41:. The function of the GI tract is to process ingested food by mechanical and chemical means, extract nutrients and excrete waste products. The GI tract is composed of the alimentary canal, that runs from the mouth to the anus, as well as the associated glands, chemicals, hormones, and enzymes that assist in digestion. The major processes that occur in the GI tract are: motility, secretion, regulation, digestion and circulation. The proper function and coordination of these processes are vital for maintaining good health by providing for the effective digestion and uptake of nutrients.
61:. These subunits fire spontaneously in either a tonic or a phasic fashion. Tonic contractions are those contractions that are maintained from several minutes up to hours at a time. These occur in the sphincters of the tract, as well as in the anterior stomach. The other type of contractions, called phasic contractions, consist of brief periods of both relaxation and contraction, occurring in the posterior stomach and the small intestine, and are carried out by the
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363:
sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered
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GI peptides are signal molecules that are released into the blood by the GI cells themselves. They act on a variety of tissues including the brain, digestive accessory organs, and the GI tract. The effects range from excitatory or inhibitory effects on motility and secretion to feelings of satiety or
375:
Control of the digestive system is also maintained by ENS, which can be thought of as a digestive brain that can help to regulate motility, secretion and growth. Sensory information from the digestive system can be received, integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this occurs, the
256:
The second vital secretion of the GI tract is that of digestive enzymes that are secreted in the mouth, stomach and intestines. Some of these enzymes are secreted by accessory digestive organs, while others are secreted by the epithelial cells of the stomach and intestine. While some of these enzymes
176:
Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the
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of food that is in the system, forcing it toward the anus into the next relaxed section of smooth muscle. This relaxed section then contracts, generating smooth forward movement of the bolus at between 2–25 cm per second. This contraction pattern depends upon hormones, paracrine signals, and the
163:
also occur during and shortly after a meal within short lengths in segmented or random patterns along the intestine. This process is carried out by the longitudinal muscles relaxing while circular muscles contract at alternating sections thereby mixing the food. This mixing allows food and digestive
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in smooth muscle cells. They are associated with the contractile smooth muscle via gap junctions. These slow wave potentials must reach a threshold level for the action potential to occur, whereupon Ca channels on the smooth muscle open and an action potential occurs. As the contraction is graded
125:
is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes. This cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is
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Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from
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and cholesterol. Bilirubin is a waste product of the breakdown of hemoglobin. The cholesterol present is secreted with the feces. The bile salt component is an active non-enzymatic substance that facilitates fat absorption by helping it to form an emulsion with water due to its
89:
based upon how much Ca enters the cell, the longer the duration of slow wave, the more action potentials occur. This, in turn, results in greater contraction force from the smooth muscle. Both amplitude and duration of the slow waves can be modified based upon the presence of
216:
of the stomach creating acidic conditions with a low pH of 1. H is pumped into the stomach by exchanging it with K. This process also requires ATP as a source of energy; however, Cl then follows the positive charge in the H through an open apical channel protein.
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by the high H+ concentration, becoming an enzyme vital to digestion. The release of the enzymes is regulated by neural, hormonal, or paracrine signals. However, in general, parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion of all digestive enzymes.
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Peristalsis is one of the patterns that occur during and shortly after a meal. The contractions occur in wave patterns traveling down short lengths of the GI tract from one section to the next. The contractions occur directly behind the
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reflex is called a short reflex. Although this may be the case in several situations, the ENS can also work in conjunction with the CNS; vagal afferents from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the
101:. The number of slow wave potentials per minute varies based upon the location in the digestive tract. This number ranges from 3 waves/min in the stomach to 12 waves/min in the intestines.
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The digestive system has a complex system of motility and secretion regulation which is vital for proper function. This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the
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Motility may be overactive (hypermotility), leading to diarrhea or vomiting, or underactive (hypomotility), leading to constipation or vomiting; either may cause abdominal pain.
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The largest component of secreted fluids is ions and water, which are first secreted and then reabsorbed along the tract. The ions secreted primarily consist of H, K, Cl, HCO
417:
families, with the third composed of all the other hormones unlike those in the other two families. Further information on the GI peptides is summarized in the table below.
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in the intestines. Signals for increased mucus release include parasympathetic innervations, immune system response and enteric nervous system messengers.
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is released in the stomach and intestine, and serves to lubricate and protect the inner mucosa of the tract. It is composed of a specific family of
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form. When these proenzymes reach the lumen of the tract, a factor specific to a particular proenzyme will activate it. A prime example of this is
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and Na. Water follows the movement of these ions. The GI tract accomplishes this ion pumping using a system of proteins that are capable of
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843:
738:
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313:. It is produced in liver cells and stored in the gall bladder until release during a meal. Bile is formed of three elements:
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552:
1026:
38:
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and is generally very viscous. Mucus is made by two types of specialized cells termed mucous cells in the stomach and
77:
1554:
1444:
1177:
682:
677:
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1519:
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1375:
160:
114:
707:
402:
149:
1449:
1380:
1018:
629:
608:
122:
970:
1404:
347:
343:
1533:
1318:
698:
694:
194:
118:
941:
754:
1313:
1283:
1241:
1216:
916:
1265:
392:
are both located in the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut or the CNS.
