322:, but less than 20% receive treatment for the condition. Many medically underserved patients, who are appropriate candidates for antiviral treatment, do not receive treatment for a variety of reasons, including limited or no insurance coverage and the high cost of antiviral therapy. Such access barriers are compounded by the fact that HCV is particularly prevalent in populations struggling with substance abuse problems, poverty, homelessness, mental illness, low literacy, and language issues, thereby subjecting them to mass incarceration. A study conducted at a Florida State prison concluded that the continual persistence of HIV infections and deaths related to such infections are due to unequal distribution of health care resources to inmates. Such statistics coupled with an increasing rate of incarceration only amplify the issue of HIV/HCV prevention in prisons, with the number of inmates increasing but healthcare policies remaining stagnant.
140:
prevalence of tuberculosis is higher among incarcerated populations, this is not a population that is actively targeted by TB prevention programs. According to a comprehensive review of the 2002 to 2013 Tuberculosis
Surveillance System, rates remain high- particularly in the male prisoner population, "Among 5579 persons incarcerated at the time of their tuberculosis diagnosis, 2520 (45%) were US-born and 495 (9%) were female. Median estimated annual tuberculosis incidence rates were 29 cases per 100 000 local jail inmates, 8 per 100 000 state prisoners, and 25 per 100 000 federal prisoners." These rates of infection are significant, as if TB is not properly managed it can have lasting side effects including: permanent lung damage, infection of the bones, spine, brain and spinal cord. Proper attention and care must be provided to this vulnerable population to prevent morbidity and mortality in the United States inmate population.
248:
of Health
Services faced a budget deficit that led to the decision of restructuring their outpatient care system. The result of this restructuring led to the following: 17 LA County STI clinics and 3 of general medical clinics were also closed down. This then resulted in the shift of "balance of STD services in favor of general medical clinics." Reduced funding greatly therefore affecting the quality of patient care. Six clinics were studied from March 1, 1996, to June 30, 1996, with the data of patients recorded during each visit. Thirty-two process of care quality indicators were determined that listed patient expectations during visitation. Data showed that the public STI clinics demonstrated a greater adherence than general medical clinics for every 14 out of the 32 patient care quality indicators. As a result, both the general medical clinics and STI clinics suffered from the budget deficit of 1995.
256:. These are the stages that clients can potentially experience if they opted out of vaccination. Those that chose to be part of a routine vaccination would undergo a three-part vaccination stage within a year. The total medical cost for those who contracted the HBV virus is as follows: $ 1,587 million for societal costs; $ 346 million in medical costs; and $ 1,241 million in productivity losses. The projected cost for a national vaccination program that is to serve more than a million clients is "$ 138 million including $ 95 million for vaccine and administration, $ 30.5 million for staff training and supervision, and $ 12.2 million for protocol development and vaccination record-keeping.
570:
treated for HCV by this program during their time in prison. The inmates that qualify for this program meet with staff from the
Department of Correctional Services's Health Services and receive information about this opportunity. After going through paperwork regarding release of medical information to hospitals, the Department of Parole, and the Department of Health AIDS Institute, and Medicaid eligibility, the inmates are referred to facilities based on release and type of treatment required. Facilities use the inmates' HCV testing history, genotype, HCV treatment, HIV status and, if HIV infected, most recent CD4/T-Helper cell count and viral load and discharge information to determine the most suitable treatment.
562:
within the United States. From 2005 to 2006, the state of New York began implementing the
Hepatitis C Continuity Program, offering free HCV treatment for inmates even after release from its state prisons. The program encompassed 70 prisons and 21 health-care facilities. This program was put together by the collaborative efforts of New York State Department of Correctional Services, New York State Department of Health, New York State Division of Parole, New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, and other community-based health care providers. Together, these organizations addressed the immediate need for medication upon release from prison. Inmates were given proper medication provided they possess
183:
606:: A confinement facility usually administered by a local law enforcement agency that is intended for adults, but sometimes holds juveniles, for confinement before and after adjudication. Such facilities include jails and city or county correctional centers; special jail facilities, such as medical treatment or release centers; halfway houses; work farms; and temporary holding or lockup facilities that are part of the jail's combined function. Inmates sentenced to jail facilities usually have a sentence of 1 year or less. Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Rhode Island, and Vermont operate integrated systems, which combine prisons and jails.
109:
expanded jail testing could increase the number of previously unidentified cases of HIV. In prisons, where inmates are incarcerated for more than a year, testing should take place at the medical evaluation. In jails, where a majority of inmates bail out between 72 hours and seven days, routine testing should ideally take place at the intake evaluation. This may not be possible if the inmate is under the influence of drugs or alcohol or is otherwise mentally unstable. While medical evaluations typically occur within 10 days of detention, some inmates may have been released and thus will not get tested.
364:
including hospital emergency departments, urgent-care clinics, inpatient services, STI clinics or other venues offering clinical STI services, tuberculosis clinics, substance abuse treatment clinics, other public health clinics, community clinics, correctional health-care facilities, and primary care settings. (The guidelines address HIV testing in health-care settings only; they do not change existing guidelines concerning targeted testing of persons at high risk for HIV who seek HIV testing in nonclinical settings such as community-based organizations, outreach settings, or mobile vans.)
105:
such a risk of contracting HIV due to high-risk behavior prior to entering the penitentiary system. Furthermore, research also shows that AIDS is the single largest cause of death among
African American men between ages 25 through 44 years, mainly due to drug-related transmission of the virus. As of September 2013, condoms for prisoners are only available in the US state of Vermont (on September 17, 2013, the California Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state's prisons, but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval).
93:
high-risk behaviors within the correctional system. In a
Louisiana prison study, 242 inmates (72.8% of male inmates) had participated in sexual encounters with other men, and did not always have access to proper protection. Additionally, research has demonstrated that infection rates via injection are much higher among those who have previously served prison terms. Research suggests that elevated rates of infection are a result of increased prison sentencing for drug-related offences and the
419:
immediately to ensure that an appointment has been made with a provider, that contact information for a health department or community-based organization case manager is available to help them navigate the healthcare system. Several studies indicate that follow-up care for HIV positive women may correlate with a reduction in recidivism. Correctional facilities should have the following CDC recommended procedures and resources in place for inmates being discharged from custody:
521:
state or local health department for assistance with notification of results, counseling, partner services and linkage to care. The CDC advocates a syndemic approach to intervene in the transmission of HIV, HCV and other STIs. This approach includes "combining services to minimize missed opportunities" to detect disease. This approach calls for a collaborative effort between agencies to address high incarceration rates and other social justice issues such as poverty.
131:
ability to pay for follow-up care as a means of changing behavior (for example, refraining from alcohol or not sharing needles). Studies have shown that knowledge of disease status can change behavior with HIV infection. It is estimated that 80% of people with HIV who inject drugs also have hepatitis C virus. HIV co-infection more than triples the risk for liver disease, liver failure, and liver-related death from HCV.
594:: A process of communication between patient and provider through which an informed patient can choose whether to undergo HIV testing or decline to do so. Elements of informed consent typically include providing oral or written information regarding HIV, the risks and benefits of testing, the implications of HIV test results, how test results will be communicated, and the opportunity to ask questions.
