482:(Protect the Emperor Society) and worked, unsuccessfully, for a constitutional monarchy in China. Tan Sitong refused to flee and was executed. An alternative view is that Liang and Kang had a different objective for leaving for Japan which is to not only justify fleeing China but to also solicit intervention by foreign powers like Britain or Japan to rescue Emperor Guangxu.
676:
to the emperor to that effect. In another memorial to the
Emperor written the next day, Song advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of the four countries under a hundred-man committee. Lei Chia-sheng argues that this idea was the reason
529:
in 1905, educational and military modernization patterned after the model of Japan, and an experiment in constitutional and parliamentary government. The suddenness and ambitiousness of the reform effort actually hindered its success. One effect, to be felt for decades to come, was the establishment
684:
reported to his government that
Chinese reforms had been "much injured" by Kang and his friends' actions. However, the British and American governments had been largely unaware of the "federation" plot, which appears to have been Richard's own personal idea. The Japanese government might have been
574:
A mass of Kang and Liang's student reformer followers created a loyalty group called the "Kang Party" (AKA the "Kang dang") which helped set them apart from the other contemporary reformists of their time. This brought a rising fame to their name which put Kang and Liang's name on the top of the
642:
actually did a great deal of harm to the cause by his perceived arrogance in the eyes of the conservatives. Numerous rumors regarding potential repercussions, many of them false, had made their way to the Grand
Council; this was one of the factors in their decision to stage a coup against the
470:– were ordered to be executed. Reforms such as the abolishing of the old writing style was put back into mandate, the removal of offices and agencies were reinstituted, and the establishment of certain newspapers, civil societies and schools were all suspended. The two principal leaders,
254:. While Empress Dowager Cixi supported the principles of the Hundred Days' Reform, she feared that sudden implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and that the Japanese and other foreign powers would take advantage of any weakness. She later backed the
668:
to
Beijing. Richard suggested that China appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors in order to further push China's reform efforts. On September 18, Richard successfully convinced Kang to adopt his plan in which China would join a federation (合邦) of ten nations.
599:
and his allies were hopeless dreamers unaware of the political realities in which they operated. This view argues that the conservative elites were not opposed to change and that practically all of the reforms that were proposed were eventually implemented.
1854:
651:
to remove the emperor from power. Many, though not all, of the reforms came to naught. The council, now confident in their power, pushed for the execution of the reformers, an action that was carried out ruthlessly.
646:
The
Emperor set about to enact his reforms by largely bypassing the powerful Grand Council; said councilors, irritated at the Emperor's actions and fearful of losing the political power they had, then turned to the
1918:
607:, in his book "The Dragon Lady", argues that there were several reasons why the reforms failed. Chinese political power at the time was firmly in the hands of the ruling Manchu nobility. The highly xenophobic
288:(1856–1860) Opium Wars. The effort concentrated on providing the armed forces with modern weapons, rather than reforming governance or society. The limitations of this approach were exposed by the
1752:
2513:
410:
suspected a foreign plot due to the introduction into the Qing government of foreign advisors like
Timothy Richards and Ito Hirobumi; Duan wanted to expel foreigners completely from China.
2474:
583:
Views of the
Hundred Days' Reform have grown increasingly more complex and nuanced. The traditional view portrayed the reformers as heroes and the conservative elites, particularly the
406:
Opposition to the reforms was intense among the conservative ruling elite who condemned it as too radical and proposed a more moderate and gradualist alternatives. Conservatives like
319:) and foreign conflicts. Therefore, they developed influential philosophical systems for creating solutions which enacted political reform and a new Chinese reformist movement.
1847:
2518:
2354:
2795:
2193:
1933:
334:; Guangxu agreed. Some of Kang's students were also given minor but strategic posts in the capital to assist with the reforms. The goals of these reforms included:
595:
However, some historians in the late 20th century have taken views that are more favorable to the conservatives and less favorable to the reformers. In this view,
1549:
2338:
2309:
1928:
1384:
673:
429:, and then march on Beijing and arrest Cixi. However, Yuan had previously promised to support Ronglu; rather than kill him, Yuan informed Ronglu of the plot.
