Human germline engineering - Knowledge (XXG)

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children develop their own autonomy and decision-making capacity. This is based on the assumption that, except under rare circumstances, parents have the most to lose or gain from a decision and will ultimately make decisions that reflects the future values and beliefs of their children. According to this assumption, it could be assumed that parents are the most appropriate decision makers for their future children as well. However, there are anecdotal reports of children and adults who disagree with the medical decisions made by a parent during pregnancy or early childhood, such as when death was a possible outcome. There are also published patient stories by individuals who feel that they would not wish to change or remove their own medical condition if given the choice and individuals who disagree with medical decisions made by their parents during childhood.

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on Human Gene Editing in December 2015 the collaboration of scientists issued the first international guidelines on genetic research. These guidelines allow for the pre-clinical research into the editing of genetic sequences in human cells granted the embryos are not used to implant pregnancy. Genetic alteration of somatic cells for therapeutic proposes was also considered an ethically acceptable field of research in part due to the lack of ability of somatic cells to transfer genetic material to subsequent generations. However citing the lack of social consensus, and the risk of inaccurate gene editing the conference called for restraint on any germline modifications on implanted embryos intended for pregnancy.

206: to edit single-celled, non-viable embryos to see the effectiveness of this technique. This attempt was rather unsuccessful; only a small fraction of the embryos successfully incorporated the new genetic material and many of the embryos contained a large number of random mutations. The non-viable embryos that were used contained an extra set of chromosomes, which may have been problematic. In 2016, another similar study was performed in China which also used non-viable embryos with extra sets of chromosomes. This study showed very similar results to the first; but there weren't successful integrations of the desired gene, and the majority of the attempts failed, or produced undesirable mutations. 248:(gRNA). Cas9 acts as a pair of ‘molecular scissors’ that can cut the DNA at a specific location in the genome so that DNA can be added or removed. The guide RNA is a piece of RNA with complementary bases to those at the target location, so that it will only bind there and no other regions of the genome. The Cas9 follows the guide RNA to the same location in the DNA sequence and makes a cut across both strands of the DNA. At this stage, the cell recognizes that the DNA is damaged and tries to repair it. Scientists can use the DNA repair machinery to introduce changes to one or more genes in the genome of a cell of interest. 856:

be short because his parents are very short. Editing the embryo of boy 1 to make him of average height would be a therapeutic germline edit, while editing the embryo of boy 2 to be of average height would be a non-therapeutic germline edit. In both cases with no editing of the boys' genomes they would both grow up to be very short, which would decrease their wellbeing in life. Likewise editing both of the boys' genomes would allow them to grow up to be of average height. In this scenario, editing for the same phenotype for being of average height falls under both therapeutic and non-therapeutic germline engineering.

327:". The concept of a "designer baby" is that its entire genetic composition could be selected for. In an extreme case, people would be able to effectively create the offspring that they want, with a genotype of their choosing. Not only does human germline engineering allow for the selection of specific traits, but it also allows for enhancement of these traits. Using human germline editing for selection and enhancement is currently very heavily scrutinized, and the main driving force behind the movement of trying to ban human germline engineering. 256:. This could be used to eliminate certain diseases in humans, or at least significantly decrease a disease's frequency until it eventually disappears over generations. Cancer survivors theoretically would be able to have their genes modified by the CRISPR/Cas9 so that certain diseases or mutations will not be passed down to their offspring. This could possibly eliminate cancer predispositions in humans. Researchers hope that they can use the system in the future to treat currently incurable diseases by altering the genome altogether. 366:

subject. Because RNA processes differ between bacteria and mammalian cells, scientists have had difficulties coding for mRNA's translated data without the interference of RNA. Studies have been done using the Cas9 nuclease that uses a single guide RNA to allow for larger knockout regions in mice, and this was successful. Altering the genetic sequence of mammals is also widely debated, and this creates a difficult FDA regulation standard for such studies.

191:, which then mature into genetically modified eggs and sperm. For safety, ethical, and social reasons, there is broad agreement among the scientific community and the public that germline editing for reproduction is a red line that should not be crossed at this point in time. There are differing public sentiments, however, on whether it may be performed in the future depending on whether the intent would be therapeutic or non-therapeutic. 689: 773:'s Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs stated that "genetic interventions to enhance traits should be considered permissible only in severely restricted situations: (1) clear and meaningful benefits to the fetus or child; (2) no trade-off with other characteristics or traits; and (3) equal access to the genetic technology, irrespective of income or other socioeconomic characteristics." 25: 516:

statement on November 28, calling on scientists to improve self-discipline and self-regulation, and to abide by corresponding ethical principles, laws, and regulations. Finally, the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences published a correspondence in The Lancet, stating that they are “opposed to any clinical operation of human embryo genome editing for reproductive purposes."