296:
incarceration to even post-incarceration treatment. It was first issued measure in New York involving a coalition between different sectors to provide aid for prisoners even after release. Other guidelines included collaborating with the local healthcare systems that prisoners may potentially be released to after serving their terms. Serious public health outbreaks such as the spread of
537:
keep these potentially infected people outside of the prison system. These techniques do not only apply to HIV and HCV prevention, but also address the various other diseases present within correctional facilities. Since prevention of any infectious diseases presents a major unsolved problem, public healthcare professionals advocate for a more inclusive and all-encompassing approach.
286:, the court case ruled that healthcare within prisons are a constitutional right. Prior to this court case, prison systems deliberately denied prisoners much treatment, delaying access to physicians, or failing to help prisoners seek any medical judgment. This court case created measures to reduce the spread of diseases and also provided inmates with medical attention. In
618:: A long-term confinement facility, run by a state or the federal government, that typically holds felons and offenders with sentences of more than 1 year. However, sentence length may vary by state. Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Rhode Island, and Vermont operate integrated systems, which combine prisons and jails.
549:
programs to address sexual violence, prison systems have not allowed external, independent researchers to carry out, at regular intervals, a comprehensive review and analysis of the incidence of rape and other forms of sexual violence in their prisons. Additionally, victims of sexual assault in prison do not have access to
561:
Treatment after being released from prison can be difficult because individuals must locate facilities that can provide them treatment while considering their social status, limited knowledge, and access to these resources. Hepatitis C has been one of the most widespread blood-borne infection to date
540:
Due to the high rate of HIV that exists within prisons and the carceral system, these sites are crucial in educating individuals for further infection. The
National Commission on Correctional Health Care conducted a study evaluating current modes of handling HIV through prevention programs across the
536:
While vaccination programs are accepted, they are not widely implemented. Substance abuse programs are also rare, though HIV and HCV testing are widely available. Because of the ineffectiveness of some preventive techniques, advocates push for alternative forms of rehabilitation for drug offenders to
444:
The high rate of turnover in local jails as opposed to prisons may make it difficult to implement a routine testing program at intake or on a scheduled basis. In cases where testing all incoming inmates is not possible, there are alternative approaches that can be used individually or in combination
379:
Follow state or local laws that require parental consent or notification for HIV testing and/or HIV-related health-care services for minors. If required, obtain consent for testing and/or health-care services from the adolescent's parent or legal guardian prior to providing that service. Consent can
342:
Universal screening methods have proven very effective in certain circumstances. For example, screening among blood donors has all but eliminated transmission of HIV through blood transfusions. Another example is the reduction of perinatal transmission with the introduction of routine screening for
251:
Separate studies assessed the practicality and cost-efficiency of vaccinating all adults treated at STI clinics in a span of a year. Two scenarios were compared, assuming a national program offering the
Hepatitis B vaccine to two million clients in order to create a decision model. The first scenario
247:
released a study entitled "Comparing
Quality of Care for Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Specialized and General Clinics", explaining the quality of care provided in public STI clinics and general medical clinics when treating patients with STIs. In October 1995, the County of Los Angeles Department
367:
The new CDC guidelines state "in all health-care settings, screening for HIV infection should be performed routinely for all patients aged 13–64 years. Health-care providers should initiate screening unless prevalence of undiagnosed HIV infection in their patients has been documented to be <0.1%.
363:
In 1996, the CDC revised its recommendations to incorporate diagnostic HIV testing and opt-out HIV screening as a part of routine clinical care in all health-care settings while also preserving the patient's option to decline HIV testing. The recommendations are intended for all health-care settings
126:
estimates the prevalence and predictors of HCV infection among inmates of
California by conducting a system wide survey. Findings concluded that HCV infection appears most common in men and women entering prison, displaying prevalence of anti-HCV positive highest among white males and Latina women.
108:
A 2004 survey of inmates at state prisons and local jails revealed a self-reported HIV positive rate of 1.9% and 2.5% respectively. Sixty-nine percent of state inmates reported being tested since admission to the system while only 18.5% of those in the jail reported being tested. This suggests that
64:
The implementation of HIV and STI screening programs in the correctional setting is an important approach to reducing the annual number of new HIV infections in the United States. The correctional system in America is a patchwork of a wide variety of settings such as state and federal prisons, local
532:
treatments for drug addicts, access to sterile syringes and needles, use of proper cleaning materials for syringes and needles, lowering the prison population, improving healthcare within prisons, increased availability of condoms, psychological therapy or counseling, or educational classes on drug
495:
A third alternative approach for screening in the jail setting is based on demographics such as zip code of residence, age, gender and race or ethnicity. When using this approach, providers in correctional settings should with their state or local health department to determine the demographics of
390:
Procedures for offering support to the inmate who receives a diagnosis of HIV should be in place to assure they can manage the infection. Privacy in a correctional setting is difficult, but the inmate should be assured that his medical information is confidential. The following are CDC recommended
276:
released guidelines to counteract the spread of HIV in prisons during the 1980s. They stated prisons should apply policies that reduce sexual violence, enhance detection, prosecute offenders, and increase evaluation of activities done to prevent disease from spreading in prisons. Within the United
130:
Limited testing for hepatitis C virus (HCV) in three North Carolina jails have shown a prevalence rate of approximately 7% for HCV. The primary barrier is the cost of additional tests needed beyond a screening test. However, some hematologists believe a screening test should be done regardless of
520:
Because there is a high-volume turnover rate of inmates in the jail system, some inmates who are tested for HIV, HCV or other STIs may have been released before receiving their results. Correctional facilities should assure that all cases of newly diagnosed infectious diseases are reported to the
418:
Linking inmates to HIV care services when they are quickly released back to the community from a local jail can be difficult. Often they can be more concerned with finding a place to live or finding money to pay their legal fees. But upon giving an inmate a diagnosis of HIV, steps should be taken
548:
Although there is near consensus in the literature about what needs to be done to reduce the incidence of sexual violence in prisons, to date, little if any research has been undertaken to assess which strategies are most effective. In addition to evaluating the various components of policies and
104:
According to the U.S. Department of Justice's Bureau of Justice Statistics, at the end of 2010 among all of the U.S. inmates with HIV/AIDS 18,337 of them were male and 1,756 were female. Research suggests young men of color disproportionately represent U.S. inmates and these individuals may be at
92:
At least 17% of people living with HIV/AIDS have been incarcerated at some point in their life. The rate of contracting HIV is ten to one hundred times higher inside the prison system than outside. The incarcerated population is more likely to contract the disease because they are exposed to more
72:
There is an inherent difference in the jail versus the prison setting that merits infectious disease testing at the jail level. Jails are largely used to hold offenders who have been charged but not convicted of a crime. Local jails admitted an estimated 11.7 million persons during the 12-month
333:
policy of jailing more HIV-infected individuals. High-risk behavior that persists within prisons poses harm to inmates and the greater community alike, but US courts have chosen to remain silent. Separating infected individuals from the rest of the prison population has been seen as ineffective
569:
Past statistics show that the majority of inmates (60.1%) that participated in the Hepatitis C Continuity Program come from and return to New York City, 10.4% from suburban NYC counties, 16.6% from upstate counties, and the remaining 12.8% from rural counties. About 87.1% of releases have been
295:
Major programs and policies are being initiated within each state. In New York, the Hepatitis C Continuity Program was the first of its kind to remove limits on healthcare access if a prisoner spent a limited time in jail. Prisoners now have access to HCV antiviral treatment from the moment of
194:
On any given day, 2.3 million people are incarcerated in 6,000 facilities in the United States, presenting officials with the difficult task of preventing coronavirus outbreaks among prisoners and staff. Prisoners often sleep close together. Many prisons have poor sanitation, and alcohol-based
139:
The incidence of tuberculosis in the United States prison system is also significantly higher than rates in the general public. It is estimated that prisoners in the United States are four times as likely as individuals outside of the carceral setting. This is worth noting because although the
117:
While the majority of HCV infections occur outside of prison, the infection is still widespread within the prison system as a result of drug injection. According to one Rhode Island prison study, HCV infection was found in 23.1% of the male prison population. HCV prevention proved to be more
325:
While the World Health Organization has endorsed certain preventive practices, only Vermont and Mississippi State Prisons and Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington County Jails have provided condoms to inmates. Others have argued against providing condoms because
263:
to help pay for HIV medication for incarcerated persons in county jails (state and federal prisons are not eligible). In order to qualify, county detention centers must complete an application for funds that includes the jail health budget to show need. Additionally, Duke University and
73:
period ending June 30, 2013. The average weekly turnover rate was 60.2 percent. Implementing HIV, HCV and other STI screening programs at the jail level is an effective way to detect disease before an infected individual is released back to the community and is able to transmit disease.
