "Exploring the Potential for Moral Hazard When Clinical Trial Research is Conducted in Rural Communities: Do Traditional Ethics Concepts Apply?".
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involved the injection of infectious agents into military forces to observe their effects in human subjects. Subsequent human experiments in the United States have also been characterized as
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of the test subjects. Public outcry over the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional investigations and hearings, including the
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and soldiers from being coerced into becoming human subjects. In addition, it was emphasized in order to inform participants of the risk-benefit outcomes of experiments.
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800:(IRBs), obtaining informed consent, and Assurances of Compliance for human subject participants in research studies. On January 19, 2017, a final rule was added to the
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1033:, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a single research center or
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biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new
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792:, first published in 1991, also known as the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects, is dictated by the Office of Human Research Protections under the
780:(IRBs) were gradually introduced. The policies that these institutions implemented served to minimize harm to the participant's mental or physical well-being.
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favour of 'research participant' when referring to individuals who take part by providing data to various kinds of biomedical and epidemiological research.
3418:"The role of corruption and unethical behaviour in precluding the placement of industry sponsored clinical trials in sub-Saharan Africa: Stakeholder views"
1359:(IRB) is often responsible for reviewing potential research on human subjects, but IRB protocols regarding social media research may be vague or outdated.
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Of note currently in the research field is the manner in which researchers direct their conversations with potential human subjects for a research study.
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and behavioral studies and medical chart review studies. (A specific, and especially heavily regulated, type of medical human subject research is the "
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W. G. Metzger, H.-J. Ehni, P. G. Kremsner, B. G. Mordmüller (December 2019), "Experimental infections in humans—historical and ethical reflections",
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In 1947, German physicians who conducted deadly or debilitating experiments on concentration camp prisoners were prosecuted as war criminals in the
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643:. As research has become formalized, the academic community has developed formal definitions of "human subject research", largely in response to
596:", in which drugs, vaccines and medical devices are evaluated.) On the other hand, human subject research in the social sciences often involves
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in 2014, collected data from hundreds of thousands of
Facebook users after temporarily removing certain types of emotional content from their
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1664:. The study followed more than 600 African-American men who were not told they had syphilis and were denied access to the known treatment of
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or a central laboratory. For example, a clinical drug trial case at the
University of Minnesota that was under investigation in 2015 for the
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Shuchman, Miriam. "Protecting
Patients in Ongoing Clinical Trials." CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 182, no. 2 (2010): 124-126.
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is systematic, scientific investigation that can be either interventional (a "trial") or observational (no "test article") and involves
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The
Declaration of Helsinki was established in 1964 to regulate international research involving human subjects. Established by the
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1569:. It also conducted biological and chemical weapons tests on prisoners and captured POWs. With the expansion of the empire during
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funding, overall efficacy of the treatment being studied, and if conducting such studies is done to the highest ethical standard.
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surgeries without their informed consent, often under pressure from local authorities or in exchange for government services.
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687:– physical procedures by which data is gathered and the manipulation of the subject or their environment for research purposes.
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Concerns regarding privacy and informed consent have surfaced regarding multiple social media studies. A research project by
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1656:, widely regarded as the "most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history," was performed from 1932 to 1972 by the
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1936:"Ethics in Clinical Research a History Of Human Subject Protections and Practical Implementation of Ethical Standards"
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Asch SE (1951). "Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments". In
Guetzkow H (ed.).
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as a data source for researchers has led to new uncertainties regarding the definition of human subject research.
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Trials can be quite costly, depending on a number of factors. The sponsor may be a governmental organization or a
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Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers or patients into small
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program, primarily targeting poor and marginalized populations. Millions of people, especially women, underwent
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Blass T (1999). "The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority".
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regulations were put in place in the United States to protect subjects from abuses. After the passage of the
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Nazi Germany performed human experimentation on large numbers of prisoners (including children), largely
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company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an
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1304:, research has shown that civilian volunteers decided to participate in vehicle safety research to help
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The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research
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A Clinical Drug Study at the University of Minnesota Department of Psychiatry: The Dan Markingson Case
1565:, and bacterial inoculations. It induced epidemics on a very large scale from 1932 onward through the
1013:) and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on
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Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, Green BL, Wang MQ, James SA, Russell SL, Claudio C (November 2006).
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by concluding that, when surrounded by others, the individual expects someone else to take action.
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Zimmer M (2010-12-01). ""But the data is already public": on the ethics of research in Facebook".
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Tyebkhan G (2003). "Declaration of Helsinki: the ethical cornerstone of human clinical research".
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Mitscherlich A, Mielke F (1992). "Epilogue: Seven Were Hanged". In Annas GJ, Grodin MA (eds.).
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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
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3290:"The Tuskegee Legacy Project: willingness of minorities to participate in biomedical research"
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have also faced ethical criticism due to their manipulation of participants, inducing stress,
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are key concerns, yet it is unclear when social media users qualify as human subjects. Moreno
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National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research
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1994:"From Subject to Participant: Ethics and the Evolving Role of Community in Health Research"
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time. A physician commented that " relationships are very important because of cash flow."
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Milgram S (October 1968). "Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority".
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and all members of the units in exchange for all of the results of their experiments.
1261:
4838:
4623:
4608:
4593:
4548:
4513:
4478:
4458:
4448:
4443:
4422:
4382:
4314:
4216:
4211:
3466:
3391:
1839: – Experiments that were performed on humans in the US that are deemed unethical
1610:
1562:
1516:
1500:
1480:
1472:
1457:
1145:
1053:
434:
424:
17:
4823:
4813:
2991:"Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks"
2970:
2661:
2503:
2449:
853:
The Declaration of Helsinki is widely regarded as the cornerstone document on human
27:
Systematic, scientific investigation that involves human beings as research subjects
4668:
4663:
4658:
4628:
4618:
4558:
4528:
4508:
4407:
4304:
4007:
3891:
2551:
1621:
1570:
1496:
1376:
1335:
1141:
640:
615:
Human subject research is used in various fields, including research into advanced
609:
275:
3433:
2564:
1992:
Bromley, Elizabeth; Mikesell, Lisa; Jones, Felica; Khodyakov, Dmitry (May 2015).