98:
81:
1455:
1050:
62:
780:"Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: History, Pathophysiology, Clinical Features and Rome IV"
703:
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The stimulation for these contractions likely originates in modified smooth muscle cells called
334:. Other compounds such as the waste products of drug degradation are also present in the bile.
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Stimulates pancreatic and hepatic HCO3- secretion; inhibits acid secretion; pancreatic growth
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Peptides and amino acids in lumen; gastrin releasing peptide and ACh in nervous reflexes
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are famous examples of distinct patterns of GI contraction. Occurring between meals, the
755:"Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system - Wikibooks, open books for an open world"
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hunger when acting on the brain. These hormones fall into three major categories, the
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sides of the epithelium determines the net movement of ions and water in the tract.
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enzymes to maintain a uniform composition, as well as to ensure contact with the
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remain embedded in the wall of the GI tract, others are secreted in an inactive
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in an aqueous solution. This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO
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secretion occurs to neutralize the acid secretions that make their way into the
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digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells.
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273:). However, once it reaches the gastric lumen it becomes activated into
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and open channel ion movement. The arrangement of these proteins on the
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Endocrine I cells of the small intestine; neurons of the brain and gut
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likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.
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1092:
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Bile is secreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the
286:
133:
1498:
990:
541:
Stimulates gallbladder contraction; Inhibits stomach emptying
513:
Stimulates gallbladder contraction; inhibits stomach emptying
603:
Fasting: cyclic release every 1.5–2 hours by neural stimulus
575:
Glucose, fatty acid, and amino acids in small intestine
619:
Stimulates insulin release; inhibits glucagon release
1552:
600:
Action in brain, stimulates migratory motor complex
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510:Stimulates pancreatic enzyme and HCO3- secretion
481:Increases acid secretion, increases mucus growth
834:Silverthorn Ph. D, Dee Unglaub (April 2, 2006).
730:Gastrointestinal Physiology: A Clinical Approach
727:Trowers, Eugene; Tischler, Marc (2014-07-19).
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504:Gallbladder, pancreas, gastric smooth muscle
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37:that addresses the physical function of the
269:. Pepsin in its secreted form is inactive (
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80:. These cells cause spontaneous cycles of
917:"Pathophysiology of the Digestive System"
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706:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
557:Endocrine K cells of the small intestine
529:Endocrine S cells of the small intestine
380:. When this occurs, the reflex is called
27:Study of the physical function of the gut
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836:Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach
419:
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963:"Overview of Gastrointestinal Hormones"
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244:and Na present in the duct creating an
228:of the small intestine. Most of the HCO
634:Mixed meals of fats and carbohydrates
588:Smooth muscle of stomach and duodenum
563:Stimulates pancreatic insulin release
326:nature. These salts are formed in the
265:, which is secreted in the stomach by
585:Endocrine M cells in small intestine
49:The gastrointestinal tract generates
7:
354:working in harmony with each other.
613:Endocrine cells in small intestine
597:Stimulates migrating motor complex
25:
915:Bowen DVM PhD, R (July 5, 2006).
778:Drossman, DA (19 February 2016).
622:Possibly inhibits acid secretion
519:Fatty acids and some amino acids
330:from bile acids combined with an
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1562:
938:"Essentials Of Human Physiology"
484:Stimulates gastric contraction
346:(CNS), short reflexes from the
861:"Mixing and moving in the gut"
441:Effects on endocrine secretion
422:General GI peptide information
1:
1225:Bile and pancreatic secretion
1120:
572:Satiety and lipid metabolism
446:Effects on exocrine secretion
208:H and Cl are secreted by the
796:10.1053/j.gastro.2016.02.032
401:For further information see
248:to which the water follows.
560:Beta cells of the pancreas
350:(ENS) and reflexes from GI
78:interstitial cells of Cajal
39:gastrointestinal (GI) tract
31:Gastrointestinal physiology
1613:
1445:Interstitial cell of Cajal
683:Inferior mesenteric artery
678:Superior mesenteric artery
553:Gastric inhibitory Peptide
475:ECL cells; parietal cells
1520:Enterohepatic circulation
1376:Segmentation contractions
396:Gastrointestinal peptides
161:Segmentation contractions
708:Medical Subject Headings
566:Inhibits acid secretion
547:Acid in small intestine
403:Gastrointestinal hormone
150:autonomic nervous system
1450:Basal electrical rhythm
1381:Migrating motor complex
1019:gastrointestinal system
733:. Springer. p. 9.
625:Slows gastric emptying
609:Glucagon-like peptide-1
168:for proper absorption.
152:for proper regulation.
123:migrating motor complex
1405:Enteric nervous system
967:www.vivo.colostate.edu
672:Splanchnic circulation
348:enteric nervous system
344:central nervous system
232:comes from pancreatic
139:
1319:Enterochromaffin cell
1314:Enteroendocrine cells
838:. Benjamin Cummings.
