Quebec Agreement - Knowledge

45: 920: 1483:. Signed by Truman on 1 August 1946, and in effect from midnight on 1 January 1947, this law ended technical co-operation. Its control of "restricted data" prevented the United States' allies from receiving any information. The remaining scientists were denied access to papers that they had written just days before. The McMahon Act fuelled resentment from British scientists and officials alike, and led directly to the British decision in January 1947 to develop its own nuclear weapons. In the United States, there was a furore over the British veto over the use of nuclear weapons when the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy was informed of the Quebec Agreement (but not the November 1945 agreement) on 12 May 1947, resulting in intense pressure on Truman to drop the provision. On 7 January 1948, Bush, 999: 1433:, Anderson's assistant, on 15 November 1945 to draw up a communiqué. They agreed to retain the Combined Policy Committee. The Quebec Agreement's requirement for "mutual consent" before using nuclear weapons was replaced with one for "prior consultation", and there was to be "full and effective cooperation in the field of atomic energy", but in the longer Memorandum of Intention, signed by Groves and Anderson, this was only "in the field of basic scientific research". Patterson took the communiqué to the White House, where Truman and Attlee signed it on 16 November 1945. A draft agreement was approved by the Combined Policy Committee on 4 December 1945 as the basis for the revocation of the Quebec Agreement. 976:, a newspaper renowned for its anti-British views. Anderson arrived in Washington with the draft on 5 August, and went over it with Conant and Bush. From the American point of view, nothing made it into the final draft that contradicted the existing policy on interchange of information. Anderson extracted one important concession: the creation of the Combined Policy Committee to oversee the joint project with representation from the United States, Britain and Canada. Conant's objections to Anderson's proposed arrangements for information interchange were met by assigning the task to the Combined Policy Committee. Stimson, 966:. He was reluctant to appear to disagree with them about everything, and, unlike Bush, was sensitive to insinuations that Britain was being unfairly treated. He spoke in conciliatory terms about the need for good post-war relations between the two countries. For his part, Churchill disavowed interest in the commercial applications of nuclear technology. The reason for British concern about the post-war co-operation, they explained, was not commercial concerns, but so that Britain would have nuclear weapons after the war. Bush then proposed a five-point plan, which Stimson promised to put before the president for approval. 326: 916:

Hopkins reported back to Roosevelt, and Churchill and Roosevelt agreed that information interchange should be reviewed, and that the atomic bomb project should be a joint one. Hopkins sent Churchill a telegram confirming this on 17 June, but American policy did not change, largely because Roosevelt did not inform Bush when they next met on 24 June. When Churchill pressed for action in a telegram on 9 July, Hopkins counselled Roosevelt that "you made a firm commitment to Churchill in regard to this when he was here and there is nothing to do but go through with it."

1159:, which had replaced the S-1 Committee on 19 June 1942, at a special meeting on 10 September 1943. The text of the Quebec Agreement was vague in places, with loopholes that Groves could exploit to enforce compartmentalisation. Negotiations on the terms of technical interchange dragged on until December 1943. The new procedures went into effect on 14 December with the approval of the Military Policy Committee (which governed the Manhattan Project) and the Combined Policy Committee. By this time British scientists had already commenced working in the United States. 771: 883:£5 million. The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water for the reactor costing between £5 million and £10 million, and for producing uranium metal, which would cost another £1.5 million. The project would need overwhelming priority, as it was estimated to require 20,000 workers, many of them highly skilled, 500,000 tons of steel, and 500,000 kW of electricity. Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable, and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the 147: 718:, the director of the Radiation Laboratory; Fermi and Conant to explain the urgency. In these meetings he spoke of an atomic bomb with forcefulness and certainty. Allison recalled that when Oliphant met with the S-1 Section, he "came to a meeting, and said 'bomb' in no uncertain terms. He told us we must concentrate every effort on the bomb and said we had no right to work on power plants or anything but the bomb. The bomb would cost $ 25 million, he said, and Britain did not have the money or the manpower, so it was up to us." 1215:. Britain and Canada agreed to pay the cost of this project, but the United States had to supply the heavy water. Because it was unlikely to have any impact on the war, Conant in particular was cool about the proposal, but heavy water reactors were still of great interest. Groves was willing to support the effort and supply the heavy water required, but with certain restrictions. The Montreal Laboratory would have access to data from the Metallurgical Laboratory's research reactors at 6852: 1163: 1344: 857: 6888: 1464:

designing, constructing and operating an atomic energy plant. Attlee's response on 6 June 1946 "did not mince words nor conceal his displeasure behind the nuances of diplomatic language." At issue was not just technical co-operation, which was fast disappearing, but the allocation of uranium ore. During the war this was of little concern, as Britain had not needed any ore, so all the production of the Congo mines and all the ore seized by the

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asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger'. Soon we shall have little or none". But Bush and Conant had already decided that British help was no longer needed. In October 1942, they convinced Roosevelt that the United States should independently develop the atomic bomb, despite the agreement of unrestricted scientific interchange between the US and Britain.

837:, felt that since the United States was doing "ninety percent of the work" on the bomb, it would be "better for us to go along for the present without sharing anything more than we could help". In December 1942, Roosevelt agreed to restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war, even if doing so impeded the American project. The Americans stopped sharing any information on heavy water production, the 575: 6864: 6828: 6108: 1437: 1057:. Most of the discussions were about the invasion of France. Although the Quebec Agreement was a bilateral one to which Canada was not a signatory, the British felt that Canada's contribution to Tube Alloys was significant enough that high-level representation was appropriate. King was therefore asked to nominate a Canadian member of the Combined Policy Committee, and he selected 1371:, detailing the agreement resulting from what they discussed. Most of this dealt with Bohr's thoughts on international control, but it also provided that "ull collaboration between the United States and the British Government in developing Tube Alloys for military and commercial purposes should continue after the defeat of Japan unless and until terminated by joint agreement." 627:, the British scientific attaché to Canada. Cockcroft, a member of the Tizard Mission, brought more. Cockcroft and Fowler met with the Uranium Committee, but the information flow was largely one-way. Cockcroft reported that the American atomic bomb project lagged behind the British, and was not proceeding as fast. Work conducted in America included research by Szilard and 6876: 1155:

to do so. Two weeks passed before American officials learned of the contents of the Quebec Agreement. Bush told Akers that his action was premature, and that the Combined Policy Committee would first have to agree on the rules governing the employment of British scientists. With nothing to do, the scientists returned to the UK. Groves briefed the OSRD

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promised to submit the matter to Roosevelt. On 20 July, Roosevelt wrote to Bush with instructions to "renew, in an inclusive manner, the full exchange with the British Government regarding Tube Alloys", but since Bush was in London, he did not see this letter for another ten days. Stimson, Bush and Stimson's special assistant,

1335:. It was therefore Wilson who, on 4 July 1945, under the clause of the Quebec Agreement that specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent, agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. 1307:, suggested that the French be offered an undertaking that France would subsequently be included in the Manhattan Project, but Churchill did not agree, and remained adamantly opposed to any disclosures to France or the Soviet Union. After the war, the French government repudiated the Halban agreement. 1234:

to the fullest extent, abandoning any hopes of a British project during the war. With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honoured. While the pace of research eased as the war entered its final phase, scientists were still in great demand, and

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had considered the issue of collaboration with the United States, and had concluded that while pilot isotope separation plants could be established in the United Kingdom, full-scale production facilities would have to be built in the United States. The British expressed concerns about the security of

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was established to investigate further. It directed an intensive research effort. Four universities provided the locations where the experiments were taking place. The University of Birmingham undertook theoretical work, such as determining what size of critical mass was needed for an explosion. This

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Even before the Quebec Agreement was signed, Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick, Peierls, Oliphant and Simon should leave immediately for North America. They arrived on 19 August, the day it was signed, expecting to be able to talk to American scientists, but were unable

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The only part of the Quebec Agreement that troubled Stimson was the requirement for mutual consent before atomic bombs could be used. Had Congress known about it, they would never have supported it. The American veto over post-war British commercial and industrial uses made it clear that Britain was

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On 19 August Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Quebec Agreement, which was typed on four pages of Citadelle notepaper, and formally titled "Articles of Agreement governing collaboration between the authorities of the USA and UK in the matter of Tube Alloys". The United Kingdom and the United States

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The American effort soon overtook the British. British scientists who visited the United States in 1942 were astounded at the progress and momentum the Manhattan Project had assumed. On 30 July 1942, Anderson advised Churchill that: "We must face the fact that ... pioneering work ... is a dwindling

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Charles Lindemann, the British Army attaché (and Frederick Lindemann's brother), to discuss a British offer of a full exchange of technical information. Bush was strongly in favour of this proposal, and at their meeting on 8 July 1940, he offered advice on how it should be presented. It was endorsed