2831:
2010:
619:
by-passed the Grand
Council and appointed four reformers to advise him. These reformers were chosen after a series of interviews, including the interview of
455:
719:
672:
Kang nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang
Shenxiu (楊深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯魯) to report this plan to the Guangxu Emperor. On September 20, Yang sent a
1998:
1983:
623:, who was rejected by the Emperor and had far less influence than Kang's later boasting would indicate. At the suggestion of the reform advisors, the
1685:
875:
The Defeat That
Changed China's History: The First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 altered China's past and has left the nation in reflection ever since
315:(梁啓超) saw the utter destruction and political problems of China at this time, such as political division, insurrection, opium addiction (due to the
236:
was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement that occurred from 11 June to 22 September 1898 during the late
2721:
2060:
2752:
1993:
1206:
1063:
714:
1610:
2222:
1973:
1886:
1625:
984:
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why Cixi, who had just returned from the Summer Palace on September 19, decided to put an end to the reforms with the September 21 coup.
1891:
1795:
2867:
2438:
1807:
1680:
1504:
1223:
Hua, Shiping (September 2004). "The Meiji Restoration (1868) and the Late Qing Reform (1898) revisited: Strategies and philosophies".
2727:
2568:
2443:
1800:
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aware of Richard's plan, since his accomplice was the former Japanese prime minister, but there is no evidence to this effect yet.
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2538:
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1898:
1585:
1471:
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2239:
2105:
1873:
1529:
939:
201:
117:
42:
2788:
1720:
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Emperor. Kang, like many of the reformers, grossly underestimated the reactionary nature of the vested interests involved.
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1988:
1978:
1963:
1958:
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1740:
1494:
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56:
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1943:
1837:
1447:
1437:
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612:
505:. Dong Fuxiang and the Muslim Gansu Army stationed in Beijing during the Hundred Days' Reform later participated in the
545:
forces within China. Changes within the establishment were seen to be largely hopeless, and the overthrow of the whole
2349:
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1842:
1817:
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1402:
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building a modern education system (studying mathematics and science instead of focusing mainly on Confucian texts)
1640:
1427:
1304:
1053:
2742:
2461:
2390:
2183:
1715:
1509:
1274:
Kwong, Luke S. K. (2000). "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898".
1173:
Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China, Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty
2882:
2872:
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2483:
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1938:
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664:(伊藤博文) arrived in China on September 11, 1898, about the same time that Kang Youwei invited British missionary
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1710:
1544:
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372:
289:
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2409:
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1080:
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With the support of the conservatives and the armed forces commanded by Yuan and Ronglu, Cixi launched a
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1948:
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1953:
1908:
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873:
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1705:
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1291:
890:
810:
802:
785:
Wong, Young-Tsu (1992). "Revisionism Reconsidered: Kang Youwei and the Reform Movement of 1898".
392:
establishing trade schools for the manufacture of silk, tea, and other traditional Chinese crafts
355:
as a place where sciences, liberal arts and the Chinese classics would all be available for study
299:, which had undergone comprehensive reforms during the same period. The defeat led to additional
991:
615:
and were seeking ways to expel all Western influence from China. When implementing reform, the
608:
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2588:
2563:
2508:
2503:
2426:
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2110:
2015:
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2020:
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1464:
1432:
1313:
1283:
1232:
1194:
1034:
918:
Learning to Be Human: Ren 仁, Modernity, and the Philosophers of China's Hundred Days' Reform
794:
709:
694:
285:
162:
87:
2816:
2773:
2762:
2708:
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2543:
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331:
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17:
1115:
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1675:
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1605:
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rapid industrialization of all of China through manufacturing, commerce, and capitalism
300:
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government increasingly appeared to be the only viable way to save China. Despite the
2856:
2737:
2703:
2668:
2284:
2274:
2090:
1481:
1325:
1150:戊戌變法檔案史料 , Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959, p. 15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計，固結英、美、日本三國，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」
990:. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. p. 13. Archived from
814:
448:
244:
and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of the reformative edicts, a
521:
The court put into effect some reform measures a decade later, starting with Cixi's
2826:
2757:
2454:
2396:
2085:
2067:
1923:
1393:
1245:
Rethinking the 1898 Reform Period: Political and Cultural Change in Late Qing China
699:
546:
522:
510:
486:
479:
475:
444:
403:" and that innovation must be accompanied by institutional and ideological change.