303:
have prompted drastic measures leading to medical isolation. Proponents of this guideline seek to establish this measure throughout all U.S. Prisons. However, ethical issues have arisen as opponents question the segregation and labeling of individuals based on their health condition.
122:. The prevalence of these infections within prisons is a concern because they pose a potential public health risk. When prisoners are released, they may continue the same behaviors, thereby increasing the chances of the infection spreading to outside communities. The
533:
use and sexual behavior for both inmates and prison staff. Some prisons already provide prevention techniques such as bleach tablets for cleaning, drug counseling, detoxification, and drug behavior management, but these techniques are not fully effective.
368:
In the absence of existing data for HIV prevalence, health-care providers should initiate voluntary HIV screening until they establish that the diagnostic yield is <1 per 1,000 patients screened, at which point such screening is no longer warranted."
516:
There is also some evidence that screening based on type of arrest could indicate higher rates of HIV infection. For example, a study by the Department of Justice found that HIV infection is more often associated with property and drug-related crimes.
317:
Approaches to preventing the spread of infections such as HIV and HCV in prisons include not only internal changes within correctional facilities, but also increased external community support. Between 2.7 million and 3.9 million Americans live with a
404:
Inmates may be reluctant to access or possess HIV educational materials due to concerns about disclosing their HIV infection. Strategies to provide HIV education and counseling for HIV-infected inmates can include HIV educational sessions and support
231:
stated that one in five prisoners in the United States had been infected with the COVID virus. This was over four times the infection rate of the general population around the time of the report. In some states, half of prisoners had been infected.
471:
A second alternative approach is clinical screening based on HCV, HBV or STI infection. The presence of any of these diseases increases the likelihood of acquiring or transmitting HIV disease. Clinical criteria for screening include:
375:
Know that incarcerated adolescents may be unaware of their rights concerning medical care, privacy, and confidentiality; therefore, it is especially important that adolescents be informed of their rights and that these rights are
157:
During the first half of 2020, considering U.S. outbreaks affecting clusters of over 500 people, three-quarters of these large outbreaks occurred at correctional facilities. As of July 3, 2020, the hardest hit institution was
445:
with other approaches. One alternative approach could include risk-based criteria screening. The CDC recommends that jails routinely offer HIV testing to inmates who fall under one or more of the following criteria:
1781:
206:
usually have the power to choose to release prisoners, but generally they do not do so, a trend that has not changed even given the COVID-19 crisis. For example, in response to the pandemic, California and
612:: Performing HIV screening after notifying the patient that 1) the test will be performed and 2) the patient may elect to decline or defer testing. Assent is inferred unless the patient declines testing.
292:, courts mandated that prisoners have the right to access drug detoxification and treatment for drug dependency. This has helped many inmates quarantine the disease by preventing the sharing of needles.
33:
are a concern within the public health sector. The corrections population is susceptible to infectious diseases through exposure to blood and other bodily fluids, drug injection, poor health care,
566:
or any other kind of health insurance and eligibility. This program also included a facility referral system, making it easier for inmates to find the most convenient treatment location for them.
588:: An interactive process of assessing risk, recognizing specific behaviors that increase the risk for acquiring or transmitting HIV, and developing a plan to take specific steps to reduce risks.
2422:
Dodd, RY; Notari, EP; Stramer, SL (2002). "Current prevalence and incidence of infectious disease markers and estimated window-period risk in the American Red Cross blood donor population".
1556:
178:
in Hartsville, Tennessee (1,379 cases). These were the five worst outbreaks of COVID-19 in the United States up to that point. At least 13 people incarcerated at Marion died of COVID-19.
468:
The limitation with this screening approach is that risks are self-reported by the inmate. One study suggested that up to 42% of inmates diagnosed with HIV reported no risk factors.
1712:
1525:
1655:
2119:
Kanwal F, Hoang T, Spiegel BM, et al. (December 2007). "Predictors of treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C infection - role of patient versus nonpatient factors".
645:
180:
As of late August 2021, over 2,500 people had died from COVID-19 while incarcerated in U.S. prisons; statistics on COVID-19 deaths are generally unavailable for U.S. jails.
2536:
Vigilante, KC; Flynn, MM; Affleck, PC; et al. (1999). "Reduction in recidivism of incarcerated women through primary care, peer counseling, and discharge planning".
1709:
640:
2474:
Branson, BM; Handsfield, HH; et, al (September 22, 2006). "Revised Recommendations for HIV Testing of Adults, Adolescents, and Pregnant Women in Health-Care Settings".
1773:
334:
because not all infected individuals have been properly tested. That, therefore, promotes high-risk actions because there is a perceived lack of infected population.
1592:
479:
A diagnosis or history of sexually or parenterally transmitted infections (e.g., HBV or HCV, syphilis, genital herpes, gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas infection);
429:
Assist inmates with making appointments with case manager before release from custody. If possible, arrange for the inmate to meet the case manager before release.
1287:"Meta-analysis of high-risk sexual behavior in persons aware and unaware they are infected with HIV in the United States: Implications for prevention programs"
2068:
1750:
630:: Performing an HIV test for subpopulations of persons at higher risk, typically defined on the basis of behavior, clinical, or demographic characteristics.
650:
545:" program. By discussing methods in which infected individuals can be educated, the spread of infectious diseases can be reduced by an appreciable margin.
297:
98:
2893:
1933:
150:
221:
in each of two prisons. Judges ordered the liberation of thousands of prison inmates, and there were calls to release all medically vulnerable inmates.
2272:"Project ECHO: linking university specialists with rural and prison-based clinicians to improve care for people with chronic hepatitis C in New Mexico"
386:
Inform adolescents that, as with all inmates, their HIV status will not adversely affect their medical care during incarceration or their legal rights.