699:University of Bristol
630:various CNS functions
195:facilitated diffusion
138:Peristalsis animation
137:
117:, detailed below and
1307:Endocrine cell types
877:10.1136/gut.45.3.333
859:Wood, J. D. (1999).
715:Notes and references
704:Digestive+Physiology
461:Stimulus for release
236:in the form of NaHCO
105:Contraction patterns
82:slow wave potentials
1333:Exocrine cell types
1266:Glucose homeostasis
790:(6): 1262–1279.e2.
616:Endocrine pancreas
472:G Cells in stomach
451:Effects on motility
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99:paracrine signaling
57:subunits linked by
1456:Gastrocolic reflex
1017:Physiology of the
532:Pancreas, stomach
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63:muscularis externa
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1413:Submucous plexus
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390:submucosal plexus
252:Digestive enzymes
119:pendular movement
91:neurotransmitters
86:action potentials
33:is the branch of
16:(Redirected from
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1597:Human physiology
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1504:Pancreatic juice
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969:. Archived from
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640:
633:
631:
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621:
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459:
457:
456:Other effects
454:
452:
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437:
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429:
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418:
416:
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404:
395:
393:
391:
387:
383:
379:
370:
368:
366:
358:Long reflexes
357:
355:
353:
349:
345:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
320:
316:
312:
304:
302:
300:
296:
292:
291:glycoproteins
288:
281:
279:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
251:
249:
247:
235:
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218:
215:
211:
206:
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155:
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146:
136:
129:
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116:
112:
104:
102:
100:
96:
92:
87:
83:
79:
71:
69:
66:
64:
60:
59:gap junctions
56:
55:smooth muscle
52:
44:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
18:Hypermotility
1340:Goblet cells
1185:Somatostatin
1152:Gastric acid
1142:Gastric acid
1068:Gastric acid
975:. Retrieved
971:the original
966:
957:
946:. Retrieved
942:the original
931:
920:. Retrieved
868:
864:
854:
835:
787:
783:
773:
762:. Retrieved
758:
749:
729:
722:
655:disaccharide
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
421:
407:
400:
399:
374:
361:
341:
308:
299:goblet cells
285:
255:
234:acinar cells
219:
207:
184:
175:
159:
156:Segmentation
141:
115:segmentation
108:
75:
67:
48:
30:
29:
1441:Peristalsis
1427:Either/both
1386:Borborygmus
1051:Chief cells
431:Secreted by
378:vagus nerve
328:hepatocytes
267:chief cells
203:basolateral
130:Peristalsis
111:peristalsis
72:Stimulation
1466:Enterocyte
1391:Defecation
1111:Swallowing
1056:Pepsinogen
977:2016-09-16
948:2008-03-19
922:2008-03-19
764:2016-09-05
367:reflexes.
338:Regulation
332:amino acid
324:amphoteric
315:bile salts
271:pepsinogen
166:epithelium
1513:Processes
1484:Accessory
1461:Digestion
1434:Processes
1369:Processes
1324:APUD cell
1270:incretins
1217:paracrine
1213:Endocrine
1178:ECL cells
1173:Histamine
1154:secretion
1104:Processes
641:Digestion
628:Satiety;
319:bilirubin
259:proenzyme
212:into the
172:Secretion
97:or other
1591:Category
1581:Medicine
1249:Secretin
1116:Vomiting
1043:Exocrine
1027:GI tract
895:10446098
804:27144617
661:proteins
525:Secretin
516:Satiety
415:secretin
365:cephalic
352:peptides
226:duodenum
95:hormones
51:motility
45:Motility
1569:Biology
1555:Portals
1296:L cells
1284:K cells
1254:S cells
1242:I cells
1190:D cells
1166:G cells
1161:Gastrin
886:1727625
581:Motilin
468:Gastrin
411:gastrin
384:. The
293:termed
1492:Fluids
1353:Fluids
1137:Saliva
1130:Fluids
893:
883:
842:
802:
737:
710:(MeSH)
666:lipids
498:(CCK)
436:Target
295:mucins
275:pepsin
263:pepsin
199:apical
53:using
1291:GLP-1
1205:Lower
1093:Mucus
1035:Upper
695:Notes
594:None
591:None
569:None
544:None
535:None
507:None
487:None
478:None
287:Mucus
282:Mucus
214:lumen
145:bolus
1499:Bile
891:PMID
840:ISBN
800:PMID
735:ISBN
413:and
388:and
305:Bile
201:and
181:Ions
113:and
109:The
1279:GIP
1085:HCO
881:PMC
873:doi
865:Gut
792:doi
788:150
697:at
220:HCO
1593::
965:.
903:^
889:.
879:.
869:45
867:.
863:.
812:^
798:.
786:.
782:.
757:.
653:,
317:,
193:,
93:,
65:.
1557::
1452:)
1443:(
1272:)
1268:(
1215:/
1087:3
1010:e
1003:t
996:v
980:.
951:.
925:.
897:.
875::
848:.
806:.
794::
767:.
743:.
657:)
649:(
242:3
238:3
230:3
222:3
187:3
20:)
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