398:, Paul Bergfrom along with others across the globe published a call for a framework that does not foreclose any outcome but includes a voluntary pledge by nations along with a coordinating body to monitor the application of pledged nations in a moratorium on human germline editing with an attempt to reach social consensus before moving forward into further research. 121: 422: 810:, according to which “couples (or single reproducers) should select the child, of the possible children they could have, who is expected to have the best life, or at least as good a life as the others, based on the relevant, available information”. Some ethicists argue that the principle of procreative beneficence would justify or even require 217:. In May 2019, lawyers in China reported, in light of the purported creation by He Jiankui of the first gene-edited humans, the drafting of regulations that anyone manipulating the human genome by gene-editing techniques, like CRISPR, would be held responsible for any related adverse consequences. 507:

the mutants recovered from strokes more quickly and had improved motor and cognitive functions following traumatic brain injury. The later study, in the 21 February issue of Cell, also included an analysis of 68 stroke patients who had one copy of CCR5 with the HIV resistance mutation; it concluded they had improved recovery, too.

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which also increased their muscle mass. This showed that muscle mass could be increased with germline editing, which is likely applicable to humans because humans also have the myostatin gene to regulate muscle growth. Human germline engineering may then result in intentionally increased muscle mass, with applications such as

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normal CCR5, she is expected to have no protection from HIV. Nana, according to the data He presented in a slide at an international genome-editing summit held in November 2018 in Hong Kong, China, had bases added to one CCR5 copy and deleted from the other, which likely would cripple both genes and provide HIV resistance.

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There is distinction in some country policies, including but not limited to official regulation and legislation, between human germline engineering for reproductive use and for laboratory research. As of October 2020, there are 96 countries that have policies involving the use of germline engineering

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further argues that “old-fashioned sexual reproduction is itself an untested genetic experiment”, often compromising a child's wellbeing and pro-social capacities even if the child grows in a healthy environment. According to Pearce, “the question of comes down to an analysis of risk-reward ratios –

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One issue related to human genome editing relates to the impact of the technology on future individuals whose genes are modified without their consent. Clinical ethics accepts the idea that parents are, almost always, the most appropriate surrogate medical decision makers for their children until the

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in the embryos occurred preferentially through alternative pathways. In the end only 4 of the 54 zygotes carried the intended genetic information, and even then the successfully edited embryos were mosaics containing the preferential genetic code and the mutation. The conclusion of the scientists was

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On the night of November 26, 122 Chinese scientists issued a statement strongly condemning He's action as unethical. They stated that while CRISPR-Cas is not a new technology, it involves serious off-target risks and associated ethical considerations, and so should not be used to produce gene-altered

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He added the genes for the CRISPR machinery almost immediately after each embryo was created through in vitro fertilization, but several researchers who closely studied the slide caution that it may have done its editing after Nana's embryo was already past the one-cell stage. That means she could be

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The lack of clear international regulation has led to researchers across the globe attempting to create an international framework of ethical guidelines. Current framework lacks the requisite treaties among nations to create a mechanism for international enforcement. At the first International Summit

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There is also debate on if there can be a defined distinction between therapeutic and non-therapeutic germline editing. An example would be if two embryos are predicted to grow up to be very short in height. Boy 1 will be short because of a mutation in his Human Growth Hormone gene, while boy 2 will

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A relevant issue concerns “off target effects”, large genomes may contain identical or homologous DNA sequences, and the enzyme complex CRISPR/Cas9 may unintentionally cleave these DNA sequences causing mutations that may lead to cell death. The mutations can cause important genes to be turned on or

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has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases. For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise,

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People inherit two copies of CCR5, one from each parent. He chose the gene as a target because he knew that about 1% of Northern European populations are born with both copies missing 32 base pairs, resulting in a truncated protein that does not reach the cell surface. These people, known as CCR5Δ32

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and implanted into five surrogates, resulting in 16 piglets. It was found that only specific mutations to the myostatin signal peptide resulted in increased muscle mass in the piglets mainly due to an increase in muscle fibers. A similar animal study created a knockout in the myostatin gene in mice,

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The other ethical concern is the potential for “designer babies”, or the creation of humans with "perfect", or "desirable" traits. There is a debate as to if this is morally acceptable as well. Such debate ranges from the ethical obligation to use safe and efficient technology to prevent disease to