4713:
4503:
4488:
4453:
4309:
4236:
3936:
3790:
2487:
1842:
1558:
1192:
1073:
789:
577:
402:
348:
248:
203:
3605:
Hungry Canadian aboriginal children used in government experiments during 1940s
3204:
The Nazi Doctors And The Nuremberg Code - Human Rights in Human Experimentation
2995:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2866:"Ethics of social media research: common concerns and practical considerations"
4648:
4483:
4279:
4136:
4027:
3865:
3610:
3482:
2954:
2533:
United States, Congress, Office of the Legislative Auditor, and James Nobles.
2425:
1665:
1520:
978:
628:
605:
456:
360:
328:
300:
218:
208:
198:
3490:
3060:
2962:
2466:
Wolfensberger Wolf (1967). "Ethical Issues in Research with Human Subjects".
2433:
2068:
2017:
2009:
1697:
cells into cancer patients, healthy individuals, and prison inmates from the
4683:
4468:
4372:
3740:
3467:"Unethical human research in the field of neuroscience: a historical review"
3015:
2881:
2184:"WMA Press Release: WMA revises the Declaration of Helsinki. 9 October 2000"
1966:
1676:, guidelines for participation, and the definition of informed consent. Its
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1554:
1511:
was given for the procedures. Typically, the experiments resulted in death,
1488:
1395:
1218:
Human subjects have been commonly used in experiments testing the theory of
1061:
632:
397:
3498:
3451:
3323:
3131:"Stop complaining about the Facebook study. It's a golden age for research"
3034:
2899:
2653:
2441:
2359:
2237:
2076:
2035:
4067:
3305:
2601:
2495:
693:– communication or interpersonal contact between investigator and subject.
4397:
4392:
4352:
3266:
1542:
1504:
1449:
1383:
1367:
1018:
913:
Hoas and Cook categorized their findings into the following main topics:
323:
121:
116:
71:
2187:
845:, the declaration recommended guidelines for medical doctors conducting
3709:
1743:
1633:
1624:
in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments.
1582:
1574:
1339:
1319:
994:
990:
624:
616:
2059:
3599:
2645:
1807: – Acts of torture influenced or instigated by medical personnel
1550:
1527:. After the war, these crimes were tried at what became known as the
1310:
1014:
718:
in the United States published recommended rights of human subjects:
55:
1946 military human subject research on the effects of wind on humans
1366:
sociologists, known as "Tastes, Ties, and Time", utilized data from
1200:
respond to the emergency. This effect has been shown to promote the
2109:"Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects ('Common Rule"
1682:
established three tenets of ethical research: respect for persons,
1099:
in 1971 examined the effect of social roles on college students at
3465:
Algahtani, Hussein; Bajunaid, Mohammed; Shirah, Bader (May 2018).
3180:
1476:
705:– specific information that can be used to identify an individual.
43:
37:"Human experiments" redirects here. For the 1979 horror film, see
2203:"The declaration of Helsinki: The cornerstone of research ethics"
4412:
3573:
1768: – Post-World War II trial of German doctors for war crimes
1694:
1468:
1076:, a pharmaceutical company headquartered in the United Kingdom.
3838:
3614:
1557:, in northeast China), experimented on prisoners by conducting
1798: – Japanese biological, chemical warfare unit (1936–1945)
1727:
Some pharmaceutical companies have been accused of conducting
1716:
In the 1970s, the Indian government implemented a large-scale
1632:. They were often performed illegally, without the knowledge,
1305:
1237:
3834:
2846:. Washington: proceedings. Washington: USGPO. pp. 87–98.
1774: – Canadian children, wrongly classified as mentally ill
2053:(in German), vol. 24, no. 12, pp. 1384–1390,
1507:
into participating; they did not willingly volunteer and no
600:
which consist of questions to a particular group of people.
2864:
Moreno MA, Goniu N, Moreno PS, Diekema D (September 2013).
2548:
The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil
1531:, and the abuses perpetrated led to the development of the
1420:
Unethical human experimentation violates the principles of
1693:, an important virologist and cancer researcher, injected
30:"Test subject" redirects here. For non-human animals, see
3364:
United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare
1941:. Society of Clinical Research Associates. Archived from
2226:
Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology
1573:, similar units were set up in conquered cities such as
1826:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1800:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1265:
1792: – Type of committee that applies research ethics
1605:). After the war, Supreme Commander of the Occupation
1371:
that the research project was partially funded by the
731:
The right to end participation in research at any time
2829:
Cognitive Dissonance, Fifty Years of a Classic Theory
2537:. www.auditor.leg.state.mn.us/sreview/markingson.pdf.
2334:"Revisiting the Ethics of Research on Human Subjects"
2134:"Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects"
1191:
is demonstrated in a series of famous experiments by
794:
United States Department of Health and Human Services
657:
United States Department of Health and Human Services
3543:"Japanese veteran haunted by WWII surgical killings"
3416:
Egharevba, Efe; Atkinson, Jacqueline (August 2016).
1837:
Unethical human experimentation in the United States
1375:, which mandates the projects it funds to engage in
4726:
4433:
4343:
4255:
4075:
3900:
3799:
3759:
3723:
3695:
3649:
3596:
Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights
3576:- a monthly newsletter on protecting human subjects
3294:
Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved
2723:. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press. pp. 177–190.