69:
and they include the legal constraints of state laws. One process for HIV testing would be unlikely or even impossible in all correctional settings.
600:: A person incarcerated in a local jail, state prison, federal prison, or a private facility under contract to federal, state, or local authorities.
541:
US. In particular, one of the researchers explored peer education in the forms of curriculum modeled after the American Red Cross and California's "
383:
Inform adolescents that the medical information, including HIV test results, will not be disclosed without their consent, except as required by law.
1548:
1494:
1688:
277:
States there have been many important policies and programs to eliminate the spread of disease and expand the healthcare system within prisons.
118:
challenging than HIV prevention because inmates partake in high-risk behaviors such as "front loading" and sharing spoons to prepare drugs like
182:
159:
1966:
2501:
Kim, JY; Rich, J; Zeirler, S; et al. (1997). "Successful community follow-up and reduced recidivism of HIV-positive women prisoners".
2395:
Jordan, Mary M (2006). "Care to Prevent HIV Infection in Prison: A Moral Right Recognized by Canada, while the United States Lags Behind".
175:
1983:
1901:
1517:
1645:
224:
As of April 8, 2020, there were at least 1,300 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 32 deaths in prisons and jails across the United States.
1448:
252:
lacked the Hepatitis B vaccination while the second followed a Hepatitis B vaccination. The stages of the HBV virus were followed in a
660:
2796:
Lyons T, Osunkoya E, Anguh I, Adefuye A, Balogun J (April 2014). "HIV prevention and education in state prison systems: an update".
163:
1951:
280:
There are two renowned federal cases that established prisoners' rights to healthcare and paved the way for disease prevention. In
2177:"Report on a single-topic conference on 'Chronic viral hepatitis--strategies to improve effectiveness of screening and treatment'"
87:
58:
2620:
Carrel, J; Mullins, J; Llanas, M; Griffiths, SD (2007). "Voluntary rapid human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing in jails ".
870:
1623:
1391:
Lambert, Lauren A.; Armstrong, Lori R.; Lobato, Mark N.; Ho, Christine; France, Anne Marie; Haddad, Maryam B. (December 2016).
742:
203:
37:, demographics, security issues, lack of community support for rehabilitation programs, and high-risk behaviors. The spread of
2749:"A syringe exchange programme in prison as prevention strategy against HIV infection and hepatitis B and C in Berlin, Germany"
2663:
773:"A syringe exchange programme in prison as prevention strategy against HIV infection and hepatitis B and C in Berlin, Germany"
395:
Provide education to patients about HIV infection, AIDS-related symptoms, and the significance of any laboratory testing done.
655:
898:
Arp III, William (2009). "Race, Incarceration and HIV/AIDS in Louisiana: Risky Sexual Behavior Demands Mandatory Testing".
1582:
1197:"Prevalence and incidence of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus infections among males in Rhode Island prisons"
208:
2878:
288:
260:
2368:
Amankwaa AA, Bavon AL, Amankwaa LC (2001). "Gaps between HIV/AIDS policies and treatment in correctional facilities".
2227:
Wong JB (2006). "Hepatitis C: cost of illness and considerations for the economic evaluation of antiviral therapies".
264:
UNC-Memorial Hospitals have collaborated with one jail's HCV positive inmates for further follow-up testing and care.
2321:"Partnering urban academic medical centers and rural primary care clinicians to provide complex chronic disease care"
253:
1246:"Prevalence and correlates of hepatitis C virus infection among inmates entering the California correctional system"
1153:"Incidence of hepatitis C virus infection and associated risk factors among Scottish prison inmates: a cohort study"
624:: Performing an HIV test for all persons in a defined population without regard to the individual's characteristics.
61:. HIV and hepatitis C need specific attention because of the specific public health concerns and issues they raise.
670:
171:
1734:
550:
408:
Facilities should have HIV medical information and periodicals available in prison libraries and medical clinics.
273:
66:
2875:
1720:
167:
97:. Since prisons generally divide the individuals by gender, the populations experience different environments;
401:
Inmates with mental health conditions may require increased monitoring and intervention for these conditions.
259:
In North Carolina, the state Department of Health and Human Services Division of Epidemiology works with the
2898:
2692:
2573:"A prison release program for HIV-positive women: linking them to health services and community follow-up"
2128:
542:
234:
COVID-19 has also spread at an elevated rate within immigration detention facilities in the United States.
2176:
2020:"Promoting HCV treatment completion for prison inmates: New York State's hepatitis C continuity program"
1478:
698:"Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV in correctional populations: a review of epidemiology and prevention"
1678:
1650:
371:
Additional recommendations for juveniles that are incarcerated in adult jails include the following:
228:
211:
released less than four percent of their prisoners, while Arizona stated that it would release none.
2133:
582:: Performing an HIV test for persons with clinical signs or symptoms consistent with HIV infection.
34:
2821:
2645:
2518:
2464:
CDC. U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1999. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report 1999;11
2447:
2404:
2252:
2154:
1805:"Economic benefits of hepatitis B vaccination at sexually transmitted disease clinics in the U.S"
1683:
1373:
1316:
1123:
907:
792:
723:
426:
Provide contact information for local AIDS service organizations and the local health department.
38:
1854:"Comparing quality of care for sexually transmitted diseases in specialized and general clinics"
2716:"Infections in Prison in Low and Middle Income Countries: Prevalence and Prevention Strategies"
1990:
1908:
1549:"Delta Is Coming For Jails And Prisons, And The System Isn't Ready To Protect The Incarcerated"
2813:
2778:
2637:
2602:
2553:
2483:
2439:
2377:
2350:
2301:
2244:
2209:
2146:
2049:
1962:
1927:
1883:
1834:
1742:
1486:
1430:
1412:
1365:
1357:
1308:
1267:
1226:
1174:
1104:
1034:
982:
941:
810:
715:
282:
2094:
2805:
2768:
2760:
2727:
2629:
2592:
2584:
2545:
2510:
2431:
2340:
2332:
2291:
2283:
2236:
2201:
2191:
2138:
2039:
2031:
1873:
1865:
1824:
1816:
1456:
1420:
1404:
1347:
1298:
1257:
1216:
1208:
1164:
1094:
1086:
1024:
1016:
972:
800:
784:
705:
218:
17:
423:
Provide a list of available agencies that provide HIV case management for released inmates.
2848:
1716:
432:
Complete applications for other services following release in conjunction with the inmate.
356:
Potentially diagnosing HIV infection earlier for the inmate in the course of disease; and
929:
710:
697:
2773:
2748:
2597:
2572:
2345:
2320:
2296:
2271:
2044:
2019:
1878:
1853:
1829:
1804:
1425:
1392:
1303:
1286:
1262:
1245:
1221:
1196:
1099:
1074:
1029:
1004:
805:
772:
326:
officials feel it condones sexual activity, which is illegal within the prison system.
196:
187:
1352:
930:"Death and dying in America: the prison industrial complex's impact on women's health"
496:
HIV for their population. Criteria examples for demographic screening could include:
2887:
2435:
2240:
1377:
977:
960:
2649:
2522:
2158:
1615:
1320:
746:
727:
411:
Facilities should have chronic disease management programs for HIV-infected inmates.