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Aside from the primary HIV concerns, the gene edits may have inadvertently altered cognitive function. Researchers showed in 2016 that knocking out one or both CCR5s in mice enhances their memory and cognition. A subsequent study that crippled CCR5 in mice found that, compared with control animals,

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A major concern has been that He Jiankui's attempts to cripple CCR5, the gene for a protein on immune cells that HIV uses to infect the cells, also made “off-target” changes elsewhere in the girls' genomes. Those changes could cause cancer or other problems. He contends that the babies have no such

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female participants are HIV-negative. The participants' sperm was “washed off” to get rid of HIV and then injected into eggs collected from the female participants. By using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-Cas9, a gene editing technique, they disabled a gene called

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Several religious positions have been published with regards to human germline engineering. According to them, many see germline modification as being more moral than the alternative, which would be either discarding of the embryo, or birth of a diseased human. The main conditions when it comes to

758:, a group of scientists urged a worldwide moratorium on clinical use of gene editing technologies to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited. In April 2015, researchers reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR, creating controversy. 361:

funds to engage in research regarding human germline modification. In April 2015, a research team published an experiment in which they used CRISPR to edit a gene that is associated with blood disease in non-living human embryos. This experiment was unsuccessful, but gene editing tools are used in

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Although the CRISPR/Cas9 can be used in humans, it is more commonly used by scientists in other animal models or cell culture systems, including in experiments to learn more about genes that could be involved in human diseases. Clinical trials are being conducted on somatic cells, but CRISPR could

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Reproductive use of human germline engineering involves implanting the edited embryo to be born. 70 countries currently explicitly prohibit the use of human germline engineering for use in reproduction, while 5 countries prohibit it for reproduction with exceptions. No countries permit the use of

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There remains debate on if the permissibility of human germline engineering for reproduction is dependent on the use, being either a therapeutic or non-therapeutic application. In a survey by the UK's Royal Society, 76% of participants in the UK supported therapeutic human germline engineering to

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posted a statement declaring their opposition to any clinical use of genome editing on human embryos, noting that “the theory is not reliable, the technology is deficient, the risks are uncontrollable, and ethics and regulations prohibit the action”. The Chinese Academy of Engineering released a

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technology to correct a single mistaken amino acid successfully in 16 out of 18 attempts in a human embryo. The unusual level of precision was achieved by the use of a base editor (BE) system which was constructed by fusing the deaminase to the dCas9 protein. The BE system efficiently edits the

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and homology-directed repair response with high accuracy and precision. Double-strand breaks at the mutant paternal allele were repaired using the homologous wild-type gene. By modifying the cell cycle stage at which the DSB was induced, they were able to avoid mosaicism, which had been seen in

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In the embryos, He's team designed CRISPR to cut CCR5 at the base pair at one end of the natural deletion. The error-prone cell-repair mechanism, which CRISPR depends on to finish knocking out genes, then deleted 15 base pairs in one of Lulu's copies of the gene, but none in the other. With one

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He explained the details of his experiment in his address at the Hong Kong conference. He and his team had recruited eight couples through an HIV volunteer group named Baihualin (BHL) China League (one couple later withdrew from the research). All the male participants are HIV-positive, and all

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Scientists using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to modify genetic materials have run into issues when it comes to mammalian alterations due to the complex diploid cells. Studies have been done in microorganisms regarding loss of function genetic screening and some studies have been done using mice as a

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Ma H, Marti-Gutierrez N, Park SW, Wu J, Lee Y, Suzuki K, Koski A, Ji D, Hayama T, Ahmed R, Darby H, Van Dyken C, Li Y, Kang E, Park AR, Kim D, Kim ST, Gong J, Gu Y, Xu X, Battaglia D, Krieg SA, Lee DM, Wu DH, Wolf DP, Heitner SB, Belmonte JC, Amato P, Kim JS, Kaul S, Mitalipov S (August 2017).