327:
312:
237:
169:
94:
1198:
1038:
925:
571:
on the Hundred Day's Reform and agreed that the reform movement was ill-advised.
2841:
2821:
2693:
2414:
2135:
2130:
1022:
639:
620:
596:
568:
564:
535:
471:
467:
418:
323:
308:
293:
1023:"Kang Youwei's propaganda adjustments after the Hundred Days Reform, 1898–1900"
2361:
2205:
2155:
2125:
1968:
1287:
1236:
1159:
Song Bolu, "Zhang Shandong dao jiancha yushi Song Bolu zhe" 掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺 , in
542:
502:
490:
459:
316:
304:
1306:
China's Alternative: Kang Youwei's Confucian Reforms in the Late Qing Dynasty
1146:
Yang Shenxiu, "Shandong dao jiancha yushi Yang Shenxiu zhe" 山東道監察御史楊深秀摺 , in
2150:
2140:
660:
According to Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖), Japanese former prime minister
541:
On the other hand, the failure of the reform movement gave great impetus to
494:
443:
on September 22, 1898, and took over the government. Guangxu was put under
380:
modernizing China's military and adopting modern training and drill methods
1189:
Chang, Hao (1980). "Intellectual change and the reform movement, 1890–8".
985:"The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900"
2635:
2380:
2327:
2269:
2145:
2120:
1163:, p. 170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也，擬聯合中國、日本、美國及英國為合邦，共選通達時務、曉暢各國掌故者百人，專理四國兵政稅則及一切外交等事。」
531:
345:
1260:
A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1898
497:
were called to Beijing and helped put an end to the movement along with
2620:
1317:
806:
498:
426:
413:
In addition to the reforms, the reformers plotted to forcefully remove
1362:
1295:
587:, as villains unwilling to reform because of their selfish interests.
463:
422:
362:
in all provinces and schools and colleges in all provinces and cities
217:
798:
322:
Elements of the Qing government were sufficiently alarmed to permit
2344:
1903:
407:
296:
348:(positions that provided little or no work but provided a salary)
2003:
2777:
1366:
1055:
Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese
2514:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
627:
also held secret talks with former Japanese Prime Minister
454:
The reforms were reversed and their chief advocates – the "
377:
applying principles of capitalism to strengthen the economy
774:. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. pp. 278–280.
303:
as European powers took advantage of China's weakness. As
250:
was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by
944:. G. Routledge & Sons, Limited. 1914. pp. 572–.
371:
changing the government from an absolute monarchy to a
680:
On October 13, following the coup, British ambassador
27:
1898 failed reform movement in late Qing dynasty China
174:
99:
958:
Wenguang Shao (2022). "5. The Turn of the Century".
399:
The reformers declared that China needed more than "
2686:
2654:
2611:
2604:
2519:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
2473:
2318:
2250:
2171:
2076:
1872:
1763:
1573:
1480:
1410:
1401:
1219:(6th edn, Oxford University Press 1999) pp 408–418.
368:
encouraging imperial family members to study abroad
168:
161:
156:
144:
130:
116:
111:
93:
86:
81:
69:
55:
41:
32:
638:It has also been suggested, controversially, that
478:, fled to Japan to seek refuge where they founded
1262:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
1137:康南海自訂年譜 , Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe 文海出版社, p. 67.
1919:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
276:China embarked on an effort to modernize, the
2789:
2339:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
2310:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
1378:
1243:Karl, Rebecca E. and Peter Gue Zarrow, eds.,
960:China's Foreign Policy and Practice: A Survey
136:
122:
61:
47:
8:
1336:, The University of British Columbia Press.
1105:力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 , Taipei: Wanjuan Lou 萬卷樓, 2004.
631:with the aim of using his experience in the
395:establishing a bureau for railways and mines
851:] (in Chinese). 中国财政经济出版社. p. 23.
557:directly contributed to the success of the
227:
2796:
2782:
2774:
2608:
1407:
1385:
1371:
1363:
485:During the Hundred Days' Reform, generals
386:utilizing unused military land for farming
153:
78:
2832:Six gentlemen of the Hundred Days' Reform
1999:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
953:
951:
462:, Kang Guangren (Kang Youwei's brother),
1848:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1117:Forty-five Years in China: Reminiscences
2455:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
1351:力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 . Taipei: Wanjuan lou 萬卷樓.