1824: – Experimentation using other primate animals
1021:. They are conducted only after they have received
737:
Protection from physical, mental and emotional harm
2796:
1833: – Individual entity for statistical purposes
804:with an official effective date of July 19, 2018.
2309:"The Belmont Report | Institutional Review Board"
1650:Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments
728:Respect for persons: treated as autonomous agents
2989:Kramer AD, Guillory JE, Hancock JT (June 2014).
2565:"Stanford Prison Experiment | Simply Psychology"
2285:"MSU Authentication | Michigan State University"
2870:Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking
1818: – Unethical experiments on human subjects
1424:. It has been performed by countries including
1392:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2844:Vehicle safety research integration: symposium
2775:The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination
1786: – Studies of radiation effects on humans
822:. A portion of the verdict handed down in the
3850:
3626:
3380:. New York: Broadway Paperbacks. p. 128.
3049:"Opinion | Should Facebook Manipulate Users?"
2351:10.1001/journalofethics.2015.17.12.fred1-1512
1460:, and the human experimentation conducted by
554:
8:
2822:
2820:
2088:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2051:Tropical Medicine & International Health
1762: – American immunologist and oncologist
1523:, and as such are considered as examples of
4850:Human subject research in the United States
3422:Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications
2777:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. pp. 325–330.
1041:aims to ensure the scientific validity and
1037:, in one country or in multiple countries.
3857:
3843:
3835:
3633:
3619:
3611:
3518:"A life haunted by WWII surgical killings"
2790:
2788:
2786:
2784:
1080:Human subjects in psychology and sociology
561:
547:
78:
58:
3441:
3313:
3024:
3014:
2889:
2635:
2349:
2058:
2025:
1288:Learn how and when to remove this message
1895:
1893:
1891:
1780: – American feral child (born 1957)
1260:Relevant discussion may be found on the
740:Access to information regarding research
580:as research subjects, commonly known as
492:Library and information science software
3392:"India's dark history of sterilisation"
3223:
3221:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1855:
772:in 1906, regulatory bodies such as the
70:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2081:
1968:Human Subject & Privacy Protection
1867:"Definition of Human Subject Research"
1272:to additional sources at this section.
920:morally nagging and challenging issues
796:and serves as a set of guidelines for
487:Geographic information system software
3761:Guidelines for human subject research
3085:"Illegal, Immoral, and Mood-Altering"
3078:
3076:
2984:
2982:
2980:
2936:
2934:
2859:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2461:
2459:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2371:
2369:
2279:
2277:
2251:
2249:
2247:
1861:
1859:
937:Morally nagging or challenging issues
763:Guidelines for human subject research
7:
3378:The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks
3340:, Montgomery: New South Books, 1998.
2684:Journal of Applied Social Psychology
2523:. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
2289:ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu
2103:
2101:
2099:
954:Willingness to join a research study
923:willingness to join a research study
743:Protection of privacy and well-being
3262:"Hidden history of US germ testing"
2590:International Journal of Psychiatry
1662:United States Public Health Service
2696:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x
1901:"What is Human Subjects Research?"
1495:mainly in the early 1940s, during
1253:relies largely or entirely upon a
25:
3672:Privacy for research participants
2943:Ethics and Information Technology
2918:The Chronicle of Higher Education
2799:Classic Experiments in Psychology
2760:10.1038/scientificamerican1261-45
1998:American Journal of Public Health
1609:gave immunity in the name of the
1023:health authority/ethics committee
4066:
1871:University of California, Irvine
1242:
3181:"Angel of Death: Josef Mengele"
2617:"Behavioral Study of Obedience"
1796:Japanese human experimentations
1416:Unethical human experimentation
1410:Unethical human experimentation
671:As defined by HHS regulations (
2624:Journal of Abnormal Psychology
1066:contract research organization
1:
4162:Industrial and organizational
3801:Monitoring in clinical trials
1973:National Institute of Justice
1905:University of Texas at Austin
1822:Non-human primate experiments
1553:(then in the puppet state of
1471:from across Europe, but also
901:Research in rural communities
716:National Institute of Justice
4403:Human factors and ergonomics
3769:List of medical ethics cases
3434:10.1016/j.conctc.2016.04.009
3083:Grimmelmann J (2014-09-23).
2914:"Harvard's Privacy Meltdown"
2773:Whitley BE, Kite ME (2010).
2736:"Nationality and conformity"
1845: – Experimental surgery
1654:Tuskegee syphilis experiment
1313:tests, and tests involving
1222:after the landmark study by
774:Food and Drug Administration
734:Right to safeguard integrity
3338:The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
3156:"Живущие в стеклянном доме"
2488:10.1126/science.155.3758.47
1869:. Research Administration,
1784:Human radiation experiments
1373:National Science Foundation
1202:diffusion of responsibility
1136:Asch conformity experiments
1130:Asch conformity experiments
875:was created in 1978 by the
798:institutional review boards
778:institutional review boards
748:From Subject to Participant
4881:
3814:Institutional review board
2721:Groups, Leadership and Men
2615:Milgram S (October 1963).
1816:Nazi human experimentation
1790:Institutional review board
1413:
1357:institutional review board
1211:
1180:
1156:
1133:
1110:
1091:Stanford prison experiment
1088:
1085:Stanford prison experiment
970:
864:
834:
811:
760:
36:
29:
4789:
4092:Applied behavior analysis
4064:
3872:
3819:Data monitoring committee
3483:10.1007/s10072-018-3245-1
2955:10.1007/s10676-010-9227-5
2426:10.1007/s10730-015-9270-z
1740:Psychological experiments
1454:Totskoye nuclear exercise
1163:realistic conflict theory
843:World Medical Association
604:includes questionnaires,
514:Qualitative data analysis
3824:Community advisory board
3746:Clinical research ethics
3516:AFP (October 31, 2007).