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The issue of patent rights was a complex one, and attempts to negotiate deals between Britain and the United States in 1942, and between Britain and Canada in 1943, had failed. After the Quebec Agreement was signed, British and American experts sat down together again and hammered out an agreement,

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took him to see Churchill who told Bush that the President had given him his word of honour on full co-operation, and that he was incensed at obstruction by American bureaucrats. Bush suggested that he take up the matter with Stimson, who was also in London. Churchill did so on 17 July, and Stimson

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By March 1943 Bush and Conant had decided that British help would benefit some areas of the Manhattan Project. In particular, it could benefit enough from assistance from Chadwick and one or two other British scientists to warrant the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. Bush, Conant and Groves

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Britain was at war, but the US was not. Oliphant flew to the United States in late August 1941, ostensibly to discuss the radar programme, but actually to find out why the United States was ignoring the MAUD Committee's findings. He discovered to his dismay that the reports and other documents sent

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In July 1941, the MAUD Committee produced two comprehensive reports that concluded that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible, but could be produced before the war ended, perhaps in as little as two years. The MAUD Committee unanimously recommended pursuing its development as a matter of

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The Quebec Agreement stipulated that the US and UK would pool their resources to develop nuclear weapons, and that neither country would use them against the other, or against other countries without mutual consent, or pass information about them to other countries. It also gave the United States a

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on 25 May 1943. A meeting was arranged that afternoon between Cherwell and Bush in Hopkins's office in the White House, with Hopkins looking on. Both stated their respective positions, and Cherwell explained that Britain's post-war interest was in nuclear weapons, and not commercial opportunities.

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on 7 December 1941 led to the United States' entry into the war. Funding now became available in amounts undreamt of the year before. OSRD contracts were due to expire at the end of June 1942, and there was intense wartime competition for raw materials. It was agreed that in 1942–1943, the United

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The next meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 15 April 1946 produced no accord on collaboration, and resulted in an exchange of cables between Truman and Attlee. Truman cabled on 20 April that he did not see the communiqué he had signed as obligating the United States to assist Britain in

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uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £3 million in research and development, and anything up to £50 million to build in wartime Britain. A nuclear reactor to produce 1 kg of plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada. It would take up to five years to build and cost

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The positions of the two countries were the reverse of what they had been in 1941. American officials were concerned that Akers and other people from ICI involved in the Tube Alloys project were trying to exploit American nuclear scientific knowledge to create a profitable post-war industry. The

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set in, enthusiasm in the United States for an alliance with Britain cooled as well. A September 1949 poll found that 72 per cent of Americans agreed that the United States should not "share our atomic energy secrets with England". The reputation of the British was further tarnished by the 1950

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to the signing of the Quebec Agreement in August 1943, but owing to necessary secrecy, was not finalised until 1956, and covered all patents held in November 1955. Each of the three countries agreed to transfer to the others any rights it held in the others' countries, and waive any claims for

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team. Upon this revelation, the United States and Canada objected, stating that the Halban agreement violated the terms of the Quebec Agreement, namely the section about third-party information-sharing without prior mutual consent. The United Kingdom broke its obligations to France in order to

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Anderson drafted an agreement for full interchange, which Churchill re-worded "in more majestic language". Anderson feared that Groves might tell Stimson and Bush that "like all Americans who come to our misty island, they have been taken in by our hypocritical cunning and carried away by our

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knew of this secret wartime agreement, and Leahy, possibly because he never believed that the atomic bomb would work, and was therefore perhaps not paying much attention, had only a muddled recollection of what had been said. When Wilson raised the Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire in a Combined Policy

1509:, the United Kingdom's post-war nuclear weapons programme, although it was not without important gaps, such as in the field of plutonium metallurgy. The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the McMahon Act being amended in 1958, and to a resumption of the nuclear 1247:, which was responsible for Tube Alloys, to prise them away from the wartime projects in which they were invariably engaged. A British Mission led by Akers assisted in the development of gaseous diffusion technology in New York. Another, led by Oliphant, who acted as deputy director at the 623:, a scientific mission sent to the United States to promote the exchange of military science and technology, brought to America were details about the MAUD Committee's deliberations and activities. Some information from the MAUD Committee had already been conveyed to the United States by 729:

on 9 October 1941, and obtained a commitment to an expanded and expedited American atomic bomb project. Two days later, Roosevelt sent a letter to Churchill in which he proposed that they exchange views "in order that any extended efforts may be coordinated or even jointly conducted."

571:(NDRC) to co-ordinate defence-related research. The NDRC was formally created on 27 June 1940, with Bush as its chairman. It absorbed the Advisory Committee on Uranium which had gone beyond its original role and was now directing research. It became the Uranium Committee of the NDRC. 742:, the head of the NDRC mission in London, but Churchill did not respond until December. He assured Roosevelt of his willingness to collaborate, and informed him that Hovde had discussed the matter with Sir John Anderson and Lord Cherwell, as Frederick Lindemann was now known. The 1180:

Over the next two years, the Combined Policy Committee met only eight times. The first occasion was on the afternoon of 8 September 1943; Stimson discovered that he was the chairman only that morning. This first meeting established a Technical Subcommittee chaired by American

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attended a MAUD Committee meeting on 9 April 1941, and was surprised to discover that the British were convinced that an atomic bomb was technically feasible. The Uranium Committee met at Harvard on 5 May, and Bainbridge presented his report. Bush engaged a group headed by

1106:. Churchill in particular considered the Quebec Agreement to be the best deal he could have struck under the circumstances, and the restrictions were the price he had to pay to obtain the technical information needed for a successful post-war nuclear weapons project. 809:

after the city in which its headquarters was located. The project soon adopted the name "Manhattan" as well. By September 1942, Bush and Conant felt that the time had come for the Army to take over, something already approved by the president on 17 June 1942, and

690:, to investigate further. Compton's report, issued on 17 May 1941, did not address the design or manufacture of a bomb in detail. Instead it endorsed a post-war project concentrating on atomic energy for power production. On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt created the 44: 1188:. The Americans did not want Akers on the Technical Subcommittee due to his ICI background, so Llewellin nominated Chadwick, whom he also wanted to be Head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project. The other members of the Technical Committee were 1479:, a British physicist who had worked at the Montreal Laboratory, made it politically impossible for US officials to exchange information with the UK. Congress, unaware of the Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire because of the loss of the American copy, enacted the 1379:

Committee meeting in June 1945, the American copy could not be found. The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July. Even then, Groves questioned the document's authenticity until the American copy was located many years later in the papers of

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agreed that "it is vital to our common safety in the present War to bring the Tube Alloys project to fruition at the earliest moment", and that this was best accomplished by pooling their resources. The Quebec Agreement stipulated that:

1227:; nor would they be given any information about the chemistry of plutonium, or of methods for separating it from other elements. This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944. 919: 6703: 1244: 767:, and Britain had to fight the Soviet Union alone. The opportunity for a joint project was therefore missed. British and American exchange of information continued but their programmes remained separate. 4262: 210:

to control the joint project. Although Canada was not a signatory, the Agreement provided for a Canadian representative on the Combined Policy Committee in view of Canada's contribution to the effort.

1493:, that allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States, Britain and Canada, which officially repealed the Quebec Agreement. Like the Quebec Agreement it replaced, the 853:

design. In retaliation, the British stopped sending scientists to America, slowing the pace of work there, which had relied on British scientists. The Americans then ceased all information sharing.

382:, with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium. By February 1940, Thomson's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium, and he had decided that it was not worth pursuing. 1386:, Roosevelt's naval aide, apparently misfiled in Roosevelt's Hyde Park papers by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was, and who thought it had something to do with naval guns or boiler tubes. 405:, and found that instead of tons, as everyone had assumed, as little as 1 to 10 kilograms (2.2 to 22.0 lb) would suffice, and would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite. 6765: 5263: 5000: 4995: 5335: 5005: 1422: 4252: 5417: 5268: 1211:

in Chicago and the Montreal Laboratory. At the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 17 February 1944, Chadwick pressed for resources to build a nuclear reactor at what is now known as the

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The aide-mémoire was initialled in duplicate. On the copy kept by the British Government there is a marginal notation by Churchill's Principal Private Secretary: "actually 19th J M M."

1409:, and agreed to revise the Quebec Agreement, with a view to replacing it with a looser form of co-operation on nuclear matters between the three governments. Groves, Secretary of War 5867: 5209: 5025: 4852: 449:, which works on the principle that at differing pressures uranium 235 would diffuse through a barrier faster than uranium 238. This was determined to be the most promising method. 5782: 4593: 1505:

revelation that Fuchs was a Soviet atomic spy. British wartime participation in the Manhattan Project provided a substantial body of expertise that was crucial to the success of

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That "in view of the heavy burden of production falling, upon the United States", the President might limit post-war British commercial or industrial uses of atomic energy.