731:
635:to lead China through similar reforms.
292:(1894–1895) when China was defeated by
898:
888:
525:. These included the abolition of the
232:'Reform of the Wuxu year') or
29:
2753:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1994:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
1349:Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan
1103:Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan
1016:
1014:
1012:
765:
763:
761:
759:
757:
755:
720:Economic history of China (1912–1949)
715:Economic history of China before 1912
7:
1974:Ministry of Posts and Communications
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
2722:History of Qing (People's Republic)
830:Empress Dowager Cixi: A Pocket Book
2439:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1808:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1801:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
1681:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1505:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
1175:(London, 1899.3), No. 401, p. 303.
1058:. World Scientific. pp. 10–.
575:court conservatives' most wanted.
425:, take control of the garrison at
25:
2728:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
2569:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2444:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
1596:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
1027:Journal of Modern Chinese History
655:
240:. It was undertaken by the young
2539:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1855:Articles of Favourable Treatment
1611:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
591:Failure as Kang's responsibility
561:in 1911, barely a decade later.
1586:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1472:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
534:, which, in turn, gave rise to
2240:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1530:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
1332:Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018).
1191:The Cambridge History of China
916:Monson, Lucien Mathot (2021).
590:
466:, Yang Shenxiu, Yang Rui, and
340:traditional examination system
280:, following its defeat in the
222:
213:
205:
175:
137:
123:
100:
62:
48:
1:
2674:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2449:Islam during the Qing dynasty
2305:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1989:Provincial military commander
1979:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1964:Imperial Household Department
1791:Preparative Constitutionalism
1495:Sino-Russian border conflicts
1199:10.1017/CHOL9780521220293.006
1039:10.1080/17535654.2020.1763667
872:Pumin, Yin (18 August 2014).
417:from power. Tan Sitong asked
2433:Researches on Manchu Origins
1838:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1448:Transition from Ming to Qing
1438:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
787:The Journal of Asian Studies
383:establishing a naval academy
2333:Changzhou School of Thought
1843:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1818:Railway Protection Movement
1796:1909 Parliamentary election
1781:British expedition to Tibet
1691:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
1651:Self-Strengthening Movement
1626:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
1347:Lei Chia-sheng 雷家聖 (2004).
1161:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao
1148:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao
656:Richard's federation theory
278:Self-Strengthening Movement
272:Self-Strengthening Movement
258:after the invasions of the
2899:
2733:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1621:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1560:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1550:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1520:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
1334:Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal
269:
2868:Economic history of China
2812:
2743:Names of the Qing dynasty
2391:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
1721:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1716:Gongche Shangshu movement
1661:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
1510:Chinese Rites controversy
1303:Li, ZongFang (May 2018).
1288:10.1017/S0026749X00003814
1237:10.1007/s12140-004-0020-0
1135:Kang Nanhai ziding nianpu
1083:. Encyclopædia Britannica
1021:Xiaoye, Jia (June 2020).
579:Differing interpretations
553:in the early 1900s, such
451:until his death in 1908.
186:
152:
77:
37:
18:Hundred Day's Reform
2664:Great Qing Treasure Note
2484:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
2194:Administrative divisions
2011:Administrative divisions
1939:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1217:The Rise of Modern China
1081:"Hundred Days of Reform"
509:and became known as the
118:Traditional Chinese
112:Alternative Chinese name
43:Traditional Chinese
33:Hundred Days' Reform
2260:Chengde Mountain Resort
2061:Three Eastern Provinces
1711:First Sino-Japanese War
1686:Northern Chinese Famine
1545:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1443:Qing invasion of Joseon
1247:. (Harvard UP, 2002).
1052:Khoon Choy Lee (2005).
772:The Far East since 1500
770:Eckel, Paul E. (1948).
373:constitutional monarchy
290:First Sino-Japanese War
132:Simplified Chinese
57:Simplified Chinese
2641:Great Qing Copper Coin
2529:Convention of Tientsin
2462:Annotated Bibliography
2410:Qing official headwear
1453:Battle of Shanhai Pass
962:. Taylor and Francis.