2825:
2667:
2571:
Flanigan, TP; Kim, JY; Zierler, S; Rich, JD; Vigilante, K; Bury-Maynard, D (1996).
2451:
2256:
665:
525:
94:
54:
398:
Inmates diagnosed with HIV infection may require short-term mental health support.
343:
pregnant women. The benefits of introducing a routine screening program include:
2633:
1053:
2732:
2715:
1576:
1574:
1335:
319:
50:
46:
2514:
2287:
2035:
1820:
553:(PEP), which could reduce the risk for HIV transmission after exposure to HIV.
2764:
2336:
1710:
Releases, infections, fear: U.S. coronavirus crisis in jails and prisons looms
961:"Epidemiology of AIDS in incarcerated persons in the United States, 1994-1996"
788:
2809:
1746:
1518:"Inside The Prison Where 8 In 10 Of The Incarcerated Have Gotten Coronavirus"
1490:
1416:
1408:
1361:
414:
Facilities should have a discharge-planning program for HIV-infected inmates.
1869:
1677:
Williams, Timothy; Weiser, Benjamin; Rashbaum, William K. (March 30, 2020).
529:
2817:
2782:
2641:
2557:
2549:
2487:
2443:
2381:
2354:
2305:
2248:
2213:
2150:
2053:
1887:
1838:
1434:
1369:
1312:
1271:
1230:
1212:
1178:
1108:
1020:
986:
945:
814:
719:
491:
Signs or symptoms suggestive of HIV infection or acute retroviral syndrome.
2606:
2588:
1959:
Interventions to Address HIV in Prisons: Prevention of Sexual Transmission
1679:"'Jails Are Petri Dishes': Inmates Freed as the Virus Spreads Behind Bars"
1090:
1038:
359:
Improving access to HIV clinical care, medication and prevention services.
2205:
1587:
1583:"Governors Are Too Cowardly To Solve The Coronavirus Outbreak In Prisons"
1169:
1152:
563:
2408:
911:
1852:
Asch SM, Sa'adah MG, Lopez R, Kokkinis A, Richwald GA, Rhew DC (2002).
1005:"Improving HIV/AIDS prevention in prisons is good public health policy"
845:
796:
380:
be obtained directly from an emancipated minor as defined by state law.
119:
88:
Prison rape in the United States § Sexually transmitted infections
2196:
2142:
217:
Between March 22–26, 2020, 23 inmates escaped and at least one inmate
239:
Differences in funding for sexually transmitted infections treatment
202:
The vast majority of these prisoners are in state or local custody.
57:, result largely from needle-sharing, drug use, and consensual and
1735:"Chicago's Jail Is Top U.S. Hot Spot as Virus Spreads Behind Bars"
181:
1195:
Macalino GE, Vlahov D, Sanford-Colby S, et al. (July 2004).
2270:
Arora S, Thornton K, Jenkusky SM, Parish B, Scaletti JV (2007).
2175:
Ward JW, Lok AS, Thomas DL, El-Serag HB, Kim WR (January 2012).
1151:
Champion JK, Taylor A, Hutchinson S, et al. (March 2004).
846:"HIV testing implementation guidance for correctional settings"
1774:"1 in 5 prisoners in the US has had COVID-19, 1,700 have died"
1075:"Male prisoners and HIV prevention: a call for action ignored"
42:
2069:"Standard 23-2.7 Rationales for long-term segregated housing"
1393:"Tuberculosis in Jails and Prisons: United States, 2002−2013"
871:"Jail Inmates at Midyear 2013 - Statistical Tables (Revised)"
2097:. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. August 26, 2013
214:
The remaining minority of prisoners are in federal custody.
2747:
Stark K, Herrmann U, Ehrhardt S, Bienzle U (August 2006).
2073:
ABA Standards for Criminal Justice: Treatment of Prisoners
771:
Stark K, Herrmann U, Ehrhardt S, Bienzle U (August 2006).
151:
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on prisons § United States
31:
Infectious diseases within American correctional settings
1285:
Marks, G; Crepaz, N; Senterfitt, JW; Janssen, R (2005).
329:
Imprisonment as a response to US drug use has created a
2319:
Arora S, Kalishman S, Dion D, et al. (June 2011).
503:
Residence in known high-HIV prevalence areas/zip codes;
350:
Preserving staff resources by streamlining the process;
2018:
Klein SJ, Wright LN, Birkhead GS, et al. (2007).
1772:
Schwartzapfel, Beth; Park, Katie (December 18, 2020).
1244:
Ruiz JD, Molitor F, Sun RK, et al. (March 1999).
435:
Provide medications if the inmate has started therapy.
1803:
Miriti MK, Billah K, Weinbaum C, et al. (2008).
696:
Weinbaum CM, Sabin KM, Santibanez SS (October 2005).
646:
Organ donation in the United States prison population
461:
Exchange of sex for money, drugs, or other goods; and
2095:"Viral Hepatitis Surveillance – United States, 2010"
1733:
Williams, Timothy; Ivory, Danielle (April 8, 2020).
1479:"Coronavirus in the U.S.: Latest Map and Case Count"
1334:
Velen, Kavindhran; Charalambous, Salome (May 2021).
464:
Diagnosis of another sexually transmitted infection.
2370:
Journal of Health and Human Services Administration
1068:
1066:
347:
Increasing diagnosis of new cases of HIV infection;
1336:"Tuberculosis in prisons: an unintended sentence?"
923:
921:
2397:The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review
641:Criminal transmission of HIV in the United States
524:Possible HCV prevention techniques have included
488:Track marks indicative of illicit drug injection;
840:
838:
836:
834:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
2013:
2011:
1291:Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes
227:On December 18, 2020, the Associated Press and
1989:. Council of State Governments. Archived from
1646:"Coronavirus and Prisons: A Toxic Combination"
455:Sex with an IDU, MSM, or HIV-infected partner;
162:in Marion, Ohio with 2,439 cases, followed by
8:
959:Dean-Gaitor HD, Fleming PL (December 1999).
1190:
1188:
1146:
1144:
45:and other sexually transmitted infections,
691:
689:
687:
685:
170:in San Quentin, California (1,483 cases),
2772:
2731:
2596:
2344:
2295:
2195:
2132:
2114:
2112:
2043:
1877:
1828:
1424:
1351:
1302:
1261:
1220:
1168:
1124:"Everybody wants condom vending machines"
1098:
1028:
976:
804:
709:
99:incarcerated females in the United States
1961:. World Health Organization. p. 7.
1945:
1943:
1616:"Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2020"
500:Residence in low-income areas/zip codes;
190:calling for 20,000 early prison releases
166:in Scioto Township, Ohio (1,791 cases),
101:tend to have higher rates of infection.
2170:
2168:
1073:Braithwaite RL, Arriola KR (May 2003).
998:
996:
766:
764:
681:
353:Reducing stigma associated with testing
1932:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1925:
1784:from the original on December 18, 2020
1547:Schulberg, Jessica (August 28, 2021).
1122:Richmond, Holly (September 18, 2013).
1052:Maruschak, Laura M. (September 2012).
666:War on Drugs#Arrests and incarceration
651:Healthcare in American women's prisons
512:Transgender identity (male to female).