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Another ethical concern pertains to potential unequal distribution of benefits, even in the case of genome editing being inexpensive. For example, corporations may be able to take unfair advantage of patent law or other ways of restricting access to genome editing and thereby may increase the

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is could effectively be used as a gene-editing tool in human 2PN zygotes, which could lead potentially pregnancy viable if implanted. The scientists used injection of Cas9 protein complexed with the relevant sgRNAs and homology donors into human embryos. The scientists found homologous

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The first known publication of research into human germline editing was by a group of Chinese scientists in April 2015 in the Journal "Protein and Cell". The scientists used tripronuclear (3PN) zygotes, zygotes fertilized by two sperm and therefore non-viable, to investigate

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signal peptide. Myostatin is a negative regulator of muscle growth, so through mutating the signal peptide regions of the gene, muscle growth could be promoted in the experimental pigs. The Myostatin genes in 955 pig embryos were mutated at several locations with

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gene without evidence of unintended mutations. The scientists concluded that the technique may be used for the correction of mutations in human embryos. The claims of this study were however pushed back on by critics who argued the evidence was overall

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There are concerns that the introduction of desirable traits in a certain part of the population (instead of the entire population) could cause economic inequalities (“positional” good). However, this is not the case if a same desirable trait would be

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Gonzalez-Cadavid, Nestor F.; Taylor, Wayne E.; Yarasheski, Kevin; Sinha-Hikim, Indrani; Ma, Kun; Ezzat, Shereen; Shen, Ruoqing; Lalani, Rukhsana; Asa, Sylvia; Mamita, Mohamad; Nair, Gouri; Arver, Stefan; Bhasin, Shalender (1998-12-08).

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prevent or correct disease, however for non-therapeutic edits such as enhancing intelligence or altering eye or hair color in embryos, there was only 40% and 31% support, respectively. There was a similar result in a study at the

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in the embryos, aiming to close the protein doorway that allows HIV to enter a cell and make the subjects immune to the HIV virus. The process led to at least one successful pregnancy and the birth of the twin baby girls,

462:, a Chinese researcher of the Southern University of Science and Technology, released a video on YouTube announcing that he and his colleagues have “created” the world's first genetically altered babies, Lulu and Nana. 352:

Human germline engineering is a widely debated topic, and in more than 40 countries, it is formally outlawed. While there is no current legislation explicitly prohibiting germline engineering in the United States, the

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In June 2018, a group of scientists published and article in "Nature" journal indicating a potential link for edited cells having increased potential turn cancerous. The scientists reported that genome editing by

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Li, Ruiqiang; Zeng, Wu; Ma, Miao; Wei, Zixuan; Liu, Hongbo; Liu, Xiaofeng; Wang, Min; Shi, Xuan; Zeng, Jianhua; Yang, Linfang; Mo, Delin; Liu, Xiaohong; Chen, Yaosheng; He, Zuyong (February 2020).

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babies. They described He's experiment as “crazy” and “a huge blow to the global reputation and development of Chinese science”. The Scientific Ethics Committee of the Academic Divisions of the

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Alanis-Lobato, Gregorio; Zohren, Jasmin; McCarthy, Afshan; Fogarty, Norah M. E.; Kubikova, Nada; Hardman, Emily; Greco, Maria; Wells, Dagan; Turner, James M. A.; Niakan, Kathy K. (June 2021).

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was highly inefficient and did not do so in a majority of the trials. Problems arose such as off target cleavage and the competitive recombination of the endogenous delta-globin with the

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2017. Human Genome Editing: Science, Ethics, and Governance. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/24623.

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Other scientists and philosophers have noted that the issue of the lack of prior consent applies as well to individuals born via traditional sexual reproduction. Philosopher

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gave support to human genome editing in 2017 once answers have been found to safety and efficiency problems "but only for serious conditions under stringent oversight." The

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mutations would result in copies of the gene which do not possess any mutations, effectively curing the disease. If the germline could be edited, this normal copy of the

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Tang L, Zeng Y, Du H, Gong M, Peng J, Zhang B, Lei M, Zhao F, Wang W, Li X, Liu J (June 2017). "CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human zygotes using Cas9 protein".

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Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Diana Raquel; Ramírez-Solís, Ramiro; Garza-Elizondo, Mario Alberto; Garza-Rodríguez, María De Lourdes; Barrera-Saldaña, Hugo Alberto (April 2019).

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In March 2017, a group of Chinese scientists claimed to have edited three normal viable human embryos out of six total in the experiment. The study showed that

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The biologists writing in Science support continuing laboratory research with the technique, and few if any scientists believe it is ready for clinical use.

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Human germline engineering could be used to heritably cure genetic disorders and other diseases, and to give specific traits to human babies. For example,

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Another use would be to cure genetic disorders. In the first study published regarding human germline engineering, the researchers attempted to edit the

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whether or not it is morally and ethically acceptable lie within the intent of the modification, and the conditions in which the engineering is done.

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gene (which codes for a protein on the surface of white blood cells, targeted by the HIV virus) that deactivates the expression of CCR5, conferring

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Wivel, Nelson A.; Walters, LeRoy (22 October 1993). "Germ-Line Gene Modification and Disease Prevention: Some Medical and Ethical Perspectives".