611:faction dominated the
330:to propose reforms to
2715:Draft History of Qing
2574:Treaty of Shimonoseki
2355:performance criticism
1959:Imperial Commissioner
1949:Great Qing Legal Code
1748:Eight-Nation Alliance
1731:Third plague pandemic
1641:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
1565:White Lotus Rebellion
456:Six Gentlemen of Wuxu
260:Eight-Nation Alliance
2837:Empress Dowager Cixi
2806:Hundred Days' Reform
2646:Great Qing Gold Coin
2579:Treaty of Tarbagatai
2524:Convention of Peking
2404:Pentaglot Dictionary
2386:Literary inquisition
2096:Ever Victorious Army
1929:Deliberative Council
1833:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1786:1905 Batang uprising
1726:Hundred Days' Reform
1616:Small Swords Society
1276:Modern Asian Studies
1193:. pp. 274–338.
983:Leonhard, Robert R.
849:This century of ours
649:Empress Dowager Cixi
585:Empress Dowager Cixi
527:Imperial Examination
415:Empress Dowager Cixi
360:agricultural schools
252:Empress Dowager Cixi
194:Hundred Days' Reform
148:Hundred Days' Reform
2699:Anti-Qing sentiment
2549:Treaty of the Bogue
2489:Treaty of Nerchinsk
2421:Complete Tang Poems
2101:Green Standard Army
1984:Provincial governor
1954:Imperial Clan Court
1934:Diplomatic missions
1909:Consultative Bureau
1656:Tongzhi Restoration
1535:Afaqi Khoja revolts
1515:Ten Great Campaigns
1423:Jurchen unification
1122:Frederick A. Stokes
1101:Lei Chia-sheng雷家聖,
1078:See, for instance,
941:The China Year Book
202:traditional Chinese
2584:Treaty of Tientsin
2295:Western Qing tombs
2290:Eastern Qing tombs
2116:Peking Field Force
1860:Manchu Restoration
1753:Declaration of war
1706:Jindandao incident
1525:Lhasa riot of 1750
1258:Kwong, Luke S. K.
1215:Hsü, Immanuel C.
1114:Richard, Timothy,
997:on 6 December 2016
567:corresponded with
401:self-strengthening
210:simplified Chinese
73:Wuxu (year) reform
2850:
2849:
2771:
2770:
2682:
2681:
2594:Treaty of Whampoa
2589:Treaty of Wanghia
2564:Treaty of Nanking
2534:Li–Lobanov Treaty
2509:Chefoo Convention
2504:Burlingame Treaty
2375:Kangxi Dictionary
2280:Old Summer Palace
2111:Firearm Battalion
1914:Cup of Solid Gold
1868:
1867:
1813:Manchurian plague
1776:Late Qing reforms
1767:(1901–1912)
1701:Sikkim expedition
1631:Panthay Rebellion
1601:Taiping Rebellion
1577:(1801–1900)
1555:Sino-Nepalese War
1500:Dzungar–Qing Wars
1486:(1683–1799)
1414:(1616–1683)
1208:978-1-139-05478-2
1133:Kang Youwei 康有為,
1065:978-981-256-618-8
705:Late Qing reforms
633:Meiji Restoration
605:Sterling Seagrave
559:Xinhai Revolution
551:late Qing reforms
353:Peking University
256:late Qing reforms
230:
190:
189:
182:
181:
163:Standard Mandarin
107:
106:
88:Standard Mandarin
16:(Redirected from
2890:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2775:
2748:New Qing History
2631:Qianlong Tongbao
2609:
2554:Treaty of Canton
2494:Unequal treaties
2300:Fuling Mausoleum
1899:Advisory Council
1828:Wuchang Uprising
1768:
1671:Tianjin Massacre
1636:Second Opium War
1578:
1540:Sino-Burmese War
1487:
1465:Battle of Penghu
1433:Seven Grievances
1415:
1408:
1387:
1380:
1373:
1364:
1329:
1311:
1299:
1240:
1212:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1157:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1131:
1125:
1112:
1106:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1018:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1002:
996:
989:
980:
974:
973:
955:
946:
945:
936:
930:
929:
913:
907:
906:
900:
896:
894:
886:
884:
882:
869:
863:
862:
840:
834:
833:
825:
819:
818:
782:
776:
775:
767:
710:Economy of China
695:History of China
682:Claude MacDonald
474:and his student
301:unequal treaties
284:(1839–1842) and
231:
228:
224:
215:
207:
178:
177:
154:
140:
139:
126:
125:
103:
102:
79:
65:
64:
51:
50:
30:
21:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2883:Reform in China
2873:1911 Revolution
2863:Boxer Rebellion
2853:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2817:Guangxu Emperor
2808:
2802:
2772:
2767:
2763:Willow Palisade
2709:Chuang Guandong
2678:
2650:
2600:
2559:Treaty of Kulja
2544:Treaty of Aigun
2477:
2469:
2368:History of Ming
2320:
2314:
2252:
2246:
2172:Special regions
2167:
2106:Imperial Guards
2072:
1864:
1823:1911 Revolution
1769:
1766:
1759:
1736:Boxer Rebellion
1696:Sino-French War
1646:Amur Annexation
1591:First Opium War
1579:
1576:
1569:
1488:
1485:
1476:
1460:Great Clearance
1416:
1413:
1397:
1391:
1309:
1302:
1273:
1222:
1209:
1188:
1185:
1183:Further reading
1180:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1158:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1128:
1113:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1020:
1019:
1010:
1000:
998:
994:
987:
982:
981:
977:
970:
957:
956:
949:
938:
937:
933:
915:
914:
910:
897:
887:
880:
878:
871:
870:
866:
859:
842:
841:
837:
827:
826:
822:
799:10.2307/2057948
784:
783:
779:
769:
768:
733:
728:
691:
666:Timothy Richard
658:
625:Guangxu Emperor
617:Guangxu Emperor
593:
581:
519:
507:Boxer Rebellion
435:
338:abolishing the
332:Emperor Guangxu
274:
268:
242:Guangxu Emperor
145:Literal meaning
70:Literal meaning
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2896:
2894:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2855:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2793:
2786:
2778:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2718:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2660:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2626:Kangxi Tongbao