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a copy of the MAUD Committee report. Although not conveyed to the Americans, the British had other concerns about what might happen after the war if the Americans embraced

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had gone to the United States, but now it was also required by the British atomic project. Chadwick and Groves reached an agreement by which ore would be shared equally.

1200:. It was agreed that the Technical Committee could act without consulting the Combined Policy Committee whenever its decision was unanimous. It held its first meeting at 362:

was originally formed to study the needs of anti-aircraft warfare, but branched out to study air warfare generally. In May 1939, a few months before the outbreak of the

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urgency, although it recognised that the resources required might be beyond those available to Britain. But even before its report was completed, the Prime Minister,

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was a secret agreement between the United Kingdom and the United States outlining the terms for the coordinated development of the science and engineering related to

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The prospect of Germany developing an atomic bomb was also of great concern to scientists in the United States, particularly those who were refugees from

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The Tube Alloys Directorate considered whether Britain could produce a bomb without American help. A gaseous diffusion plant to produce 1 kg of

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extended Anglo-American co-operation into the post-war period, but after the war ended, American enthusiasm for the alliance with Britain waned. The

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A major strain on the Agreement came up in 1944, when it was revealed to the United States that the United Kingdom had made a secret agreement with

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brilliant Prime Minister". When Conant found out about the agreement, he expressed the opinion that he would feel more at home on the staff of the

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to share nuclear information with France after the war in exchange for free use of patents related to nuclear reactors filed by French physicist

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Bush and Conant received the final MAUD Report from Thomson on 3 October 1941. With this in hand, Bush met with Roosevelt and Vice-President

609: 6990: 5799: 5427: 5072: 3241: 3215: 490: 330: 217:, and in July 1945 British permission required by the agreement was given for the use of nuclear weapons against Japan. The September 1944 225:(1946) ended technical co-operation through its control of "restricted data". On 7 January 1948, the Quebec Agreement was superseded by a 2851: 1725: 437:, a phenomenon observed in mixtures of mobile particles where the different particle types exhibit different responses to the force of a 6980: 6930: 5958: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5484: 4955: 4885: 4600: 4257: 1323:, the deputy head of the British Mission to the United States, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States, 1113:

The Quebec Agreement was a secret agreement. Its terms were known to but a few insiders, and its very existence was not revealed to the

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became the director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. Groves attempted to tighten security through a policy of strict

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directly to Briggs had not been shared with all members of the committee; Briggs had locked them in a safe. Oliphant then met with

694:(OSRD), with Bush as its director, personally responsible to the president. The new organisation subsumed the NDRC, now chaired by 555:. Research concentrated on slow fission for power production, but with a growing interest in isotope separation. On 12 June 1940, 5187: 5087: 4382: 1453: 1399: 1324: 1118: 1062: 884: 1041:

A speedy drafting process was required because Roosevelt, Churchill and their political and military advisors converged for the

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Articles of Agreement Governing Collaboration Between the Authorities of the U.S.A. and U.K. in the Matter of Tube Alloys

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Oliphant's team reached a strikingly different conclusion. He had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists,

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which was endorsed by the Combined Policy Committee in September 1944. This agreement, which also covered Canada, was

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Roosevelt regarded this offer of a joint project as sufficiently important to have the letter personally delivered by

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in Europe in September 1939, it was directed to conduct research into the feasibility of atomic bombs. Tizard tasked

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veto over post-war British commercial or industrial uses of nuclear energy. The agreement merged the British

6975: 6790: 6687: 6242: 5248: 4834: 4828: 4390: 3399:"Minutes of the Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, at Blair House, Washington, D.C., January 7, 1948" 1506: 1484: 1156: 977: 791: 536: 514: 422: 371: 263: 187: 61: 6569: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6202: 6009: 5877: 5839: 5539: 5235: 4722: 4320: 1383: 1236: 1114: 1019: 943: 841:, the physical or chemical properties of plutonium, the details of atomic bomb design, or the facts about 786: 683: 636: 6892: 6810: 6635: 6378: 6323: 5896: 5712: 5591: 5570: 5367: 5052: 4901: 4763: 4711: 4438: 1332: 1299:

satisfy the United States. Anderson was extremely concerned about alienating the French, and he and the

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The US and UK would pool their resources to develop nuclear weapons with a free exchange of information;

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reviewed the document and made minor changes, and it was then sent to the British Embassy for approval.

935: 814: 687: 540: 485:, and had decided on a course of action. A new directorate known by the deliberately misleading name of 179: 151: 53: 3029: 3502: 1259:, Chadwick, and later Peierls, led a multinational team of distinguished scientists that included Sir 6904: 6620: 6615: 6474: 6348: 5511: 5506: 5432: 5362: 5177: 5174: 5157: 5145: 5135: 4927: 4786: 4430: 3884: 3597: 1510: 1367:. They discussed post-war collaboration on nuclear weapons, and on 19 September signed the Hyde Park 1319:

Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir

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for permission to publish it, but Truman declined. Churchill therefore omitted it from his memoir,

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One of Bush's first actions as the chairman of the NDRC was to arrange a clandestine meeting with

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was ordered to organise the Army component. He established his headquarters on the 18th floor of

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the American project. Ironically, it was the British project that had already been penetrated by

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Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the making of British nuclear culture 1939–59

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could be created. The term was already familiar to the British public through the writings of

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States Army would fund $ 53 million of an $ 85 million programme. On 18 June 1942,

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was given an oral summary on 12 May 1947. On 12 February 1951, Churchill wrote to President

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in London on 22 July. None of them was aware that Roosevelt had already made his decision.

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Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 1, Policy Making

3753: 3675: 3541:(June 1976). "The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945". 1402: 1287: 1122: 1107: 1030: 980: 972: 947: 864: 850: 764: 752: 695: 624: 532: 466: 319: 6534: 1368: 3601: 6728: 6723: 6494: 6439: 6429: 6424: 6343: 6268: 6197: 6090: 6045: 5872: 5821: 5527: 5521: 5387: 5300: 4858: 4747: 4036: 3702:

Churchill's Bomb: How the United States Overtook Britain in the First Nuclear Arms Race

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Stimson had just finished a series of arguments with the British about the need for an

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Zimmerman, David (1995). "The Tizard Mission and the Development of the Atomic Bomb".

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Neither country would pass information about them to other countries without consent;

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The Tizard Mission: the Top-Secret Operation that Changed the Course of World War II

1436: 567:, a key advisor to the president, went to the president with a proposal to create a 6800: 6682: 6539: 6484: 6464: 6449: 6353: 6177: 5461: 5224: 4521: 3927:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

3774: 3721: 3440: 1441: 1304: 1260: 1224: 1201: 1026: 952: 842: 756: 748: 628: 548: 520: 355: 303: 183: 4135: 3030:"Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945" 6630: 6584: 6549: 6524: 6469: 6373: 6363: 6247: 5751: 5345: 5305: 5295: 4816: 1713: 1480: 1110:

noted that the "idea of the independent deterrent was already well entrenched."

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material. Because of the presence of a team of refugee French scientists led by

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Calder, Ritchie (17 October 1953). "Cost of Atomic Secrecy: Anglo-US Rivalry".

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In September 1944, a second wartime conference was held in Quebec known as the

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Truman, who had succeeded Roosevelt on the latter's death on 12 April 1945,

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History of Operations Research in the United States Army, Volume I: 1942–62

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group was run by Peierls, with the help of fellow German refugee scientist

340:

The discovery of fission raised the possibility that an extremely powerful

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In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War

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The Birth of the Bomb: Britain's Part in the Weapon that Changed the World

3627:

The Long Wait: the Forging of the Anglo-American Nuclear Alliance, 1945–58

1398:, who had replaced Churchill as prime minister in July 1945, Anderson and 6815: 6648: 6182: 5010: 3238:"Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, December 4, 1945" 1501: 1207:

There remained the issue of co-operation between the Manhattan Project's

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and Frisch, who could not work on the university's secret projects like

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Neither country would use them against other countries without consent;

524: 462: 457:'s group at Cambridge investigated whether another element, now called 295: 275: 251: 3609: 3570: 3143: 3141: 1331:

and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir

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Bush was in London on 15 July 1943 to attend a meeting of the British

6191: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 299: 279: 191: 6123: 4197: 3724:(April 1963). "The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent". 3554: 2032: 2030: 4097:

British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years

3060:

Foreign Relations of the United States, Conference at Quebec, 1944

2650: 2648: 1435: 1342: 1161: 997: 918: 855: 769: 573: 473:, which helped them theorise how uranium could be used for power. 390: 324: 3875:. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. 2502: 2500: 2417: 2415: 911:

Churchill took up the matter with Roosevelt when they met at the

6753: 6222: 3629:. Contributions in Military Studies. New York: Greenwood Press. 1131:(1951). It remained a secret until Churchill read it out in the 1065:. Stimson, Bush and Conant would be the American members, while 900: 849:, the joint British and Canadian project that was investigating 6127: 4874: 4201: 2269: 2267: 608:

meeting on 11 July, and an official acceptance was conveyed to

1487:, Cockcroft and Mackenzie concluded an agreement known as the 1417:

met with a British delegation consisting of Anderson, Wilson,

481:, had been briefed on its findings by his scientific advisor, 4124:

International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence

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Tyrer, William A. (2016). "The Unresolved Mystery of ELLI".