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education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.

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Haapaniemi E, Botla S, Persson J, Schmierer B, Taipale J (July 2018). "CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing induces a p53-mediated DNA damage response".

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use, where edited cells will not be implanted to be born. 19 countries currently explicitly prohibit any use of human germline engineering for

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mutation in both somatic cells and germline cells. The study is noted for its relative precision which is a departure from past results of

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induced DNA damage response and the cell cycle stopped. The study was conducted in human retinal pigment epithelial cells, and the use of

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Liang P, Xu Y, Zhang X, Ding C, Huang R, Zhang Z, Lv J, Xie X, Chen Y, Li Y, Sun Y, Bai Y, Songyang Z, Ma W, Zhou C, Huang J (May 2015).

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In general, CRISPR-Cas9 is one of the most effective gene-editing technique to date. The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of an enzyme called

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using these new tools, and such concerns have continued as technology progressed. In March 2015, with the advent of new techniques like

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With the international outcry in response to the first recorded case of human germ line edited embryos being implanted by researcher

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Using germline editing for reproduction is prohibited by law in more than 70 countries and by a binding international treaty of the

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Powell R, Buchanan A (February 2011). "Breaking evolution's chains: the prospect of deliberate genetic modification in humans".

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In November 2018, a group of Chinese scientists published research in the journal "Molecular Therapy" detailing their use of

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In a 2019 animal study with Liang Guang Small Spotted pigs, increased muscle mass was achieved with precise editing of the

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Roco MC, Bainbridge WS (2002). "Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Integrating From the Nanoscale".

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Smith KR, Chan S, Harris J (October 2012). "Human germline genetic modification: scientific and bioethical perspectives".

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inequalities. There are already disputes in the courts where CRISPR-Cas9 patents and access issues are being negotiated.

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earlier similar studies, in cleaving embryos and achieve a large percentage of homozygous embryos carrying the wild-type

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As early in the history of biotechnology as 1990, there have been scientists opposed to attempts to modify the human

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a genetic “mosaic” who has some unaffected cells with normal CCR5—and ultimately might have no protection from HIV.

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Countries that explicitly prohibit (with exceptions) the use of human germline engineering for reproduction are:

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Katz G, Pitts PJ (November 2017). "Implications of CRISPR-Based Germline Engineering for Cancer Survivors".

3243:"Potential impact of human mitochondrial replacement on global policy regarding germline gene modification" 458:

On 25 November 2018, two days before the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing in Hong Kong,

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targeted C to T or G to A without the use of a donor and without DBS formation. The study focused on the

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Cohen IG, Adashi EY (August 2016). "SCIENCE AND REGULATION. The FDA is prohibited from going germline".

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Cyranoski, David; Reardon, Sara (22 April 2015). "Chinese scientists genetically modify human embryos".

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to edit out a mutation responsible for congenital heart disease. The study looked at heterozygous

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announced on December 18, 2018 plans to convene an intentional committee on clinical germline editing.

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Savulescu, Julian (October 2001). "Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Children".

3151: 2546: 2278: 2198: 2143: 2098: 1610: 1176: 3726: 3337:"Genome engineering through CRISPR/Cas9 technology in the human germline and pluripotent stem cells" 3864: 3199: 1474: 832: 336: 213: created the first human genetically edited babies, known by their pseudonyms, 3335:

Vassena, R.; Heindryckx, B.; Peco, R.; Pennings, G.; Raya, A.; Sermon, K.; Veiga, A. (June 2016).

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Ormond KE, Mortlock DP, Scholes DT, Bombard Y, Brody LC, Faucett WA, et al. (August 2017).

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Countries that explicitly prohibit any use of human germline engineering for reproduction are:

3912: 3889: 3827: 3792: 3784: 3738: 3688: 3670: 3613: 3565: 3557: 3520: 3419: 3384: 3358: 3309: 3274: 3212: 3103: 3080: 3045: 3008: 2983: 2921: 2876: 2761: 2714: 2657: 2587: 2564: 2507: 2472: 2296: 2224: 2159: 2116: 2067: 2049: 1948: 1940: 1899: 1820: 1782: 1764: 1725: 1651: 1628: 1570: 1562: 1496: 1444: 1436: 970: 709: 411: 280:). One proposal is to genetically modify human embryos to give the CCR5 Δ32 allele to people. 195: 2322: 487:

off-target mutations, although some scientists are skeptical of the evidence offered so far.