2623:
2617:
2615:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2499:Boxer Protocol
2491:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2424:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2347:
2342:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2265:Forbidden City
2262:
2256:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2228:General of Ili
2225:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2211:List of ambans
2208:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2013:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1878:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1772:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1676:Margary Affair
1673:
1668:
1666:Mudan incident
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1606:Nian Rebellion
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1491:
1489:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1419:
1417:
1412:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1382:
1375:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1345:
1330:
1300:
1282:(3): 663–695.
1271:
1256:
1241:
1220:
1213:
1207:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1165:
1152:
1139:
1126:
1107:
1094:
1071:
1064:
1044:
1008:
975:
968:
947:
931:
908:
899:|website=
864:
857:
843:德熙, 冷 (2001).
835:
820:
793:(3): 513–544.
777:
730:
729:
727:
724:
723:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
690:
687:
657:
654:
592:
589:
580:
577:
518:
515:
434:
431:
397:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
378:
375:
369:
366:
363:
356:
349:
342:
267:
264:
188:
187:
184:
183:
180:
179:
172:
166:
165:
159:
158:
157:Transcriptions
150:
149:
146:
142:
141:
134:
128:
127:
120:
114:
113:
109:
108:
105:
104:
97:
91:
90:
84:
83:
82:Transcriptions
75:
74:
71:
67:
66:
59:
53:
52:
45:
39:
38:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2895:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2878:1898 in China
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2799:
2794:
2792:
2787:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2738:Manchu people
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2704:Canton System
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2669:Hubu Guanpiao
2667:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2607:
2603:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:Society &
2317:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2285:Summer Palace
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Mukden Palace
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2251:Palaces &
2249:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2091:Eight Banners
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1944:Grand Council
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1764:20th century
1762:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1574:19th century
1572:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1483:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1358:
1357:957-739-507-4
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1342:9780774837781
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1307:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1268:0-674-58742-1
1265:
1261:
1257:
1254:
1253:0-674-00854-5
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1174:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1111:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1095:
1082:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1009:
993:
986:
979:
976:
971:
969:9781000787474
965:
961:
954:
952:
948:
943:
942:
935:
932:
927:
923:
919:
912:
909:
904:
892:
877:
876:
868:
865:
860:
858:9787500547761
854:
850:
846:
839:
836:
831:
824:
821:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
781:
778:
773:
766:
764:
762:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
732:
725:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
692:
688:
686:
683:
678:
675:
670:
667:
663:
653:
650:
644:
641:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
613:Grand Council
610:
606:
603:For example,
601:
598:
588:
586:
578:
576:
572:
570:
566:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
543:revolutionary
539:
537:
533:
528:
524:
516:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
483:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
449:Summer Palace
446:
442:
441:
432:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
404:
402:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
374:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:establishing
357:
354:
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2086:Beiyang Army
2068:Zongli Yamen
1924:Da-Qing Bank
1741:Red Lanterns
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629:Itō Hirobumi
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523:New Policies
520:
511:Kansu Braves
487:Dong Fuxiang
484:
480:Baohuang Hui
476:Liang Qichao
453:
445:house arrest
438:
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344:eliminating
328:Liang Qichao
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313:Liang Qichao
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238:Qing dynasty
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176:bǎirì wéixīn
170:Hanyu Pinyin
95:Hanyu Pinyin
2842:Yuan Shikai
2822:Kang Youwei
2694:Aisin Gioro
2656:Paper money
2415:Qing poetry
2136:Wuwei Corps
2131:Shuishiying
1892:Family tree
1318:10267/33646
1231:(3): 3–22.