2694:A Syndemic Approach to HIV Prevention
1626:from the original on October 19, 2021
893:
891:
174:in Houston, Texas (1,390 cases), and
7:
1559:from the original on August 30, 2021
1528:from the original on August 30, 2021
1003:Gaiter J, Doll LS (September 1996).
176:Trousdale Turner Correctional Center
2798:Journal of Correctional Health Care
2503:Journal of Correctional Health Care
1581:Chapin, Angelina (April 10, 2020).
1516:Schulberg, Jessica (July 9, 2020).
1497:from the original on April 10, 2020
711:10.1097/01.aids.0000192069.95819.aa
1304:10.1097/01.qai.0000151079.33935.79
661:Incarceration in the United States
289:Wayne County Jail Inmates v. Lucas
59:non-consensual sex among prisoners
25:
2894:Penal system in the United States
2476:MMWR. Recommendations and Reports
1753:from the original on May 12, 2020
1691:from the original on May 15, 2020
1658:from the original on May 18, 2020
1595:from the original on May 11, 2020
1397:American Journal of Public Health
1201:American Journal of Public Health
1079:American Journal of Public Health
1009:American Journal of Public Health
268:Policies within the United States
199:is often prohibited for inmates.
186:April 24, 2020: Protest event in
164:Pickaway Correctional Institution
2720:Open Infectious Diseases Journal
2436:10.1046/j.1537-2995.2002.00174.x
2241:10.2165/00019053-200624070-00005
1157:American Journal of Epidemiology
978:10.1097/00002030-199912030-00015
452:Men who have sex with men (MSM);
149:This section is an excerpt from
27:Epidemiology of American prisons
1984:"Corrections Health Care Costs"
1982:Kinsella, Chad (January 2004).
1250:The Western Journal of Medicine
1059:. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
391:procedures for inmate support:
254:Markov Model of Natural History
160:Marion Correctional Institution
1614:Sawyer, Wendy; Wagner, Peter.
743:"The silent killer doing time"
1:
1353:10.1016/s2468-2667(21)00049-9
485:(MTB) infection or active TB;
2879:Bureau of Justice Statistics
2853:Bureau of Justice Statistics
2634:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318148b6b1
934:Berkeley Women's Law Journal
875:Bureau of Justice Statistics
313:Shortcomings and limitations
261:AIDS Drug Assistance Program
219:tested positive for COVID-19
18:HIV/AIDS in American prisons
2733:10.2174/1874279301004010033
1054:"HIV in Prisons, 2001-2010"
124:Western Journal of Medicine
2915:
2753:Epidemiology and Infection
2515:10.1177/107834589700400102
2288:10.1177/00333549071220S214
2075:. American Bar Association
2036:10.1177/00333549071220S216
1821:10.1177/003335490812300412
777:Epidemiology and Infection
741:Guillemette, Sean (2003).
671:List of U.S. state prisons
483:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
148:
85:
67:juvenile detention centers
2765:10.1017/S0950268805005613
2714:Simooya, Oscar O (2010).
2538:Journal of Women's Health
2337:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0278
789:10.1017/S0950268805005613
656:Prison–industrial complex
586:HIV-prevention counseling
551:post-exposure prophylaxis
458:Multiple sexual partners;
449:Injection drug use (IDU);
274:World Health Organization
2810:10.1177/1078345813518630
1409:10.2105/AJPH.2016.303423
1340:The Lancet Public Health
900:Race, Gender & Class
168:San Quentin State Prison
2067:Marcus, Martin (2011).
2664:"HIV in Prisons, 2001"
2550:10.1089/jwh.1999.8.409
1950:Jürgens, Ralf (2007).
1719:By Chris Francescani,
1213:10.2105/AJPH.94.7.1218
1021:10.2105/ajph.86.9.1201
557:Post-treatment for HCV
440:Alternative approaches
298:methicillin-resistant
191:
2589:10.2105/ajph.86.6.886
2276:Public Health Reports
2024:Public Health Reports
1870:10.1093/phr/117.2.157
1858:Public Health Reports
1809:Public Health Reports
1715:May 18, 2020, at the
1091:10.2105/ajph.93.5.759
704:. 19 Suppl 3: S41–6.
300:Staphylococcus aureus
245:Public Health Reports
185:
2876:HIV in Prisons, 2020
1914:on December 16, 2014
1651:The Marshall Project
1620:www.prisonpolicy.org
1459:on November 20, 2020
543:Reach One, Teach One
509:Age 25–44 years; and
229:The Marshall Project
2849:"Prisoners in 2013"
2673:on October 13, 2018
2628:(2 Suppl): S9–S13.
1449:"Tuberculosis (TB)"
928:Chandler C (2003).
320:chronic hepatitis C
308:Preventive measures
39:infectious diseases
35:prison overcrowding
2577:Am J Public Health
1996:on August 23, 2014
1739:The New York Times
1684:The New York Times
1483:The New York Times
1170:10.1093/aje/kwh061
580:Diagnostic testing
338:Possible solutions
192:
172:Harris County jail
2282:(Suppl 2): 74–7.
2229:PharmacoEconomics
2197:10.1002/hep.24797
2143:10.1002/hep.21927
2030:(Suppl 2): 83–8.
1968:978-92-4-159579-7
1654:. March 6, 2020.
1485:. March 3, 2020.
1403:(12): 2231–2237.
610:Opt-out screening
283:Estelle v. Gamble
16:(Redirected from
2906:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2776:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2672:
2666:. Archived from
2660:
2654:
2653:
2617:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2419:
2413:
2412:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2348:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2299:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2199:
2181:
2172:
2163:
2162:
2136:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2015:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1995:
1988:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1937:
1931:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1913:
1907:. Archived from
1906:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1881:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1832:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1730:
1724:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1611:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1578:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1455:. Archived from
1445:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1355:
1346:(5): e263–e264.
1331:
1325:
1324:
1306:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1265:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1224:
1192:
1183:
1182:
1172:
1148:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1102:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1032:
1000:
991:
990:
980:
956:
950:
949:
925:
916:
915:
895:
886:
885:
883:
881:
867:
861:
860:
858:
856:
842:
819:
818:
808:
768:
759:
758:
756:
754:
749:on June 16, 2007
745:. Archived from
738:
732:
731:
713:
693:
628:Targeted testing
592:Informed consent
77:At-risk diseases
21:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2884:
2883:
2872:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2795:
2794:
2790:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2699:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2662:
2661:
2657:
2619:
2618:
2614:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2535:
2534:
2530:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2473:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2179:
2174:
2173:
2166:
2134:10.1.1.604.1020
2118:
2117:
2110:
2100:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2078:
2076:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2017:
2016:
2009:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1969:
1954:
1949:
1948:
1941:
1924:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1902:"Archived copy"
1900:
1899:
1895:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1802:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1785:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1754:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1723:, 26 March 2020
1717:Wayback Machine
1708:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1659:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1629:
1627:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1598:
1596:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1562:
1560:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1529:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1500:
1498:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1462:
1460:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1072:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1002:
1001:
994:
971:(17): 2429–35.
958:
957:
953:
927:
926:
919:
906:(1/2): 228–37.