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Zeng Y, Li J, Li G, Huang S, Yu W, Zhang Y, Chen D, Chen J, Liu J, Huang X (November 2018).

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Ranisch, Robert (2 December 2017). "Germline Genome Editing and the Functions of Consent".

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Playing God?: Human Genetic Engineering and the Rationalization of Public Bioethical Debate

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Countries that explicitly prohibit (with exceptions) the use of germline engineering for

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The Center for Health Ethics, University of Missouri School of Medicine. 25 April 2013.

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off, such as genetic anti-cancer mechanisms, that could speed up disease exasperation.

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and our basic ethical values, themselves shaped by our evolutionary past.” Bioethicist

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Baylis F, Robert JS (2004). "The inevitability of genetic enhancement technologies".

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Design and Destiny: Jewish and Christian Perspectives on Human Germline Modification

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The Declaration of Inuyama: Human Genome Mapping, Genetic Screening and Gene Therapy

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Ma H, Marti-Gutierrez N, Park SW, Wu J, Lee Y, Suzuki K, et al. (August 2017).

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Baylis, Françoise; Darnovsky, Marcy; Hasson, Katie; Krahn, Timothy M. (2020-10-01).

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Allhoff, Fritz (2005). "Germ-Line Genetic Enhancement and Rawlsian Primary Goods".

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Committee on Human Gene Editing: Scientific, Medical, and Ethical Considerations.

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for information on how to properly incorporate it into this article's main text.

383: 341: 3259: 3242: 3122: 2291: 2266: 1936: 1711: 297:, which can be fatal. Perfect editing of the genome in patients who have these 3780: 3486:

Daws, Steven (6 October 2017). "Procreative Beneficence in the CRISPR World".

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led to unexpected mutation. The results of the study indicated that repair of

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Life at the Speed of Light: From the Double Helix to the Dawn of Digital Life

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that further effort was needed in to improve the precision and efficiency of

3764: 3665: 3553: 3457: 3415: 3353: 3336: 2210: 2155: 1491: 1022: 886: 882: 331: 245: 3796: 3692: 3649:"Frequent loss of heterozygosity in CRISPR-Cas9–edited early human embryos" 3617: 3423: 3362: 3313: 3278: 3216: 3084: 3049: 2765: 2718: 2661: 2591: 2568: 2511: 2476: 2300: 2228: 2163: 2120: 1952: 1824: 1786: 1760: 1729: 1655: 1632: 1574: 1448: 120: 3561: 3208: 2987: 2071: 1991: 1541:"Human Germline and Heritable Genome Editing: The Global Policy Landscape" 1186:

Laboratory research use involves human germline engineering restricted to

592:

In August 2017, a group of scientists from Oregon published an article in

3727:"Being human: The ethics, law, and scientific progress of genome editing" 3499: 3041: 1348: 1311: 1292: 1287: 1260: 1252: 1203: 1194: 1188: 1164: 1130: 1110: 1106: 1078: 1070: 1026: 914: 751: 320: 2652: 2583: 2559: 2534: 1895:

New Horizons in Medical Anthropology: Essays in Honour of Charles Leslie

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inhibition might increase efficiency of human germline editing and that

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Countries that explicitly prohibit any use of germline engineering for

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Evolving Ourselves: How Unnatural Selection is Changing Life on Earth

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Lanphier E, Urnov F, Haecker SE, Werner M, Smolenski J (March 2015).

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Countries that explicitly permit the use of germline engineering for

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Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every

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Process of editing the human genome so that the changes are inherited

3608: 3591: 2414:"Amid uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies" 2345:"Amid uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies" 2111: 2086: 2841:"Chinese Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embryos, Raising Concerns" 2443:"CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes" 1340: 1328: 1320: 1300: 1256: 1168: 1118: 1082: 1030: 1010: 1006: 990: 930: 926: 902: 781: 289:

gene which codes for the human β-globin protein. Mutations in the

3379:(2017). "The Reproductive Revolution". In Vinding, Magnus (ed.). 2781:"US science advisers outline path to genetically modified babies" 1417:"Using the therapy and enhancement distinction in law and policy" 323:

modifications to humans which would result in what are known as "

1332: 1066: 994: 542:, the efficiency of homologous recombination directed repair of 480: 467: 276:. HIV/AIDS carries a large disease burden and is incurable (see 269: 241: 235: 203: 319:

The non-therapeutic use of human germline engineering would be

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Hacking Darwin: Genetic Engineering and the Future of Humanity

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use, while 4 prohibit it with exceptions, and 11 permit it.