3110:"In defense of Facebook"
3108:Yarkoni T (2014-06-29).
2842:Bradford LL (May 1973).
2569:www.simplypsychology.org
2010:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302403
1567:Second Sino-Japanese war
1171:Robber's Cave State Park
963:" from clinical trials.
703:Identifiable information
4368:Behavioral neuroscience
3932:Behavioral neuroscience
3779:Declaration of Helsinki
3590:Declaration of Helsinki
3574:"Human Research Report"
3208:Oxford University Press
3129:Watts DJ (2014-07-07).
3016:10.1073/pnas.1320040111
2882:10.1089/cyber.2012.0334
2546:Zimbardo, P.G. (2007).
1811:Military medical ethics
1668:. This led to the 1974
1070:Death of Dan Markingson
837:Declaration of Helsinki
831:Declaration of Helsinki
4845:Human subject research
4418:Psychology of religion
4358:Behavioral engineering
4295:Human subject research
3951:Cognitive neuroscience
3917:Affective neuroscience
3697:Human subject research
2190:on September 27, 2006.
1934:Perlman D (May 2004).
1652:, amongst others. The
1646:Rockefeller Commission
1547:Imperial Japanese Army
1545:, a department of the
1161:A classic advocate of
770:Pure Food and Drug Act
574:Human subject research
393:Inferential statistics
339:Descriptive statistics
286:Human subject research
56:
4865:Ethics and statistics
4794:Wiktionary definition
4330:Self-report inventory
4325:Quantitative research
3471:Neurological Sciences
3306:10.1353/hpu.2006.0126
2827:Cooper, Joel (2007).
2338:AMA Journal of Ethics
2332:Tsay Cynthia (2015).
2159:"Revised Common Rule"
1674:risk-benefit analysis
1670:National Research Act
1620:During World War II,
1456:, the experiments of
1334:The increased use of
1095:A study conducted by
1039:Clinical study design
177:Philosophical schools
54:
18:Human clinical trials
4320:Qualitative research
4275:Behavior epigenetics
3642:Research participant
3541:AFP (Oct 28, 2007).
2831:. SAGE Publications.
2257:"The Belmont Report"
1718:forced sterilization
1689:From the 1950s-60s,
1309:head–neck injuries,
1266:improve this article
1220:cognitive dissonance
1214:Cognitive dissonance
1208:Cognitive dissonance
977:Clinical trials are
710:Human subject rights
586:biological specimens
502:Reference management
452:Scientific modelling
194:Critical rationalism
4799:Wiktionary category
4363:Behavioral genetics
4335:Statistical surveys
4192:Occupational health
3927:Behavioral genetics
3667:Respect for persons
3528:on 13 December 2014
3183:. Auschwitz website
3007:2014PNAS..111.8788K
2803:. Greenwood Press.
2752:1961SciAm.205f..45M
2740:Scientific American
2480:1967Sci...155...47W
2207:Archive of Oncology
1778:Genie (feral child)
1626:Operation Whitecoat
1493:concentration camps
1444:. Examples include
1390:, published in the
1386:and researchers at
1302:automotive industry
1157:Robber's Cave study
1101:Stanford University
1064:partner, such as a
1007:dietary supplements
928:The role of funding
847:biomedical research
697:Private Information
647:of human subjects.
482:Argument technology
4771:Schools of thought
4674:Richard E. Nisbett
4554:Donald T. Campbell
4232:Sport and exercise
3607:Toronto Star, 2013
3230:Unit 731 Testimony
3053:The New York Times
2734:Milgram S (1961).
2706:2016-11-14 at the
2313:www2.umf.maine.edu
2201:Snežana B (2001).
1760:Chester M. Southam
1733:experimental drugs
1691:Chester M. Southam
1660:contracted by the
1658:Tuskegee Institute
1462:Chester M. Southam
1388:Cornell University
1324:crash test dummies
1113:Milgram Experiment
1107:Milgram experiment
861:The Belmont Report
757:Ethical guidelines
602:Survey methodology
476:Tools and software
420:Secondary research
344:Discourse analysis
57:
4855:Clinical research
4832:
4831:
4809:Wikimedia Commons
4736:Counseling topics
4699:Ronald C. Kessler
4689:Shelley E. Taylor
4614:Lawrence Kohlberg
4589:Stanley Schachter
4388:Consumer behavior
4270:Archival research
4038:Psycholinguistics
3922:Affective science
3832:
3831:
3705:Clinical research
3682:Return of results
3677:Right to withdraw
3553:on March 17, 2014
3376:Skloot R (2010).
3247:978-0-8048-3565-7
3234:Tuttle Publishing
3089:James Grimmelmann
2671:on June 11, 2011.
2518:"Clinical Trials"
2060:10.1111/tmi.13320
1772:Duplessis Orphans
1699:Ohio Penitentiary
1607:Douglas MacArthur
1503:. Prisoners were
1315:military vehicles
1298:
1297:
1290:
1228:Merrill Carlsmith
983:clinical research
917:source of funding
637:political science
621:clinical medicine
571:
570:
537:Philosophy portal
445:Systematic review
430:Literature review
388:Historical method
371:Social experiment
306:Scientific method
291:Narrative inquiry
142:Interdisciplinary
136:Research strategy
52:
39:Human Experiments
16:(Redirected from
4872:
4766:Research methods
4709:Richard Davidson
4704:Joseph E. LeDoux
4579:George A. Miller
4569:David McClelland
4564:Herbert A. Simon
4464:Edward Thorndike
4285:Content analysis
4070:
4043:Psychophysiology
3859:
3852:
3845:
3836:
3809:Ethics committee
3687:Informed consent
3635:
3628:
3621:
3612:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3549:. Archived from
3537:
3535:
3533:
3524:. Archived from
3522:THE BRUNEI TIMES
3503:
3502:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3445:
3413:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3347:
3341:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3317:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3228:Gold, H (2003).