1087:12 November
640:Kang Youwei
621:Kang Youwei
597:Kang Youwei
569:Gu Hongming
565:Leo Tolstoy
472:Kang Youwei
468:Liu Guangdi
458:" (戊戌六君子):
440:coup d'état
419:Yuan Shikai
408:Prince Duan
324:Kang Youwei
311:(康有爲), and
309:Kang Youwei
247:coup d'état
223:Wùxū Biànfǎ
198:Wuxu Reform
101:wùxū biànfǎ
2857:Categories
2804:People in
2362:Four Wangs
2253:mausoleums
2206:Golden Urn
2179:Inner Asia
2156:Xiang Army
2126:Hushenying
2051:Liangguang
2031:Liangjiang
1969:Lifan Yuan
1874:Government
1312:(Thesis).
1001:31 October
926:2532030025
920:(Thesis).
881:3 February
555:sentiments
536:warlordism
503:Ma Fuxiang
491:Ma Anliang
460:Tan Sitong
317:opium wars
305:Tan Sitong
270:See also:
2184:Manchuria
2151:Huai Army
2141:Yong Ying
2026:Shaan-Gan
1482:High Qing
1428:Later Jin
1326:198926006
1225:East Asia
901:ignored (
891:cite book
815:154815023
609:iron hats
517:Aftermath
495:Ma Haiyan
346:sinecures
266:Beginning
234:Wuxu Coup
2636:Hongqian
2605:Currency
2475:Treaties
2381:Kaozheng
2328:Booi Aha
2270:Hetu Ala
2223:Timeline
2218:Xinjiang
2189:Mongolia
2146:Chu Army
2121:New Army
2078:Military
2016:Viceroys
922:ProQuest
828:Lu, Ji.
689:See also
674:memorial
532:New Army
427:Tientsin
421:to kill
2621:Zhiqian
2613:Coinage
2350:Economy
2321:culture
2056:Yun-Gui
2046:Min-Zhe
2041:Sichuan
2036:Huguang
1882:Emperor
1403:History
845:我们这一个世纪
807:2057948
530:of the
499:Ma Fulu
447:in the
307:(譚嗣同),
2235:Taiwan
1411:Early
1396:topics
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423:Ronglu
286:Second
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218:pinyin
212::
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2427:Queue
2345:Dibao
2201:Tibet
2021:Zhili
1904:Amban
1322:S2CID
1310:(PDF)
1292:JSTOR
995:(PDF)
988:(PDF)
847:[
811:S2CID
803:JSTOR
726:Notes
297:Japan
294:Meiji
282:First
2163:Navy
2004:Ejen
1887:List
1353:ISBN
1338:ISBN
1264:ISBN
1249:ISBN
1203:ISBN
1089:2011
1060:ISBN
1003:2010
964:ISBN
903:help
883:2022
853:ISBN
547:Qing
501:and
326:and
229:lit.
214:戊戌变法
206:戊戌變法
192:The
138:百日维新
124:百日維新
63:戊戌变法
49:戊戌變法
1314:hdl
1284:doi
1233:doi
1195:doi
1035:doi
795:doi
433:End
196:or
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