495:, appear healthy and are highly resistant to HIV infection. 3516:

Redesigning Humans: Choosing Our Genes, Changing Our Future

2810:"Scientists Seek Ban on Method of Editing the Human Genome" 2535:"Correction of a pathogenic gene mutation in human embryos" 1599:"Correction of a pathogenic gene mutation in human embryos" 2389:"He Jiankui Fired in Wake of CRISPR Babies Investigation" 636:

pathway. The conclusion of the study would suggest that

2902:"Human Genome Editing: Science, Ethics, and Governance" 2243:"On Human Gene Editing: International Summit Statement" 1974:

Professor, Apostolos Stergioulas, Ph D. (2021-02-04).

2869:"Human Gene Editing Receives Science Panel's Support" 606:

mutation in human embryos. The study claimed precise

827:

seeing some actual benefit in genetic disabilities.

632:led to a selection against cells with a functional 3857: 644:function would need to be watched when developing 3592:"A slippery slope to human germline modification" 3439:"Procreative Beneficence and Genetic Enhancement" 2393:GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News 305:genes could be passed on to future generations. 3653:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2032:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1805:Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science 79:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 2942:"Scientists OK genetically engineering babies" 2436: 2434: 874:human germline engineering for reproduction. 8: 3763:Greene, Marsha; Master, Zubin (2018-09-01). 2926:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2267:"Germline gene-editing research needs rules" 2010:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1749:International Journal of Molecular Medicine 746:Designer baby § Ethical_considerations 53:Learn how and when to remove these messages 3725:Newson, Ainsley; Wrigley, Anthony (2016). 2615:|...|intentional=yes}} 1679:|...|intentional=yes}} 712:. Please do not remove this message until 3682: 3664: 3607: 3352: 3268: 3258: 3198: 2792: 2708: 2651: 2558: 2466: 2290: 2218: 2110: 2061: 2043: 1776: 1719: 1622: 1556: 1490: 732:Learn how and when to remove this message 168:Learn how and when to remove this message 103:Learn how and when to remove this message 708:Relevant discussion may be found on the 596:journal detailing the successful use of 145:of all important aspects of the article. 3859:"Special Issue: Human Germline Editing" 3822:Enriquez, Juan; Gullans, Steve (2015). 1473:Caro-Romero, Henry David (2020-06-09). 1404: 3030:The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 2919: 2003: 483:has on the memory function the brain. 370:Lack of clear international regulation 355:Consolidated Appropriation Act of 2016 252:make it possible to modify the DNA of 141:Please consider expanding the lead to 3236: 3234: 3123:Gene Therapy and Genetic Engineering. 1468: 1466: 1410: 1408: 833:introduced over the entire population 575:recombination-mediated alteration in 7: 3381:Can Biotechnology Abolish Suffering? 1878: 1876: 1844: 1842: 1798: 1796: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 430:This section should include only a 3187:Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 2343:Begley, Sharon (28 November 2018). 843:Therapeutic and non-therapeutic use 406:He Jiankui controversy and research 2779:Reardon, Sara (14 February 2017). 1700:American Journal of Human Genetics 806:in turn proposes the principle of 209:In November 2018, researcher 14: 3706:Johnson, Tess (3 December 2019). 3446:KRITERION - Journal of Philosophy 3294:The American Journal of Bioethics 183:is the process by which the 34:This article has multiple issues. 3144:Journal of Nanoparticle Research 3077:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00376.x 2087:"Don't edit the human germ line" 1892:Lock M, Nichter M (2003-09-02). 822:Unequal distribution of benefits 687: 420: 119: 64: 23: 3247:Reproductive Biomedicine Online 3102:. University of Chicago Press. 2492:Molecular Genetics and Genomics 2185:Wang, Tim; et al. (2014). 1696:"Human Germline Genome Editing" 662:mutation that is causative for 133:may be too short to adequately 42:or discuss these issues on the 3590:Darnovsky, Marcy (July 2013). 