3225:
3216:
3215:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3080:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3028:
3018:
2986:
2975:
2974:
2938:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2893:
2861:
2848:
2847:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2802:
2792:
2779:
2778:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2716:
2710:
2699:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2664:. Archived from
2646:10.1037/h0040525
2639:
2621:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2561:
2555:
2544:
2538:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2463:
2454:
2453:
2409:
2376:
2373:
2364:
2363:
2353:
2344:(12): 1105–107.
2329:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2281:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2253:
2242:
2241:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2186:. Archived from
2180:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2138:Federal Register
2130:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2105:
2094:
2093:
2087:
2079:
2062:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2029:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1947:
1940:
1931:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1907:. Archived from
1897:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1873:. Archived from
1863:
1831:Statistical unit
1827:
1801:
1703:informed consent
1642:Church Committee
1638:informed consent
1537:Nuremberg Trials
1489:disabled Germans
1348:informed consent
1293:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1273:
1246:
1245:
1238:
1189:bystander effect
1183:Bystander effect
1177:Bystander effect
1153:and conformity.
1151:social influence
1045:of the results.
1035:multiple centers
962:
889:Ethical concerns
820:Nuremberg Trials
802:Federal Register
724:informed consent
679:
667:
563:
556:
549:
509:Science software
408:Cultural mapping
376:Quasi-experiment
366:Field experiment
334:Content analysis
229:Critical realism
147:Multimethodology
82:
59:
53:
21:
4880:
4879:
4875:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4869:
4860:Research ethics
4835:
4834:
4833:
4828:
4785:
4761:Psychotherapies
4722:
4679:Martin Seligman
4644:Daniel Kahneman
4584:Richard Lazarus
4534:Raymond Cattell
4438:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4339:
4251:
4078:
4071:
4062:
4023:Neuropsychology
3903:
3896:
3868:
3863:
3833:
3828:
3795:
3755:
3731:Research ethics
3724:Ethical systems
3719:
3715:Social research
3691:
3645:
3639:
3570:
3565:
3556:
3554:
3540:
3531:
3529:
3515:
3511:
3509:Further reading
3506:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3415:
3414:
3410:
3401:
3399:
3390:
3389:
3385:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3359:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3335:
3331:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3273:
3271:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3227:
3226:
3219:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3186:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3174:
3165:
3163:
3154:Федоров, Юрий.
3153:
3152:
3148:
3139:
3137:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3114:
3112:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3093:
3091:
3082:
3081:
3074:
3065:
3063:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3001:(24): 8788–90.
2988:
2987:
2978:
2940:
2939:
2932:
2923:
2921:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2863:
2862:
2851:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2826:
2825:
2818:
2811:
2795:Mook D (2004).
2794:
2793:
2782:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2708:Wayback Machine
2681:
2680:
2676:
2668:
2619:
2614:
2613:
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2587:
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2573:
2571:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2545:
2541:
2532:
2528:
2520:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2474:(3758): 47–51.
2465:
2464:
2457:
2411:
2410:
2379:
2374:
2367:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2317:
2315:
2307:
2306:
2302:
2293:
2291:
2283:
2282:
2275:
2266:
2264:
2255:
2254:
2245:
2223:
2222:
2218:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2168:
2166:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2143:
2141:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2118:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2097:
2080:
2048:
2047:
2043:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1978:
1976:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1923:
1914:
1912:
1899:
1898:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1825:
1805:Medical torture
1799:
1755:
1749:
1729:clinical trials
1707:non-maleficence
1686:, and justice.
1525:medical torture
1446:Project MKUltra
1418:
1412:
1344:confidentiality
1332:
1294:
1283:
1277:
1274:
1268:by introducing
1259:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1216:
1210:
1185:
1179:
1159:
1138:
1132:
1123:Stanley Milgram
1119:Yale University
1115:
1109:
1097:Philip Zimbardo
1093:
1087:
1082:
1043:reproducibility
1011:medical devices
1003:dietary choices
993:(such as novel
975:
969:
967:Clinical trials
960:
956:
939:
930:
903:
891:
869:
863:
855:research ethics
839:
833:
816:
810:
786:
784:The Common Rule
765:
759:
750:
712:
672:
668:). (Lim, 1990)
660:
653:
590:epidemiological
567:
531:
530:
477:
469:
468:
415:Phenomenography
354:Autoethnography
319:
311:
310:
271:Grounded theory
266:Critical theory
261:Art methodology
256:Action research
251:
241:
240:
179:
169:
168:
137:
129:
128:
92:
90:Research design
44:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4878:
4876:
4868:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
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4821:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4790:
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4786:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4732:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4719:Roy Baumeister
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4654:Michael Posner
4651:
4646:
4641:
4639:Elliot Aronson
4636:
4634:Walter Mischel
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4599:Albert Bandura
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4574:Leon Festinger
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4544:Neal E. Miller
4541:
4539:Abraham Maslow
4536:
4531:
4526:
4524:Ernest Hilgard
4521:
4519:Donald O. Hebb
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4499:J. P. Guilford
4496:
4494:Gordon Allport
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4474:John B. Watson
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
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4434:
4431:
4430:
4426:
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4405:
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4360:
4355:
4349:
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4341:
4340:
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4332:
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4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4265:Animal testing
4261:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
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4083:
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4073:
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4065:
4063:
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4060:
4055:
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4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3968:Cross-cultural
3965:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3948:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3908:
3906:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3864:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3847:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3805:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3785:Belmont Report
3781:
3776:
3774:Nuremberg Code
3771:
3765:
3763:
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3751:Biobank ethics
3748:
3743:
3738:
3736:Medical ethics
3733:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3701:
3699:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3602:
3593:
3587:
3585:Belmont Report
3582:
3580:Nuremberg Code
3577:
3569:
3568:External links
3566:
3564:
3563:
3538:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3477:(5): 829–834.