1846: 1844: 1795: 1793: 1791: 3062:. Office of the Historian, United States State Department. 2715: 2713: 2711: 2308: 2306: 2254: 2252: 213:

British scientists performed important work as part of the

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Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952

1223:

at Oak Ridge, but not from the production reactors at the

821:

similar to the one that the British had imposed on radar.

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in February 1932. In April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues

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Military history of the United States during World War II

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on 5 April 1954. However, on 4 September 1943 the Soviet

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wanted Chadwick and Peierls to discuss bomb design with

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in Moscow, which she had probably obtained from Fuchs.

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Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

3261: 3259: 777:(foreground, in bowler hat) was scientific advisor to 6840: 2361: 2359: 2357: 1349:

Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum

1459:

for discussions about nuclear weapons, November 1945

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Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. 3301: 3147: 3108: 3016: 2830: 2743: 2506: 2476: 2440: 2421: 2406: 2192: 2180: 2084: 2048: 2036: 2009: 1997: 1973: 1961: 1937: 1925: 1913: 1835: 1811: 1255:process. As head of the British Mission to the 302:had been produced. Hahn wrote to his colleague 3508:. US Government Printing Office. 2 July 1958. 6139: 4886: 4213: 1232:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 899:wanted British comments on the design of the 692:Office of Scientific Research and Development 583:Office of Scientific Research and Development 469:, Oxford also had the world's main supply of 215:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 8: 3477: 3465: 3434: 3432: 3385: 3373: 3337: 3289: 3277: 2654: 1429:from the British Embassy in Washington, and 539:warning the President of the United States, 489:was created to co-ordinate this effort. Sir 32: 4515:Never was so much owed by so many to so few 1192:, who was Groves's scientific advisor, and 433:. Chadwick's group at Liverpool dealt with 6146: 6132: 6124: 5725:Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite 4893: 4879: 4871: 4635: 4220: 4206: 4198: 1475:and the resulting espionage conviction of 955:, met Churchill, Cherwell and Anderson at 298:with slowed neutrons, and discovered that 43: 31: 5757:Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia 4461:A History of the English-Speaking Peoples 3212:"Draft agreement dated November 16, 1945" 3120: 2615: 2554: 2464: 2394: 2336: 2312: 2273: 2258: 2156: 2096: 1889: 1746: 1612: 1600: 1279:on 9 August 1945 and participated in the 805:, following the usual practice of naming 619:Among the wealth of information that the 5827:Roosevelt Institute for American Studies 5670:1920 United States presidential election 5279:Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination 5078:National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 4188:Quebec Agreement on Yale Law School site 3929:. New York: William Morrow and Company. 2690: 2666: 1405:conferred while on a boat cruise on the 6847: 5351:U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933 5284:Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination 5112:Aid to Families with Dependent Children 5038:Federal Emergency Relief Administration 3869:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 3349: 3171: 3084: 2767: 2627: 2584: 2542: 2382: 2297: 2285: 2132: 2108: 1865: 1636: 1545: 1526: 614:British Ambassador to the United States 497:, became the minister responsible, and 4835:Jennie Jerome, Lady Randolph Churchill 4584:Schools and higher education (various) 3361: 3183: 3036:from the original on 18 September 2017 3004: 2992: 2968: 2956: 2944: 2932: 2920: 2908: 2896: 2884: 2818: 2806: 2791: 2603: 2569: 2530: 2491: 2348: 2324: 2231: 2168: 2144: 2120: 2072: 2060: 2021: 1901: 1877: 1850: 1823: 1799: 1782: 1770: 1758: 1696: 1672: 1660: 1624: 1564: 1513:between America and Britain under the 1301:Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 1235:it fell to Anderson, Cherwell and Sir 6956:Nuclear history of the United Kingdom 6921:United Kingdom–United States treaties 4360:The Story of the Malakand Field Force 4343:Churchill's third ministry, 1951–1955 3583:"A Memorandum that Changed the World" 3401:. United States Department of State. 3325: 3240:. United States Department of State. 3214:. United States Department of State. 3032:. United States Department of State. 2872: 2779: 2719: 2702: 2678: 2219: 2207: 1718:Frisch-Peierls Memorandum, March 1940 1684: 1648: 1588: 1576: 1552: 1025:. Seated on the wall behind them are 635:into the possibility of a controlled 429:experimented with different types of 7: 5800:Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation 5640:Democratic National Convention, 1920 5440:Declaration by United Nations (1942) 5428:Combined Munitions Assignments Board 5073:National Labor Relations Act of 1935 3983:. Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme. 3489: 3423: 3405:from the original on 1 December 2017 3313: 3265: 3218:from the original on 1 December 2017 3198: 3159: 3132: 3096: 3066:from the original on 1 December 2017 2980: 2755: 2731: 2639: 2518: 2452: 2365: 2243: 1985: 1949: 839:method of electromagnetic separation 445:'s group at Oxford investigated the 314:had been split. By analogy with the 27:1943 US–UK nuclear weapons agreement 5356:U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 5158:Defense industry non-discrimination 4447:"Are There Men on the Moon?" (1942) 3907:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 3758:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 3447:from the original on 2 January 2015 2854:from the original on 4 January 2015 2850:. Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. 1515:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement 569:National Defense Research Committee 6611:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 5805:Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial 5793:Roosevelt Institute Campus Network 5163:Fair Employment Practice Committee 5131:Securities and Exchange Commission 5063:Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 4338:Churchill caretaker ministry, 1945 4045:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 3443:. History Working Papers Project. 639:; preliminary investigations into 561:Carnegie Institution of Washington 505:(ICI) was appointed its director. 25: 5373:Second London Naval Treaty (1936) 5210:Executive Office of the President 5124:Federal Communications Commission 4606:Mishkenot Sha'ananim bust, Israel 4589:Boulevard in Mississauga, Ontario 4541:Bibliography of Winston Churchill 4321:Churchill war ministry, 1940–1945 3515:from the original on 14 July 2014 3244:from the original on 17 June 2018 1728:from the original on 3 April 2015 930:(centre) with Field Marshals Sir 378:, an Australian physicist at the 6961:History of the Manhattan Project 6898: 6886: 6874: 6862: 6850: 6827: 6826: 6107: 6106: 5546:State of the Union Address (1934 5363:Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945) 5088:National Recovery Administration 4384:London to Ladysmith via Pretoria 4099:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 1400:United States Secretary of State 1196:, the president of the Canadian 1119:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 1063:Minister of Munitions and Supply 145: 132: 6941:Canada–United Kingdom relations 5928:World War II: When Lions Roared 5783:Presidential Library and Museum 5058:Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 4936:Assistant Secretary of the Navy 4759:1940 British war cabinet crisis 4551:International Churchill Society 4424:Marlborough: His Life and Times 3543:The Western Political Quarterly 895:, and the construction company 700:President of Harvard University 333:, the minister responsible for 6966:United Kingdom in World War II 6946:Canada–United States relations 5423:Home front during World War II 4917:President of the United States 4853:Frances Anne Spencer-Churchill 4556:Churchill War Rooms and Museum 4480:A total and unmitigated defeat 1077:would be the British members. 946:'s Anti-U-boat Committee. Sir 370:, the professor of physics at 1: 6028:Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. 5920:Backstairs at the White House 5592:Early life, education, career 5269:Federal Judicial appointments 5100:National Youth Administration 5095:Works Progress Administration 4501:We shall fight on the beaches 4263:"Wilderness" years, 1929–1939 4136:10.1080/08850607.2016.1177404 4095:Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992). 4072:. Washington, D.C.: US Army. 4042:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 3837:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 1497:was classified "Top Secret". 1249:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory 595:, the British air attaché in 545:Advisory Committee on Uranium 495:Lord President of the Council 401:of a metallic sphere of pure 310:, explained that the uranium 6971:August 1943 events in Canada 6771:Oppenheimer security hearing 5630:1928 New York state election 5571:1944 (Second Bill of Rights) 5495:Madison Square Garden speech 5368:Montevideo Convention (1933) 5249:Jefferson's Birthday holiday 5188:Japanese American internment 4567:Churchill College, Cambridge 4487:Blood, toil, tears and sweat 4068:Shrader, Charles R. (2006). 