897:
896:
889:
879:
877:
869:
868:
864:
854:
852:
844:
843:
822:
770:
769:
762:
752:
750:
740:
739:
735:
695:
694:
683:
679:
637:
576:
574:CDC definitions
559:
442:
340:
315:
310:
270:
241:
236:
235:
204:State governors
154:
146:
137:
115:
90:
84:
79:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2912:
2910:
2902:
2901:
2896:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2870:External links
2868:
2866:
2865:
2840:
2831:
2788:
2739:
2706:
2684:
2655:
2622:Sex Transm Dis
2612:
2583:(6): 446–453.
2563:
2544:(3): 409–415.
2528:
2493:
2482:(RR14): 1–17.
2466:
2457:
2414:
2387:
2360:
2331:(6): 1176–84.
2325:Health Affairs
2311:
2262:
2219:
2164:
2108:
2086:
2059:
2007:
1974:
1967:
1939:
1893:
1844:
1795:
1764:
1725:
1702:
1669:
1637:
1606:
1570:
1539:
1508:
1470:
1440:
1383:
1326:
1297:(4): 446–453.
1277:
1236:
1207:(7): 1218–23.
1184:
1140:
1128:Grist Magazine
1114:
1062:
1044:
992:
951:
917:
887:
862:
850:stacks.cdc.gov
820:
760:
733:
680:
678:
675:
674:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
636:
633:
632:
631:
625:
619:
613:
607:
601:
595:
589:
583:
575:
572:
558:
555:
514:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
493:
492:
489:
486:
480:
477:
466:
465:
462:
459:
456:
453:
450:
441:
438:
437:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
416:
415:
412:
409:
406:
402:
399:
396:
388:
387:
384:
381:
377:
361:
360:
357:
354:
351:
348:
339:
336:
314:
311:
309:
306:
269:
266:
240:
237:
197:hand sanitizer
188:Columbus, Ohio
155:
147:
145:
142:
136:
133:
114:
111:
83:
80:
78:
75:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2911:
2900:
2899:Prison reform
2897:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2854:
2850:
2844:
2841:
2838:Branson, MMWR
2835:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2804:(2): 105–15.
2803:
2799:
2792:
2789:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2740:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2707:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2685:
2669:
2665:
2659:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2532:
2529:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2497:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2403:(2): 319–37.
2402:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2376:(2): 171–98.
2375:
2371:
2364:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2235:(7): 661–72.
2234:
2230:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2206:2027.42/89489
2203:
2198:
2193:
2190:(1): 307–15.
2189:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2127:(6): 1741–9.
2126:
2122:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2012:
2008:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1952:"Methodology"
1946:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1929:
1910:
1903:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1864:(2): 157–63.
1863:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1815:(4): 504–13.
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1796:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1765:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1706:
1703:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1673:
1670:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1638:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1607:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1256:(3): 156–60.
1255:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1133:September 19,
1129:
1125:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1085:(5): 759–63.
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1015:(9): 1201–3.
1014:
1010:
1006:
999:
997:
993:
988:
984:
979:
974:
970:
966:
962:
955:
952:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
924:
922:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
892:
888:
876:
872:
866:
863:
851:
847:
841:
839:
837:
835:
833:
831:
829:
827:
825:
821:
816:
812:
807:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
765:
761:
753:September 10,
748:
744:
737:
734:
729:
725:
721:
717:
712:
707:
703:
699:
692:
690:
688:
686:
682:
676:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
634:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
577:
573:
571:
567:
565:
556:
554:
552:
546:
544:
538:
534:
531:
527:
522:
518:
511:
508:
505:
502:
499:
498:
497:
490:
487:
484:
481:
478:
475:
474:
473:
469:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
447:
446:
439:
434:
431:
428:
425:
422:
421:
420:
413:
410:
407:
403:
400:
397:
394:
393:
392:
385:
382:
378:
374:
373:
372:
369:
365:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
345:
344:
337:
335:
332:
327:
323:
321:
312:
307:
305:
302:
301:
293:
291:
290:
285:
284:
278:
275:
267:
265:
262:
257:
255:
249:
246:
243:In 2002, the
238:
233:
230:
225:
222:
220:
215:
212:
210:
205:
200:
198:
189:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
152:
143:
141:
134:
132:
128:
125:
121:
112:
110:
106:
102:
100:
96:
89:
81:
76:
74:
70:
68:
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
2858:November 22,
2856:. Retrieved
2852:
2843:
2834:
2801:
2797:
2791:
2759:(4): 814–9.
2756:
2752:
2742:
2723:
2719:
2709:
2700:November 22,
2698:, retrieved
2693:
2687:
2675:. Retrieved
2668:the original
2658:
2625:
2621:
2615:
2580:
2576:
2566:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2479:
2475:
2469:
2460:
2430:(8): 975–9.
2427:
2423:
2417:
2400:
2396:
2390:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2328:
2324:
2314:
2279:
2275:
2265:
2232:
2228:
2222:
2187:
2183:
2124:
2120:
2099:. Retrieved
2089:
2077:. Retrieved
2072:
2062:
2027:
2023:
1998:. Retrieved
1991:the original
1977:
1958:
1918:December 16,
1916:. Retrieved
1909:the original
1896:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1812:
1808:
1798:
1788:December 18,
1786:. Retrieved
1777:
1767:
1755:. Retrieved
1738:
1728:
1705:
1693:. Retrieved
1682:
1672:
1660:. Retrieved
1649:
1640:
1628:. Retrieved
1619:
1609:
1597:. Retrieved
1586:
1561:. Retrieved
1552:
1542:
1530:. Retrieved
1521:
1511:
1499:. Retrieved
1482:
1473:
1461:. Retrieved
1457:the original
1453:Cedars-Sinai
1452:
1443:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1343:
1339:
1329:
1294:
1290:
1280:
1253:
1249:
1239:
1204:
1200:
1163:(5): 514–9.
1160:
1156:
1131:. Retrieved
1127:
1117:
1082:
1078:
1047:
1012:
1008:
968:
964:
954:
937:
933:
903:
899:
880:November 22,
878:. Retrieved
874:
865:
855:November 22,
853:. Retrieved
849:
783:(4): 814–9.
780:
776:
751:. Retrieved
747:the original
736:
701:
627:
621:
615:
609:
603:
597:
591:
585:
579:
568:
560:
547:
539:
535:
526:vaccinations
523:
519:
515:
494:
482:
470:
467:
443:
417:
389:
370:
366:
362:
341:
330:
328:
324:
316:
299:
294:
287:
281:
279:
271:
258:
250:
244:
242:
226:
223:
216:
213:
201:
193:
156:
138:
135:Tuberculosis
129:
123:
116:
107:
103:
95:War on Drugs
91:
71:
63:
55:tuberculosis
30:
29:
2424:Transfusion
506:Female sex;
113:Hepatitis C
65:jails, and
53:(HBV), and
51:hepatitis B
47:hepatitis C
2888:Categories
2677:August 21,
2184:Hepatology
2121:Hepatology
1563:August 30,
1532:August 30,
677:References
476:Pregnancy;
376:respected.
86:See also:
41:, such as
2129:CiteSeerX
2101:April 28,
2079:April 28,
2000:April 27,
1757:April 12,
1747:0362-4331
1599:April 12,
1491:0362-4331
1417:0090-0036
1378:232365668
1362:2468-2667
940:: 40–60.