3457:
3408:
3383:
3368:
3353:(1978-09-30),
3342:
3336:Gray, Fred D.
3329:
3300:(4): 698–715.
3280:
3253:
3246:
3232:(5 ed.).
3217:
3194:
3172:
3146:
3121:
3100:
3072:
3055:. 2014-06-30.
3040:
2976:
2949:(4): 313–325.
2930:
2905:
2849:
2834:
2816:
2809:
2780:
2765:
2726:
2711:
2690:(5): 955–978.
2674:
2607:
2580:
2556:
2539:
2526:
2509:
2455:
2420:(2): 171–187.
2377:
2365:
2324:
2300:
2273:
2243:
2216:
2193:
2175:
2150:
2125:
2095:
2041:
2004:(5): 900–908.
1984:
1958:
1921:
1887:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1819:
1813:
1808:
1802:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1766:Doctors' Trial
1763:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1679:Belmont Report
1563:dismemberments
1533:Nuremberg Code
1529:Doctors' Trial
1430:Imperial Japan
1422:medical ethics
1414:Main article:
1411:
1408:
1331:
1328:
1296:
1295:
1264:. Please help
1250:
1248:
1241:
1235:
1234:Vehicle safety
1232:
1224:Leon Festinger
1212:Main article:
1209:
1206:
1181:Main article:
1178:
1175:
1167:Muzafer Sherif
1158:
1155:
1134:Main article:
1131:
1128:
1111:Main article:
1108:
1105:
1089:Main article:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1072:was funded by
1058:medical device
1050:pharmaceutical
973:Clinical trial
971:Main article:
968:
965:
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938:
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929:
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899:
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887:
873:Belmont Report
867:Belmont Report
865:Main article:
862:
859:
835:Main article:
832:
829:
824:doctors' trial
814:Nuremberg Code
812:Main article:
809:
808:Nuremberg Code
806:
785:
782:
761:Main article:
758:
755:
749:
746:
745:
744:
741:
738:
735:
732:
729:
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694:
688:
652:
651:Human subjects
649:
594:clinical trial
569:
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440:Scoping review
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252:
247:
246:
243:
242:
239:
238:
237:
236:
234:Subtle realism
231:
221:
216:
214:Postpositivism
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
189:Constructivism
186:
184:Antipositivism
180:
175:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
161:
160:
159:
149:
144:
138:
135:
134:
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119:
109:
104:
99:
93:
88:
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84:
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75:
74:
68:
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32:Animal testing
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4877:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
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4807:
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4797:
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4788:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4756:Psychologists
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4746:Organizations
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4725:
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4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4694:John Anderson
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
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4667:
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4662:
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4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4624:Ulric Neisser
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4609:Endel Tulving
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:Robert Zajonc
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4549:Jerome Bruner
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:B. F. Skinner
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4479:Clark L. Hull
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4459:Sigmund Freud
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4449:William James
4447:
4445:
4444:Wilhelm Wundt
4442:
4440:
4437:
4436:Psychologists
4432:
4424:
4423:Psychometrics
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4383:Consciousness
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
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4346:
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4328:
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4315:Psychophysics
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4257:Methodologies
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4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
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4223:
4220:
4218:
4217:Psychotherapy
4215:
4213:
4212:Psychometrics
4210:
4208:
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4021:
4019:
4016:
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4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3978:Developmental
3976:
3974:
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3806:
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3802:
3798:
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3629:
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3617:
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3603:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:, 6th edition
3591:
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3581:
3578:
3575:
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3397:
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3379:
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3369:
3365:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3346:
3343:
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3333:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3281:
3269:
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3263:
3257:
3254:
3249:
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3161:
3160:Радио Свобода
3157:
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3012:
3008:
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3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
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2937:
2935:
2931:
2919:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2876:(9): 708–13.
2875:
2871:
2867:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2823:
2821:
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2812:
2810:9780313318214
2806:
2801:
2800:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2769:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2727:
2722:
2715:
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2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
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2675:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2637:10.1.1.599.92
2633:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2596:(4): 259–76.