1479:Revista Colombiana de Bioética 268:has a genetic mutation in the 143:provide an accessible overview 1: 3769:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 3519:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 3306:10.1080/15265161.2017.1388875 2574:(This paper currently has an 1976:"Gene doping in modern sport" 1638:(This paper currently has an 534:could effectively cleave the 479:has discovered an impact the 439:Knowledge (XXG):Summary style 400:The World Health Organization 3001:Cole-Turner, Ronald (2008). 2758:10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.09.003 2746:Archives of Medical Research 1415:McGee, Andrew (2019-10-15). 771:American Medical Association 767:National Academy of Medicine 763:National Academy of Sciences 761:A committee of the American 293:gene result in the disorder 2968:Archives of Family Medicine 2701:10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.08.007 1980:Journal Biology of Exercise 714:conditions to do so are met 513:Chinese Academy of Sciences 434:summary of another article. 3944: 3826:. One World Publications. 3260:10.1016/j.rbmo.2014.04.001 2839:Kolata G (23 April 2015). 2292:10.1038/d41586-019-00788-5 2247:www8.nationalacademies.org 1937:10.1007/s11248-020-00188-w 1712:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.012 1378:Germinal choice technology 743: 520:Major studies of influence 409: 312: 229: 181:Human germline engineering 3781:10.1007/s11673-018-9865-6 3731:AQ - Australian Quarterly 3341:Human Reproduction Update 2974:(7): 633–642. July 1994. 2794:10.1038/nature.2017.21474 2644:10.1038/s41591-018-0049-z 2504:10.1007/s00438-017-1299-z 2459:10.1007/s13238-015-0153-5 2277:(7747): 145. March 2019. 1859:10.1038/nature.2015.17378 1383:Human genetic enhancement 1368:Human genetic engineering 679:Ethical and moral debates 254:spermatogonial stem cells 2980:10.1001/archfami.3.7.633 2808:Wade N (19 March 2015). 2045:10.1073/pnas.95.25.14938 1817:10.1177/2168479017723401 1558:10.1089/crispr.2020.0082 278:Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS 274:innate resistance to HIV 3666:10.1073/pnas.2004832117 3554:10.1126/science.8211180 3513:Stock, Gregory (2003). 3458:10.1515/krt-2018-320105 3416:10.1111/1467-8519.00251 3241:Ishii T (August 2014). 3164:10.1023/A:1021152023349 3128:3 December 2013 at the 2867:Harmon A (2017-02-14). 2211:10.1126/science.1246981 2156:10.1126/science.aag2960 1492:10.18270/rcb.v15i1.2732 835:(similar to vaccines). 808:procreative beneficence 244:and a special piece of 215:Lulu and Nana 3928:2010s in biotechnology 3923:Biotechnology in China 1761:10.3892/ijmm.2019.4112 907:Bosnia and Herzegovina 396:Emmanuelle Charpentier 3437:Veit, Walter (2018). 3354:10.1093/humupd/dmw005 3209:10.1353/ken.2005.0007 2948:. Reuters. 2017-02-14 2906:nationalacademies.org 2787:: nature.2017.21474. 2613:expression of concern 2607:|...}} 2605:expression of concern 2576:expression of concern 1992:10.4127/jbe.2009.0021 1853:: nature.2015.17378. 1677:expression of concern 1671:|...}} 1669:expression of concern 1640:expression of concern 860:Current global policy 812:genetically enhancing 3500:10.7916/vib.v3i.6031 3475:on October 23, 2021. 2363:"复盘贺建奎的人生轨迹：是谁给了他勇气" 2325:on February 22, 2019 2315:"WHO | Gene editing" 1177:United Arab Emirates 850:University of Bogota 3659:(22): e2004832117. 3488:Voices in Bioethics 3156:2002JNR.....4..281R 2584:10.1038/nature23305 2560:10.1038/nature23305 2551:2017Natur.548..413M 2283:2019Natur.567..145. 2203:2014Sci...343...80W 2148:2016Sci...353..545C 2103:2015Natur.519..410L 2038:(25): 14938–14943. 1925:Transgenic Research 1648:10.1038/nature23305 1624:10.1038/nature23305 1615:2017Natur.548..413M 1182:Laboratory research 701:of this section is 3884:. United Kingdom: 3848:. Naperville, IL: 3042:10.1093/jmp/jhq057 2873:The New York Times 2846:The New York Times 2815:The New York Times 2447:Protein & Cell 2369:. 27 November 2018 1545:The CRISPR Journal 1433:10.1111/bioe.12662 433: 266:The Berlin Patient 83:You can assist by 3548:(5133): 533–538. 3109:978-0-226-22262-2 2695:(11): 2631–2637. 2689:Molecular Therapy 2545:(7668): 413–419. 1609:(7668): 413–419. 742: 741: 734: 456: 455: 431: 412:He Jiankui affair 348:State of research 196:Council of Europe 178: 177: 170: 160: 159: 113: 112: 105: 57: 3935: 3899: 3873: 3861: 3853: 3837: 3809: 3808: 3760: 3754: 3753: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3712:The Conversation 3703: 3697: 3696: 3686: 3668: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3611: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3474: 3468:. 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Index