1049:on 17 August, hosted by the 763:, as had occurred after the 553:National Bureau of Standards 547:in October 1939, chaired by 503:Imperial Chemical Industries 412:to Tizard. As a result, the 316:division of biological cells 6991:20th century in Quebec City 6034:John Aspinwall Roosevelt II 5259:Judicial Court-Packing Bill 5198:Italian-American internment 5083:Public Works Administration 5048:Agricultural Adjustment Act 5043:Civilian Conservation Corps 4741:Terminological inexactitude 3811:. New York: Da Capo Press. 3590:American Journal of Physics 3302:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3148:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3109:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3017:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2831:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2744:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2507:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2477:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2441:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2422:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2407:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2193:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2181:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2085:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2049:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2037:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 2010:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1998:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1974:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1962:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1938:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1926:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1914:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1836:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1812:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 1423:High Commissioner to Canada 1390:End of the Quebec Agreement 1329:British Joint Staff Mission 1316:compensation against them. 1010:. Left to right: President 803:Manhattan Engineer District 7012: 6981:1943 in the United Kingdom 6931:Treaties concluded in 1943 5822:White House Roosevelt Room 5403:1940 Selective Service Act 5326:Presidential Proclamations 5193:German-American internment 5119:Communications Act of 1934 5068:Tennessee Valley Authority 4728:St Martin's Church, Bladon 4508:This was their finest hour 4165:10.1177/096834459500200302 3952:Paul, Septimus H. (2000). 3903:Laucht, Christoph (2012). 3625:Botti, Timothy J. (1987). 1253:electromagnetic separation 1102:the junior partner in the 1014:, Canadian Prime Minister 512: 421:. The laboratories at the 318:, they named the process " 282:. Then, in December 1938, 243: 202:project with the American 182:on 19 August 1943, during 6986:1943 in the United States 6824: 6714:Bismuth phosphate process 6709:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 6161: 6085: 6052:James Roosevelt Roosevelt 5490:Commonwealth Club Address 5445:Dumbarton Oaks Conference 5393:Destroyers-for-bases deal 5170:Indian Reorganization Act 4908: 4769:Honorary U.S. citizenship 4572:Churchill Archives Centre 4561:National Churchill Museum 4463:(1956–1958, four volumes) 4426:(1933–1938, four volumes) 4410:(1923–1931, five volumes) 3706:. New York: Basic Books. 3682:. London: Phoenix House. 1198:National Research Council 684:Nobel laureate in physics 527:countries. In July 1939, 410:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 208:Combined Policy Committee 42: 5713:Early life and education 5602:Governorship of New York 5452:World War II conferences 5183:War Relocation Authority 4455:(1948–1953, six volumes) 4253:Liberal Party, 1904–1924 3979:Phelps, Stephen (2010). 3840:The New World, 1939–1946 3478:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3466:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3386:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3374:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3338:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3290:Gowing & Arnold 1974 3278:Gowing & Arnold 1974 2705:, pp. 802, 807–808. 2655:Gowing & Arnold 1974 1413:and Patterson's advisor 1213:Chalk River Laboratories 1209:Metallurgical Laboratory 1051:Prime Minister of Canada 1002:Press Conference at the 665:University of California 380:University of Birmingham 290:at Hahn's laboratory in 114:7 January 1948 99:19 August 1943 73:19 August 1943 6791:S-1 Executive Committee 6739:Einstein–Szilard letter 5467:Morgenthau Plan support 5413:Atlantic Charter (1941) 5136:Monetary gold ownership 4829:Lord Randolph Churchill 4400:Lord Randolph Churchill 4270:World War II, 1939–1945 3866:Jones, Vincent (1985). 1507:High Explosive Research 1283:nuclear tests in 1946. 1230:Chadwick supported the 1157:S-1 Executive Committee 901:gaseous diffusion plant 559:, the president of the 515:S-1 Executive Committee 423:University of Liverpool 372:Imperial College London 306:, who, with her nephew 278:atoms with accelerated 264:University of Cambridge 188:First Quebec Conference 6951:Nuclear weapons policy 6233:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 6010:Anna Roosevelt Halsted 5597:Warm Springs Institute 5540:The More Abundant Life 5485:1932 Acceptance speech 5236:Four Freedoms Monument 5175:Executive Orders 9066, 5153:Record on civil rights 5001:Third and fourth terms 4996:First and second terms 4944:New York State Senator 4847:John Spencer-Churchill 4723:Siege of Sidney Street 4248:In politics, 1900–1939 3923:Nichols, Kenneth David 1460: 1352: 1339:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 1204:on 10 September 1943. 1177: 1115:United States Congress 1038: 1020:British Prime Minister 939: 875: 787:attack on Pearl Harbor 782: 637:nuclear chain reaction 585: 509:Early American efforts 337: 219:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 18:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 6926:World War II treaties 6811:X-10 Graphite Reactor 6766:Nobel Prize laureates 6636:509th Composite Group 5912:The White House Years 5898:Sunrise at Campobello 5834:Franklin D. Roosevelt 5612:Assassination attempt 5053:Emergency Banking Act 4902:Franklin D. Roosevelt 4764:Bengal famine of 1943 4712:Operation Unthinkable 4649:Palace of Westminster 4440:Arms and the Covenant 4275:Later life, 1945–1965 4258:Chancellor, 1924–1929 4243:Early life, 1874–1904 3781:. London: Macmillan. 3760:. London: Macmillan. 3726:International Affairs 1976:, pp. 29, 37–38. 1439: 1346: 1333:Henry Maitland Wilson 1292:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 1257:Los Alamos Laboratory 1221:X-10 Graphite Reactor 1171:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 1165: 1012:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1001: 936:Henry Maitland Wilson 922: 913:Washington Conference 859: 815:Leslie R. Groves, Jr. 773: 688:University of Chicago 581:, Director of the US 577: 541:Franklin D. Roosevelt 461:, could be used as a 328: 180:Franklin D. Roosevelt 152:Franklin D. Roosevelt 54:Franklin D. Roosevelt 6719:British contribution 6621:Operation Peppermint 6616:Operation Crossroads 6475:Maria Goeppert Mayer 5906:Eleanor and Franklin 5566:1941 (Four Freedoms) 5512:Arsenal of Democracy 5507:Day of Infamy speech 5433:War Production Board 4928:Governor of New York 4787:Clementine Churchill 4453:The Second World War 4432:Great Contemporaries 4392:Ian Hamilton's March 3539:Bernstein, Barton J. 1511:Special Relationship 1444:and prime ministers 1281:Operation Crossroads 1251:, assisted with the 819:compartmentalisation 661:Radiation Laboratory 439:temperature gradient 427:University of Oxford 368:George Paget Thomson 348:, in his 1913 novel 260:Cavendish Laboratory 6480:George Kistiakowsky 6435:Charles Critchfield 5944:Hyde Park on Hudson 5890:The Roosevelt Story 5879:I'd Rather Be Right 5868:U.S. Postage stamps 5862:Unfinished portrait 5848:Four Freedoms Award 5788:Roosevelt Institute 5517:"...is fear itself" 5220:Cullen–Harrison Act 5215:G.I. Bill of Rights 5107:Social Security Act 4734:Sword of Stalingrad 4623:Cultural depictions 4618:Sutherland portrait 4494:Be ye men of valour 4013:. London: Penguin. 3835:Hewlett, Richard G. 3602:2011AmJPh..79..440B 3503:"Public Law 85-479" 3492:, pp. 245–247. 3480:, pp. 164–165. 3426:, pp. 129–130. 3388:, pp. 245–254. 3364:, pp. 303–306. 3340:, pp. 106–108. 3328:, pp. 576–578. 3304:, pp. 480–481. 3292:, pp. 102–104. 3280:, pp. 126–130. 3186:, pp. 401–402. 3150:, pp. 457–458. 3087:, pp. 270–271. 3019:, pp. 372–373. 2995:, pp. 244–245. 2971:, pp. 343–346. 2959:, pp. 291–295. 2947:, pp. 260–267. 2935:, pp. 256–260. 2923:, pp. 250–256. 2911:, pp. 241–244. 2899:, pp. 236–237. 2887:, pp. 271–276. 2875:, pp. 246–247. 2844:Laurence, George C. 2770:, pp. 241–242. 2722:, pp. 242–243. 2681:, pp. 135–136. 2669:, pp. 400–401. 2657:, pp. 120–121. 2630:, pp. 240–241. 2587:, pp. 229–231. 2557:, pp. 217–218. 2443:, pp. 275–276. 2409:, pp. 273–274. 2327:, pp. 162–165. 2276:, pp. 209–213. 2234:, pp. 150–151. 2171:, pp. 389–393. 2159:, pp. 206–207. 2123:, pp. 123–125. 2063:, pp. 372–374. 2024:, pp. 121–122. 1880:, pp. 129–130. 1853:, pp. 337–338. 1826:, pp. 106–111. 1802:, pp. 282–283. 1749:, pp. 440–446. 