2595:
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2581:
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2557:
2553:
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2543:
2540:
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2530:
2527:
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2505:
2501:
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2427:
2423:
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2378:
2372:
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2357:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2325:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2290:
2286:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2231:
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2208:
2204:
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2194:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2151:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2042:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1988:
1985:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1962:
1959:
1948:on 2022-05-26
1944:
1937:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1911:on 2012-02-07
1910:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1877:on 2013-04-20
1876:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1832:
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1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
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1809:
1806:
1803:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1722:sterilization
1719:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1675:
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1655:
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1611:United States
1608:
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1600:
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1572:
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1552:
1549:located near
1548:
1544:
1540:
1538:
1535:. During the
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1519:or permanent
1518:
1517:disfigurement
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1501:the Holocaust
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1458:Josef Mengele
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:United States
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
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1303:
1292:
1289:
1281:
1278:December 2020
1271:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1255:single source
1251:This section
1249:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1215:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1146:control group
1143:
1140:Psychologist
1137:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1121:psychologist
1120:
1114:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1054:biotechnology
1051:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:pilot studies
1027:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
974:
966:
964:
953:
951:
947:
943:
936:
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927:
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915:
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911:
907:
900:
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888:
886:
883:
878:
874:
868:
860:
858:
856:
851:
848:
844:
838:
830:
828:
825:
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805:
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791:
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781:
779:
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764:
756:
754:
747:
742:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
725:
721:
720:
719:
717:
714:In 2010, the
709:
704:
701:
698:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
682:
681:
678:
675:
669:
666:
663:
658:
650:
648:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
582:test subjects
579:
575:
564:
559:
557:
552:
550:
545:
544:
542:
541:
538:
535:
534:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
510:
507:
503:
500:
498:
497:Bibliometrics
495:
494:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
473:
472:
465:
462:
458:
455:
454:
453:
450:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
435:Meta-analysis
433:
431:
428:
426:
425:Bibliometrics
423:
422:
421:
418:
416:
413:
409:
406:
405:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
362:
359:
355:
352:
351:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
321:
315:
314:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
296:Phenomenology
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
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245:
244:
235:
232:
230:
227:
226:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
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182:
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178:
173:
172:
165:
162:
158:
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139:
133:
132:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
94:
91:
86:
85:
81:
77:
76:
73:
69:
65:
61:
60:
40:
33:
19:
4669:Larry Squire
4664:Bruce McEwen
4659:Amos Tversky
4629:Jerome Kagan
4619:Noam Chomsky
4559:Hans Eysenck
4529:Harry Harlow
4509:Erik Erikson
4408:Intelligence
4305:Neuroimaging
4294:
4048:Quantitative
4013:Mathematical
4008:Intelligence
3998:Experimental
3993:Evolutionary
3983:Differential
3892:Psychologist
3783:
3696:
3555:. Retrieved
3551:the original
3546:
3530:. Retrieved
3526:the original
3521:
3474:
3470:
3460:
3425:
3421:
3411:
3400:. Retrieved
3398:. 2014-11-14
3395:
3386:
3377:
3371:
3355:
3345:
3337:
3332:
3297:
3293:
3283:
3272:. Retrieved
3270:. 2006-02-13
3265:
3256:
3229:
3206:. New York:
3203:
3197:
3185:. Retrieved
3175:
3164:. Retrieved
3162:(in Russian)
3159:
3149:
3138:. Retrieved
3135:The Guardian
3134:
3124:
3113:. Retrieved
3103:
3092:. Retrieved
3088:
3064:. Retrieved
3052:
3043:
2998:
2994:
2946:
2942:
2922:. Retrieved
2920:. 2011-07-10
2917:
2908:
2873:
2869:
2843:
2837:
2828:
2798:
2774:
2768:
2746:(6): 45–51.
2743:
2739:
2729:
2720:
2714:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2666:the original
2630:(4): 371–8.
2627:
2623:
2610:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2572:. Retrieved
2568:
2559:
2552:Random House
2550:. New York:
2547:
2542:
2534:
2529:
2512:
2471:
2467:
2417:
2413:
2341:
2337:
2327:
2316:. Retrieved
2312:
2303:
2292:. Retrieved
2288:
2265:. Retrieved
2263:. 2010-01-28
2260:
2232:(3): 245–7.
2229:
2225:
2219:
2213:(3): 179–84.
2210:
2206:
2196:
2188:the original
2178:
2167:. Retrieved
2165:. 2017-01-17
2162:
2153:
2142:. Retrieved
2140:. 2017-01-19
2137:
2128:
2117:. Retrieved
2115:. 2009-06-23
2112:
2050:
2044:
2001:
1997:
1987:
1977:, retrieved
1975:, 2010-04-20
1967:
1961:
1950:. Retrieved
1943:the original
1913:. Retrieved
1909:the original
1879:. Retrieved
1875:the original
1748:
1738:
1726:
1715:
1688:
1677:
1622:Fort Detrick
1619:
1571:World War II
1559:vivisections
1541:
1497:World War II
1481:ethnic Poles
1466:
1442:Soviet Union
1426:Nazi Germany
1419:
1402:
1400:
1381:
1377:data sharing
1361:
1351:
1336:social media
1333:
1330:Social media
1299:
1284:
1275:
1252:
1217:
1197:John Darley.
1186:
1160:
1142:Solomon Asch
1139:
1116:
1094:
1047:
1028:
976:
957:
948:
944:
940:
931:
912:
908:
904:
896:
892:
870:
852:
840:
817:
801:
787:
766:
751:
713:
702:
696:
690:
685:Intervention
684:
670:
654:
641:anthropology
614:
610:focus groups
581:
578:human beings
573:
572:
285:
276:Hermeneutics
164:Quantitative
4741:Disciplines
4714:Susan Fiske
4604:Roger Brown
4504:Carl Rogers
4489:Jean Piaget
4454:Ivan Pavlov
4310:Observation
4290:Experiments
4237:Suicidology
4132:Educational
4087:Anomalistic
4058:Theoretical
4033:Personality
3963:Comparative
3946:Cognitivism
3937:Behaviorism
3791:Common Rule
3657:Beneficence
3428:: 102–110.
3236:. pp.
3210:. pp.