622:Screening
530:methadone
2818:24532813
2783:16371183
2726:: 33–7.
2650:14055358
2642:17724428
2558:10326995
2523:73063446
2509:: 5–17.
2488:16988643
2444:12385406
2409:40176622
2382:12638386
2355:21596757
2306:17542458
2249:16802842
2214:22105599
2159:38061445
2151:18046707
2054:17542460
1928:cite web
1888:12357000
1839:18763413
1782:Archived
1751:Archived
1721:ABC News
1713:Archived
1695:April 5,
1689:Archived
1662:April 5,
1656:Archived
1624:Archived
1593:Archived
1588:HuffPost
1557:Archived
1553:HuffPost
1526:Archived
1522:HuffPost
1495:Archived
1463:July 19,
1435:27631758
1370:33765454
1321:23919282
1313:16010168
1272:10214102
1231:15226146
1179:14977648
1109:12721138
987:10597785
946:15199931
912:41658870
815:16371183
728:22609548
720:16251827
635:See also
564:Medicaid
331:de facto
209:Kentucky
144:COVID-19
82:HIV/AIDS
2826:7182739
2774:2870452
2607:8659671
2598:1380412
2452:8934101
2346:3856208
2297:1831800
2257:6713508
2045:1831802
1879:1497416
1830:2430647
1778:AP NEWS
1630:July 3,
1501:July 3,
1426:5104991
1263:1305533
1222:1448424
1100:1447833
1039:8806366
1030:1380577
806:2870452
797:3865972
405:groups.
120:cocaine
49:(HCV),
2824:
2816:
2781:
2771:
2648:
2640:
2605:
2595:
2556:
2521:
2486:
2450:
2442:
2407:
2380:
2353:
2343:
2304:
2294:
2255:
2247:
2212:
2157:
2149:
2131:
2052:
2042:
1965:
1886:
1876:
1837:
1827:
1780:. AP.
1745:
1489:
1433:
1423:
1415:
1376:
1368:
1360:
1319:
1311:
1270:
1260:
1229:
1219:
1177:
1107:
1097:
1037:
1027:
985:
944:
910:
813:
803:
795:
726:
718:
616:Prison
598:Inmate
2822:S2CID
2671:(txt)
2646:S2CID
2519:S2CID
2448:S2CID
2405:JSTOR
2253:S2CID
2180:(PDF)
2155:S2CID
1994:(PDF)
1987:(PDF)
1955:(PDF)
1912:(PDF)
1905:(PDF)
1374:S2CID
1317:S2CID
1057:(PDF)
908:JSTOR
793:JSTOR
724:S2CID
2860:2021
2814:PMID
2779:PMID
2702:2021
2679:2023
2638:PMID
2603:PMID
2554:PMID
2484:PMID
2440:PMID
2378:PMID
2351:PMID
2302:PMID
2245:PMID
2210:PMID
2147:PMID
2103:2014
2081:2014
2050:PMID
2002:2014
1963:ISBN
1934:link
1920:2014
1884:PMID
1835:PMID
1790:2020
1759:2020
1743:ISSN
1697:2020
1664:2020
1632:2020
1601:2020
1565:2021
1534:2021
1503:2020
1487:ISSN
1465:2023
1431:PMID
1413:ISSN
1366:PMID
1358:ISSN
1309:PMID
1268:PMID
1227:PMID
1175:PMID
1135:2013
1105:PMID
1035:PMID
983:PMID
965:AIDS
942:PMID
882:2021
857:2021
811:PMID
755:2014
716:PMID
702:AIDS
604:Jail
272:The
2806:doi
2769:PMC
2761:doi
2757:134
2728:doi
2630:doi
2593:PMC
2585:doi
2546:doi
2511:doi
2432:doi
2341:PMC
2333:doi
2292:PMC
2284:doi
2280:122
2237:doi
2202:hdl
2192:doi
2139:doi
2040:PMC
2032:doi
2028:122
1874:PMC
1866:doi
1862:117
1825:PMC
1817:doi
1813:123
1421:PMC
1405:doi
1401:106
1348:doi
1299:doi
1258:PMC
1254:170
1217:PMC
1209:doi
1165:doi
1161:159
1095:PMC
1087:doi
1025:PMC
1017:doi
973:doi
801:PMC
785:doi
781:134
706:doi
43:HIV
2890::
2851:.
2820:.
2812:.
2802:20
2800:.
2777:.
2767:.
2755:.
2751:.
2722:.
2718:.
2644:.
2636:.
2626:36
2624:.
2601:.
2591:.
2581:86
2579:.
2575:.
2552:.
2540:.
2517:.
2505:.
2480:55
2478:.
2446:.
2438:.
2428:42
2426:.
2401:37
2399:.
2374:24
2372:.
2349:.
2339:.
2329:30
2327:.
2323:.
2300:.
2290:.
2278:.
2274:.
2251:.
2243:.
2233:24
2231:.
2208:.
2200:.
2188:55
2186:.
2182:.
2167:^
2153:.
2145:.
2137:.
2125:46
2123:.
2111:^
2071:.
2048:.
2038:.
2026:.
2022:.
2010:^
1957:.
1942:^
1930:}}
1926:{{
1882:.
1872:.
1860:.
1856:.
1833:.
1823:.
1811:.
1807:.
1776:.
1749:.
1741:.
1737:.
1687:.
1681:.
1648:.
1622:.
1618:.
1591:.
1585:.
1573:^
1555:.
1551:.
1524:.
1520:.
1493:.
1481:.
1451:.
1429:.
1419:.
1411:.
1399:.
1395:.
1372:.
1364:.
1356:.
1342:.
1338:.
1315:.
1307:.
1295:39
1293:.
1289:.
1266:.
1252:.
1248:.
1225:.
1215:.
1205:94
1203:.
1199:.
1187:^
1173:.
1159:.
1155:.
1143:^
1126:.
1103:.
1093:.
1083:93
1081:.
1077:.
1065:^
1033:.
1023:.
1013:86
1011:.
1007:.
995:^
981:.
969:13
967:.
963:.
938:18
936:.
932:.
920:^
904:16
902:.
890:^
873:.
848:.
823:^
809:.
799:.
791:.
779:.
775:.
763:^
722:.
714:.
700:.
684:^
528:,
2862:.
2828:.
2808::
2785:.
2763::
2736:.
2730::
2724:4
2681:.
2652:.
2632::
2609:.
2587::
2560:.
2548::
2542:8
2525:.
2513::
2507:4
2490:.
2454:.
2434::
2411:.
2384:.
2357:.
2335::
2308:.
2286::
2259:.
2239::
2216:.
2204::
2194::
2161:.
2141::
2105:.
2083:.
2056:.
2034::
2004:.
1971:.
1936:)
1922:.
1890:.
1868::
1841:.
1819::
1792:.
1761:.
1699:.
1666:.
1634:.
1603:.
1567:.
1536:.
1505:.
1467:.
1437:.
1407::
1380:.
1350::
1344:6
1323:.
1301::
1274:.
1233:.
1211::
1181:.
1167::
1137:.
1111:.
1089::
1041:.
1019::
989:.
975::
948:.
914:.
884:.
859:.
817:.
787::
757:.
730:.
708::
153:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