1411:Robert P. Patterson 1365:Hyde Park, New York 1321:Ronald Ian Campbell 1277:bombing of Nagasaki 1241:Permanent Secretary 1047:Citadelle of Quebec 1043:Quadrant Conference 1008:Quadrant Conference 1004:Citadelle of Quebec 847:Montreal Laboratory 708:William D. Coolidge 633:Columbia University 483:Frederick Lindemann 174:. It was signed by 34: 6881:Nuclear technology 6545:Henry DeWolf Smyth 6324:Robert Oppenheimer 6279:Priscilla Duffield 6016:James Roosevelt II 5993: • 5815:Four Freedoms Park 5383:Export Control Act 5306:Modern Oval Office 5254:Jefferson Memorial 5205:Brownlow Committee 5021:New Deal coalition 4811:Marigold Churchill 4799:Randolph Churchill 4718:Political ideology 4629:Churchillian Drift 4563:(Fulton, Missouri) 3773:Gowing, Margaret; 1461: 1415:George L. Harrison 1357:Octagon Conference 1353: 1178: 1039: 988:William R. Purnell 964:invasion of France 940: 893:Robert Oppenheimer 876: 807:engineer districts 783: 740:Frederick L. Hovde 716:Ernest O. Lawrence 675:Harvard University 671:Kenneth Bainbridge 641:isotope separation 586: 431:isotope separation 408:Oliphant took the 393:because they were 351:The World Set Free 338: 254:was discovered by 206:, and created the 6838: 6837: 6760:Los Alamos Primer 6749:Interim Committee 6704:African Americans 6656:The Great Artiste 6515:Isidor Isaac Rabi 6510:Norman Ramsey Jr. 6309:Franklin Matthias 6248:Heavy water sites 6155:Manhattan Project 6121: 6120: 6098:Harry S. Truman → 6064:Warren Delano Jr. 6040:James Roosevelt I 6022:Elliott Roosevelt 6004:Eleanor Roosevelt 5747:Paralytic illness 5534:Quarantine Speech 4868: 4867: 4823:Winston Churchill 4684: 4683: 4654:Parliament Square 4305:Death and funeral 4280:Electoral history 4229:Winston Churchill 4106:978-0-312-06167-8 4079:978-0-16-072961-4 4052:978-0-671-44133-3 4020:978-0-14-101964-2 3990:978-1-59416-116-2 3963:978-0-8142-0852-6 3936:978-0-688-06910-0 3914:978-1-137-02833-4 3890:on 7 October 2014 3818:978-0-306-80189-1 3788:978-0-333-15781-7 3713:978-0-465-02195-6 3636:978-0-313-25902-9 3610:10.1119/1.3533426 3579:Bernstein, Jeremy 3468:, pp. 11–12. 3201:, pp. 80–83. 3162:, pp. 72–73. 3099:, pp. 66–67. 2758:, pp. 58–59. 2734:, pp. 57–58. 2246:, pp. 28–29. 2222:, pp. 70–71. 2210:, pp. 41–44. 2195:, pp. 72–75. 2183:, pp. 52–54. 2147:, pp. 94–95. 2087:, pp. 45–46. 2039:, pp. 43–44. 1940:, pp. 34–39. 1928:, pp. 29–32. 1916:, pp. 27–29. 1904:, pp. 65–66. 1838:, pp. 16–20. 1785:, pp. 48–49. 1773:, pp. 42–45. 1761:, pp. 43–44. 1722:atomicarchive.com 1699:, pp. 39–41. 1675:, pp. 34–39. 1663:, pp. 34–36. 1651:, pp. 54–56. 1639:, pp. 15–24. 1627:, pp. 23–29. 1567:, pp. 17–18. 1471:The defection of 1419:Malcolm MacDonald 1384:Wilson Brown, Jr. 1361:Springwood estate 1296:Collège de France 1190:Richard C. Tolman 1175:Richard C. Tolman 1023:Winston Churchill 957:10 Downing Street 903:it was building. 873:Franklin Matthias 812:Brigadier General 795:James C. Marshall 779:Winston Churchill 712:Samuel K. Allison 653:thermal diffusion 649:gaseous diffusion 479:Winston Churchill 447:gaseous diffusion 435:thermal diffusion 204:Manhattan Project 184:World War II 176:Winston Churchill 170:and specifically 160: 159: 139:Winston Churchill 62:Quebec Conference 58:Winston Churchill 16:(Redirected from 7003: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6891: 6890: 6889: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6867: 6866: 6855: 6854: 6853: 6846: 6830: 6829: 6781:Quebec Agreement 6565:John von Neumann 6505:George B. Pegram 6314:Dorothy McKibbin 6148: 6141: 6134: 6125: 6110: 6109: 6091:← Herbert Hoover 5954:2014 documentary 5810:Roosevelt Island 5457:Quebec Agreement 5378:ABCD line (1940) 5321:Executive Orders 5141:Gold Reserve Act 4947: 4939: 4931: 4920: 4895: 4888: 4881: 4872: 4676:Washington, D.C. 4636: 4612:The Roaring Lion 4408:The World Crisis 4222: 4215: 4208: 4199: 4176: 4147: 4118: 4091: 4064: 4032: 4002: 3975: 3948: 3918: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3889: 3883:. Archived from 3874: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3845: 3830: 3800: 3769: 3754:Gowing, Margaret 3749: 3717: 3705: 3691: 3676:Clark, Ronald W. 3671: 3648: 3621: 3587: 3574: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3514: 3507: 3499: 3493: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3436: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3395: 3389: 3383: 3377: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3311: 3305: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3254: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3225: 3223: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3187: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3094: 3088: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3026: 3020: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2840: 2834: 2828: 2822: 2816: 2810: 2804: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2588: 2582: 2573: 2567: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2495: 2489: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2425: 2419: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2380: 2369: 2363: 2352: 2346: 2340: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2316: 2310: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2262: 2256: 2247: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2166: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2025: 2019: 2013: 2007: 2001: 1995: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1911: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1881: 1875: 1869: 1863: 1854: 1848: 1839: 1833: 1827: 1821: 1815: 1809: 1803: 1797: 1786: 1780: 1774: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1646: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1534: 1531: 1376:William D. Leahy 1186:Wilhelm D. Styer 1140:Ursula Kuczynski 1133:House of Commons 1128:Closing the Ring 932:Harold Alexander 928:Henry L. Stimson 924:Secretary of War 835:Henry L. Stimson 831:Secretary of War 723:Henry A. Wallace 537:written a letter 364:Second World War 288:Fritz Strassmann 190:in Quebec City, 164:Quebec Agreement 150: 149: 148: 137: 136: 135: 121: 119: 106: 104: 91:, Quebec, Canada 80: 78: 47: 35: 33:Quebec Agreement 21: 7011: 7010: 7006: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7001: 7000: 6996:1940s in Quebec 6936:Secret treaties 6911: 6910: 6909: 6899: 6897: 6887: 6885: 6875: 6873: 6861: 6851: 6849: 6841: 6839: 6834: 6820: 6786:RaLa Experiment 6692: 6661: 6626:Project Alberta 6594: 6590:Chien-Shiung Wu 6520:James Rainwater 6455:Richard Feynman 6445:John R. Dunning 6420:Norris Bradbury 6383: 6369:Stafford Warren 6339:William Purnell 6319:Kenneth Nichols 6299:Ernest Lawrence 6274:James B. Conant 6252: 6166: 6157: 6152: 6122: 6117: 6081: 6058:Isaac Roosevelt 6046:Sara Ann Delano 5992: 5987: 5981: 5977:Other namesakes 5970:2023 miniseries 5962:2022 miniseries 5930:1997 miniseries 5922:1979 miniseries 5761: 5742:Campobello home 5701: 5616: 5580: 5477: 5471: 5337: 5330: 5264:Cannabis policy 5031:Second New Deal 4974:Inaugurations ( 4958: 4950: 4942: 4934: 4923: 4912: 4904: 4899: 4869: 4864: 4805:Sarah Churchill 4793:Diana Churchill 4773: 4754:Tonypandy riots 4696:Blenheim Palace 4680: 4634: 4579:Memorial Trusts 4533: 4527: 4467: 4347: 4309: 4231: 4226: 4184: 4179: 4150: 4121: 4107: 4094: 4080: 4067: 4053: 4037:Rhodes, Richard 4035: 4021: 4007:Reynolds, David 4005: 3991: 3978: 3964: 3951: 3937: 3921: 3915: 3902: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3872: 3865: 3856: 3854: 3843: 3833: 3819: 3803: 3789: 3772: 3752: 3720: 3714: 3696:Farmelo, Graham 3694: 3674: 3662:(16): 303–306. 3651: 3637: 3624: 3585: 3577: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3505: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3438: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3384: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3348: 3344: 3336: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3308: 3300: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3257: 3247: 3245: 3236: 3235: 3231: 3221: 3219: 3210: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3139: 3131: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3069: 3067: 3054: 3053: 3049: 3039: 3037: 3028: 3027: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2943: 2939: 2931: 2927: 2919: 2915: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2871: 2867: 2857: 2855: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2805: 2798: 2790: 2786: 2778: 2774: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2646: 2638: 2634: 2626: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2602: 2591: 2583: 2576: 2568: 2561: 2553: 2549: 2541: 2537: 2529: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2498: 2490: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2439: 2428: 2420: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2372: 2364: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2335: 2331: 2323: 2319: 2311: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2284: 2280: 2272: 2265: 2257: 2250: 2242: 2238: 2230: 2226: 2218: 2214: 2206: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2179: 2175: 2167: 2163: 2155: 2151: 2143: 2139: 2131: 2127: 2119: 2115: 2107: 2103: 2095: 2091: 2083: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2059: 2055: 2047: 2043: 2035: 2028: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2004: 1996: 1992: 1984: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1956: 1948: 1944: 1936: 1932: 1924: 1920: 1912: 1908: 1900: 1896: 1888: 1884: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1857: 1849: 1842: 1834: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1806: 1798: 1789: 1781: 1777: 1769: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1710:Peierls, Rudolf 1708: 1707: 1703: 1695: 1691: 1687:, pp. 3–5. 