1843:Vivisection
1711:beneficence
1684:beneficence
1615:Shirō Ishii
1485:Soviet POWs
1434:North Korea
1382:A study by
1193:Bibb Latane
1074:AstraZeneca
987:prospective
979:experiments
882:Beneficence
790:Common Rule
722:Voluntary,
691:Interaction
674:45 CFR
662:32 CFR
349:Ethnography
249:Methodology
204:Fallibilism
152:Qualitative
122:Referencing
4839:Categories
4804:Wikisource
4649:Paul Ekman
4484:Kurt Lewin
4378:Competence
4300:Interviews
4280:Case study
4157:Humanistic
4137:Ergonomics
4122:Counseling
4097:Assessment
4079:psychology
4028:Perception
3988:Ecological
3904:psychology
3882:Philosophy
3866:Psychology
3402:2024-03-23
3274:2010-05-04
3166:2015-08-31
3140:2018-04-23
3115:2018-04-23
3094:2018-04-23
3066:2018-04-23
2924:2018-04-23
2574:2017-04-03
2318:2017-04-24
2294:2017-04-03
2267:2017-04-03
2169:2019-04-30
2144:2019-04-30
2119:2019-04-30
1979:2012-03-30
1952:2012-03-30
1915:2012-01-04
1881:2012-01-04
1851:References
1666:penicillin
1521:disability
1306:automobile
1062:outsourced
991:treatments
776:(FDA) and
629:psychology
606:interviews
524:Statistics
519:Simulation
457:Simulation
398:Interviews
361:Experiment
329:Case study
301:Pragmatism
219:Pragmatism
209:Positivism
199:Empiricism
4824:Wikibooks
4814:Wikiquote
4684:Ed Diener
4469:Carl Jung
4373:Cognition
4202:Political
4112:Community
3942:Cognitive
3741:Bioethics
3491:1590-1874
3061:0362-4331
2963:1388-1957
2632:CiteSeerX
2434:0956-2737
2414:HEC Forum
2069:1360-2276
2018:0090-0036
1630:unethical
1603:Unit 9420
1599:Singapore
1595:Unit 8604
1591:Guangzhou
1587:Unit 1855
1579:Unit 1644
1555:Manchukuo
1396:News Feed
1270:citations
1262:talk page
1117:In 1961,
633:sociology
157:Art-based
4819:Wikinews
4776:Timeline
4398:Feelings
4393:Emotions
4353:Behavior
4344:Concepts
4222:Religion
4207:Positive
4197:Pastoral
4182:Military
4147:Forensic
4142:Feminist
4127:Critical
4117:Consumer
4107:Coaching
4102:Clinical
4077:Applied
3973:Cultural
3912:Abnormal
3499:29460160
3452:29736462
3396:BBC News
3324:17242525
3267:BBC News
3187:11 March
3035:24889601
2971:24881139
2900:23679571
2704:Archived
2662:18309531
2654:14049516
2504:27295875
2450:25139037
2442:25697464
2360:27086370
2238:17642902
2084:citation
2077:31654450
2036:25790380
1753:See also
1543:Unit 731
1450:Unit 731
1440:and the
1384:Facebook
1368:Facebook
1320:cadavers
1019:efficacy
995:vaccines
981:done in
324:Analysis
117:Argument
107:Question
102:Proposal
72:Research
64:a series
62:Part of
4751:Outline
4247:Traffic
4242:Systems
4177:Medical
4003:Gestalt
3877:History
3710:Biobank
3662:Justice
3443:5935837
3315:1780164
3212:105–107
3026:4066473
3003:Bibcode
2891:3942703
2748:Bibcode
2602:5724528
2496:6015562
2476:Bibcode
2468:Science
2261:HHS.gov
2163:HHS.gov
2113:HHS.gov
2027:4386538
1744:anxiety
1634:consent
1583:Beijing
1575:Nanking
1509:consent
1491:in its
1403:et al.'
1401:Moreno
1364:Harvard
1340:Privacy
1300:In the
985:. Such
665:219.102
625:nursing
617:biology
598:surveys
403:Mapping
318:Methods
224:Realism
112:Writing
4781:Topics
4227:School
4152:Health
4053:Social
3956:Social
3902:Basic
3887:Portal
3650:Rights
3644:rights
3600:UNESCO
3557:16 May
3532:16 May
3497:
3489:
3450:
3440:
3322:
3312:
3244:
3059:
3033:
3023:
2969:
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2807:
2701:as PDF
2660:
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1709:, and
1648:, and
1597:) and
1551:Harbin
1513:trauma
1505:forced
1473:Romani
1436:, the
1352:et al.
1346:, and
1311:airbag
1015:safety
1009:, and
677:46.102
645:abuses
639:, and
608:, and
464:Survey
97:Ethics
4728:Lists
4187:Music
4172:Media
4167:Legal
4018:Moral
3360:(PDF)
2967:S2CID
2669:(PDF)
2658:S2CID
2620:(PDF)
2521:(PDF)
2500:S2CID
2446:S2CID
1946:(PDF)
1939:(PDF)
1636:, or
1477:Sinti
999:drugs
4413:Mind
3559:2014
3534:2014
3495:PMID
3487:ISSN
3448:PMID
3320:PMID
3242:ISBN
3189:2013
3057:ISSN
3031:PMID
2959:ISSN
2896:PMID
2805:ISBN
2650:PMID
2598:PMID
2492:PMID
2438:PMID
2430:ISSN
2356:PMID
2234:PMID
2090:link
2073:PMID
2065:ISSN
2032:PMID
2014:ISSN
1695:HeLa
1499:and
1487:and
1469:Jews
1226:and
1195:and
1187:The
1017:and
871:The
788:The
655:The
3598:by
3547:AFP
3479:doi
3438:PMC
3430:doi
3310:PMC
3302:doi
3238:109
3021:PMC
3011:doi
2999:111
2951:doi
2886:PMC
2878:doi
2756:doi
2744:205
2692:doi
2642:doi
2484:doi
2472:155
2422:doi
2346:doi
2055:doi
2022:PMC
2006:doi
2002:105
1731:of
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1056:or
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4841::
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3424:.
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3318:.
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3240:.
3220:^
3158:.
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2567:.
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