1683: 1679: 1671: 1667: 1659: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1571: 1563: 1559: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1403:James F. Byrnes 1392: 1341: 1288:Hans von Halban 1261:Geoffrey Taylor 1237:Edward Appleton 1194:C. J. Mackenzie 1152: 1123:Harry S. Truman 1108:Margaret Gowing 1075:J. J. Llewellin 1061:, the Canadian 1031:Brendan Bracken 996: 981:George Marshall 973:Chicago Tribune 948:Stafford Cripps 934:(left) and Sir 909: 865:James B. Conant 851:nuclear reactor 765:First World War 753:John Cairncross 736: 696:James B. Conant 625:Ralph H. Fowler 533:Albert Einstein 517: 511: 467:Hans von Halban 248: 242: 237: 172:nuclear weapons 146: 144: 133: 131: 117: 115: 102: 100: 76: 74: 65: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7009: 7007: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6976:1943 in Canada 6973: 6968: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6913: 6912: 6908: 6907: 6895: 6893:United Kingdom 6883: 6871: 6859: 6836: 6835: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6729:Chicago Pile-1 6726: 6724:Calutron Girls 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6700: 6698: 6697:Related topics 6694: 6693: 6691: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6669: 6667: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6652: 6645: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6608: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6562: 6560:Stanisław Ulam 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6495:Edwin McMillan 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6440:Harry Daghlian 6437: 6432: 6430:John Cockcroft 6427: 6425:James Chadwick 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6384: 6382: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6349:Charles Thomas 6346: 6344:Frank Spedding 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6304:James Marshall 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6284:Thomas Farrell 6281: 6276: 6271: 6269:Arthur Compton 6266: 6260: 6258: 6257:Administrators 6254: 6253: 6251: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6185: 6180: 6174: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6143: 6136: 6128: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6115: 6102: 6101: 6094: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6079: 6073: 6067: 6061: 6055: 6054:(half-brother) 6049: 6043: 6037: 6031: 6025: 6019: 6013: 6007: 6000: 5998: 5983: 5982: 5980: 5979: 5974: 5973: 5972: 5964: 5960:The First Lady 5956: 5952:The Roosevelts 5948: 5940: 5932: 5924: 5916: 5902: 5894: 5883: 5875: 5873:Roosevelt dime 5870: 5865: 5858: 5850: 5845: 5837: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5818: 5817: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5790: 5780: 5775: 5769: 5767: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5727: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5709: 5707: 5706:Life and homes 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5626: 5624: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5536: 5531: 5528:Look to Norway 5524: 5522:Fireside chats 5519: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5481: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5437: 5436: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5388:Four Policemen 5385: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5353: 5342: 5340: 5338:foreign policy 5332: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5301:March of Dimes 5298: 5293: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5240: 5239: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5172: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5160: 5150: 5149: 5148: 5146:Silver seizure 5143: 5133: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5104: 5103: 5102: 5092: 5091: 5090: 5085: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5026:First 100 days 5023: 5018: 5008: 5006:Foreign policy 5003: 4998: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4964: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4948: 4940: 4932: 4921: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4900: 4898: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4875: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4862: 4859:Leonard Jerome 4856: 4850: 4844: 4841:Jack Churchill 4838: 4832: 4826: 4820: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4783: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4748:The Other Club 4744: 4737: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4692: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4662: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4642: 4640: 4633: 4632: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4597: 4596: 4586: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4564: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4537: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4525: 4518: 4511: 4504: 4497: 4490: 4483: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4468: 4466: 4465: 4457: 4449: 4444: 4436: 4428: 4420: 4412: 4404: 4396: 4388: 4380: 4372: 4364: 4355: 4353: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4317: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4245: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4232: 4227: 4225: 4224: 4217: 4210: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4183: 4182:External links 4180: 4178: 4177: 4159:(3): 259–273. 4153:War in History 4148: 4130:(4): 785–808. 4119: 4105: 4092: 4078: 4065: 4051: 4033: 4019: 4003: 3989: 3976: 3962: 3949: 3935: 3919: 3913: 3900: 3863: 3831: 3817: 3805:Groves, Leslie 3801: 3787: 3770: 3750: 3732:(2): 238–252. 3718: 3712: 3692: 3672: 3649: 3635: 3622: 3596:(5): 440–446. 3575: 3555:10.2307/448105 3549:(2): 202–230. 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3526: 3494: 3482: 3470: 3458: 3428: 3416: 3390: 3378: 3376:, p. 250. 3366: 3354: 3352:, p. 322. 3342: 3330: 3318: 3316:, p. 240. 3306: 3294: 3282: 3270: 3255: 3229: 3203: 3188: 3176: 3174:, p. 177. 3164: 3152: 3137: 3125: 3123:, p. 224. 3121:Bernstein 1976 3113: 3111:, p. 327. 3101: 3089: 3077: 3047: 3021: 3009: 3007:, p. 372. 2997: 2985: 2973: 2961: 2949: 2937: 2925: 2913: 2901: 2889: 2877: 2865: 2835: 2833:, p. 280. 2823: 2821:, p. 173. 2811: 2809:, p. 234. 2796: 2794:, p. 241. 2784: 2782:, p. 245. 2772: 2760: 2748: 2736: 2724: 2707: 2695: 2693:, p. 492. 2683: 2671: 2659: 2644: 2632: 2620: 2618:, p. 119. 2616:Bernstein 1976 2608: 2606:, p. 439. 2589: 2574: 2572:, p. 171. 2559: 2555:Bernstein 1976 2547: 2545:, p. 236. 2535: 2533:, p. 170. 2523: 2511: 2509:, p. 278. 2496: 2494:, p. 168. 2481: 2479:, p. 277. 2469: 2467:, p. 216. 2465:Bernstein 1976 2457: 2445: 2426: 2424:, p. 274. 2411: 2399: 2397:, p. 214. 2395:Bernstein 1976 2387: 2385:, p. 229. 2370: 2353: 2351:, p. 157. 2341: 2339:, p. 213. 2337:Bernstein 1976 2329: 2317: 2315:, p. 210. 2313:Bernstein 1976 2302: 2300:, p. 218. 2290: 2288:, p. 224. 2278: 2274:Bernstein 1976 2263: 2261:, p. 208. 2259:Bernstein 1976 2248: 2236: 2224: 2212: 2197: 2185: 2173: 2161: 2157:Bernstein 1976 2149: 2137: 2135:, p. 302. 2125: 2113: 2111:, p. 194. 2101: 2099:, p. 205. 2097:Bernstein 1976 2089: 2077: 2075:, p. 373. 2065: 2053: 2041: 2026: 2014: 2002: 1990: 1978: 1966: 1954: 1942: 1930: 1918: 1906: 1894: 1892:, p. 204. 1890:Bernstein 1976 1882: 1870: 1855: 1840: 1828: 1816: 1804: 1787: 1775: 1763: 1751: 1747:Bernstein 2011 1739: 1716:(March 1940). 1701: 1689: 1677: 1665: 1653: 1641: 1629: 1617: 1615:, p. 262. 1613:Zimmerman 1995 1605: 1603:, p. 240. 1601:Bernstein 2011 1593: 1581: 1569: 1557: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1525: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1450:Mackenzie King 1446:Clement Attlee 1396:Clement Attlee 1391: 1388: 1340: 1337: 1273:William Penney 1167:James Chadwick 1151: 1150:Implementation 1148: 1104:Grand Alliance 1099: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1055:Mackenzie King 1016:Mackenzie King 995: 992: 908: 905: 755:had given the 744:MAUD Committee 735: 732: 680:Arthur Compton 645:centrifugation 621:Tizard Mission 616:, on 29 July. 513:Main article: 510: 507: 455:Norman Feather 451:Egon Bretscher 414:MAUD Committee 387:Rudolf Peierls 268:John Cockcroft 256:James Chadwick 244:Main article: 241: 238: 236: 233: 168:nuclear energy 158: 157: 156: 155: 142: 127: 123: 122: 112: 108: 107: 97: 93: 92: 86: 82: 81: 71: 67: 66: 64:in August 1943 50:Mackenzie King 48: 40: 39: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7008: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6906: 6905:United States 6896: 6894: 6884: 6882: 6872: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6858: 6848: 6844: 6833: 6823: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6744:Franck Report 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6701: 6699: 6695: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6664: 6658: 6657: 6653: 6651: 6650: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6606:Alsos Mission 6604: 6603: 6601: 6597: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6580:Robert Wilson 6578: 6576: 6575:Eugene Wigner 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6555:Edward Teller 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6530:Glenn Seaborg 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6500:Mark Oliphant 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6490:Willard Libby 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6400:Robert Bacher 6398: 6396: 6393: 6392: 6390: 6386: 6380: 6379:Roscoe Wilson 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6294:John Lansdale 6292: 6290: 6289:Leslie Groves 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6264:Vannevar Bush 6262: 6261: 6259: 6255: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6193: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6156: 6149: 6144: 6142: 6137: 6135: 6130: 6129: 6126: 6114: 6113: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6095: 6093: 6092: 6088: 6087: 6084: 6077: 6074: 6071: 6068: 6066:(grandfather) 6065: 6062: 6060:(grandfather) 6059: 6056: 6053: 6050: 6047: 6044: 6041: 6038: 6035: 6032: 6029: 6026: 6023: 6020: 6017: 6014: 6011: 6008: 6005: 6002: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5991: 5984: 5978: 5975: 5971: 5969: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5957: 5955: 5953: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5941: 5939: 5937: 5933: 5931: 5929: 5925: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5907: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5880: 5876: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5857: 5855: 5854:Four Freedoms 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5843: 5838: 5836: 5835: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5719: 5718:Groton School 5716: 5715: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5607:Business Plot 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5541: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5529: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5502: 5501:Four Freedoms 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5474: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5446: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5438: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5333: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5296:"Brain Trust" 5294: 5292: 5289: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5274:Supreme Court 5272: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5244:Black Cabinet 5242: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5232: 5231: 5230:Four Freedoms 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5179: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5151: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5117: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5108: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5080: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5013: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4915: 4911: 4910: 4907: 4903: 4896: 4891: 4889: 4884: 4882: 4877: 4876: 4873: 4861:(grandfather) 4860: 4857: 4855:(grandmother) 4854: 4851: 4849:(grandfather) 4848: 4845: 4842: 4839: 4836: 4833: 4830: 4827: 4824: 4821: 4818: 4815: 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4800: 4797: 4794: 4791: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4749: 4745: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4713: 4709: 4707: 4706:Norway Debate 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4687: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4637: 4630: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4613: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4601:Epstein busts 4599: 4595: 4592: 4591: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4568: 4565: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4530: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4512: 4509: 4505: 4502: 4498: 4495: 4491: 4488: 4484: 4481: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4419: 4417: 4416:My Early Life 4413: 4411: 4409: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4376:The River War 4373: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4363: 4361: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4223: 4218: 4216: 4211: 4209: 4204: 4203: 4200: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3871: 3870: 3864: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3775:Arnold, Lorna 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3722:Gott, Richard 3719: 3715: 3709: 3704: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3656: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3535: 3530: 3511: 3504: 3498: 3495: 3491: 3486: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3459: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3417: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3391: 3387: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3271: 3268:, p. 88. 3267: 3262: 3260: 3256: 3243: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3153: 3149: 3144: 3142: 3138: 3135:, p. 68. 3134: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3078: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3051: 3048: 3035: 3031: 3025: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2986: 2983:, p. 66. 2982: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2902: 2898: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2866: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2761: 2757: 2752: 2749: 2746:, p. 75. 2745: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2691:Reynolds 2005 2687: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2667:Reynolds 2005 2663: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2649: 2645: 2642:, p. 52. 2641: 2636: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2524: 2521:, p. 51. 2520: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2458: 2455:, p. 48. 2454: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2368:, p. 46. 2367: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2186: 2182: 2177: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2057: 2054: 2051:, p. 39. 2050: 2045: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2015: 2012:, p. 41. 2011: 2006: 2003: 2000:, p. 24. 1999: 1994: 1991: 1988:, p. 21. 1987: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1967: 1964:, p. 40. 1963: 1958: 1955: 1952:, p. 20. 1951: 1946: 1943: 1939: 1934: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1883: 1879: 1874: 1871: 1868:, p. 14. 1867: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1829: 1825: 1820: 1817: 1814:, p. 42. 1813: 1808: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1740: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1705: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1681: 1678: 1674: 1669: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1591:, p. 11. 1590: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1546: 1540: 1530: 1527: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1496: 1495:modus vivendi 1492: 1491: 1490:modus vivendi 1486: 1482: 1478: 1477:Alan Nunn May 1474: 1473:Igor Gouzenko 1469: 1467: 1466:Alsos Mission 1458: 1457: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1431:Denis Rickett 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1407:Potomac River 1404: 1401: 1397: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1350: 1345: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1314: 1313:retrospective 1308: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1184: 1183:Major General 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1129: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1082: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1067:Field Marshal 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1036: 1035:Harry Hopkins 1032: 1028: 1024: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1000: 993: 991: 989: 986: 982: 979: 975: 974: 967: 965: 960: 958: 954: 949: 945: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 914: 906: 904: 902: 898: 894: 888: 886: 885:war in Europe 881: 880:weapons-grade 874: 870: 869:Leslie Groves 866: 862: 861:Vannevar Bush 858: 854: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 826: 822: 820: 816: 813: 808: 804: 800: 796: 793: 788: 785:The Japanese 780: 776: 775:Lord Cherwell 772: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 745: 741: 734:Collaboration 733: 731: 728: 724: 719: 717: 713: 709: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 676: 672: 668: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 602: 598: 594: 591: 590:Air Commodore 584: 580: 579:Vannevar Bush 576: 572: 570: 566: 565:Harry Hopkins 562: 558: 557:Vannevar Bush 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 516: 508: 506: 504: 500: 499:Wallace Akers 496: 492: 491:John Anderson 488: 484: 480: 474: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 443:Francis Simon 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 415: 411: 406: 404: 400: 399:critical mass 396: 392: 388: 383: 381: 377: 376:Mark Oliphant 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 352: 347: 343: 336: 332: 331:John Anderson 327: 323: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 292:Berlin-Dahlem 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 272:Ernest Walton 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 247: 239: 234: 232: 230: 229: 228:modus vivendi 224: 220: 216: 211: 209: 205: 201: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 153: 143: 140: 130: 129: 128: 124: 113: 109: 98: 94: 90: 87: 83: 72: 68: 63: 59: 55: 51: 46: 41: 36: 30: 19: 6816:Y-12 Project 6801:Smyth Report 6796:S-50 Project 6780: 6758: 6754:K-25 Project 6683:Pumpkin bomb 6654: 6647: 6640: 6570:John Wheeler 6540:Louis Slotin 6535:Emilio Segrè 6485:George Koval 6465:James Franck 6450:Enrico Fermi 6395:Luis Alvarez 6354:Paul Tibbets 6329:Deak Parsons 6105: 6096: 6089: 6078:(family dog) 6072:(family dog) 5967: 5959: 5951: 5943: 5936:Warm Springs 5935: 5927: 5919: 5911: 5905: 5897: 5889: 5881:1937 musical 5878: 5861: 5853: 5841: 5833: 5773:Bibliography 5585:Other events 5476:Presidential 5462:Europe first 5456: 5336:Presidential 5311:Official car 5234: 5225:Roerich Pact 4610: 4522:Iron Curtain 4460: 4452: 4439: 4431: 4423: 4415: 4407: 4399: 4391: 4383: 4375: 4370:(1899 novel) 4367: 4359: 4295:Racial views 4285:As a painter 4156: 4152: 4127: 4123: 4096: 4069: 4041: 4010: 3980: 3953: 3926: 3904: 3892:. 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