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founding. CIC took $ 136 million in 2022 US dollars from Haiti and distributed those funds among shareholders, who made 15% annual returns on average, not returning any of the earnings to Haiti. These funds distributed among shareholders ultimately deprived Haiti of at least $ 1.7 billion that could have been put towards infrastructural development. Under the French-controlled BNH, Haitian funds were overseen by France and all transactions generated commissions, with CIC shareholders profits often being larger than the entire budget for Haiti's public works. The French government acknowledged the payment of 90 million francs in 1888 and over a period of about seventy years, Haiti paid 112 million francs to France, about $ 560 million in 2022.
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31:
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headquarters was moved to New York City and Haiti's debt to France was moved to be paid to
American investors. Under U.S. government control, a total of forty percent of Haiti's national income was designated to repay debts to American and French banks. Haiti would pay its final indemnity remittance to National City Bank in 1947, with the United Nations reporting that at that time, Haitians were "often close to the starvation level".
565:
758:(CDC). France ordered Haiti to pay the 150 million francs over a period of five years, with the first annual payment of 30 million francs being six times larger than Haiti's yearly revenue. Haiti was obliged to take out a loan from the French bank Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie to make the payment. Ternaux Gandolphe et Cie in turn organized a bond auction to raise the sum. A consortium led by
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the debt to 90 million francs to be paid over a period of 30 years to compensate former plantation owners who had lost their property and slaves; the 2004 equivalent of US$ 21 billion. President Boyer, who agreed to make the payments to prevent an invasion, was forced from Haiti in 1843 by citizens who demanded lower taxes and more rights.
853:
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instead of providing necessities as it was cheaper. At the time, goods from Haiti comprised thirty percent of French colonial trade while its sugar represented forty percent of the
Atlantic market. By the 1770s, more than sixty percent of the coffee consumed in Europe came from the French West Indies, primarily from Saint-Domingue.
321:â and with it recognition of Haiti's independence â only came in 1862, a year after the Southern politicians who had blocked such a move had left Congress after declaring secession. While by the 1820s slavery may have been perceived "on a course of ultimate extinction", it was still a legal reality in the British Empire (
345:
mattered little as the issue regarding the status of the formerly enslaved
Haitians and their descendants was not whether new slaves were to be brought to the island but whether the already freed Haitians were to be put back into bondage or forced to pay in gold what they had already won in blood. In
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on 16 August 1823, Haiti proposed waiving all import duties for five years on French products and then duties would be halved at the end of the period; France refused the offer outright. By 1824, President Boyer began to prepare Haiti for a defensive war, moving armaments inland to provide increased
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houses, administrative institutions, banks and the national treasury, with the United States using a total of forty percent of Haiti's national income to repay debts to
American and French banks for the next nineteen years until 1934. In 1922, BNRH was completely acquired by National City Bank, its
762:
agreed to pay 800 francs for each of the 30,000 thousand-franc bonds to the CDC. Of the 24 million that the
Laffitte consortium paid to the CDC, 20 million had itself been borrowed at 3 percent interest from the CDC. In 1826, Haiti shipped the contents of its treasury to France in bags to make up
753:
The payments were designed by France to be so large that it would effectively create a "double debt"; France would receive a direct annual payment and Haiti would pay French bankers interest on the loans required to meet France's annual demands. France viewed Haiti's debt as the "principal interest
740:
to pay the
Haitian Independence Debt, and to also collect local taxes from them, so that they would contribute to the payment of this debt. The French rejected this claim by the Haitians. France did not have to collect compensation from the inhabitants of the Spanish part since they had not created
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occurred immediately, with Haiti's late payments often raising tensions with France. Ternaux
Gandolphe et Cie seized assets of the Haitian government for failing to pay on its loan, though the Tribunal de la Seine overturned these actions on 2 May 1828. On 12 February 1838, France agreed to reduce
89:
estimates that because of other loans taken to pay off this loan, the final payment to debtors was actually in 1947. They approximated that in total 112 million francs was paid in indemnity, which when adjusted for the inflation rate would be $ 560 million in 2022, but considering that if had been
937:
reported the payments cost Haiti much of its development potential, removing about $ 21 to $ 115 billion of growth from Haiti (about one to eight times the nation's total economy) over two centuries, according to calculations conducted by fifteen prominent economists. Haiti could potentially have
728:
had recognized the
Haitian occupation. The French rejected this claim of the Haitians, since the Republic of Spanish Haiti was just an attempt at a state that existed only for two months and a few days, and that never received official diplomatic recognition, neither of its metropolis, nor of the
550:
Under
Charles X's ordinance, France demanded an indemnity payment of 150 million francs in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence. In addition to the payment, Charles ordered that Haiti provide a fifty percent discount on French import duties, making payment to France more difficult. On 11
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pushed for the BNH to work on the behalf of
Haitians, though French officials began to devise plans to reorganize their financial interests. French envoy to Haiti Pierre Carteron wrote following Marcelin's objections that "It is of the highest importance that we study how to set up a new French
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During the discussions, the Haitians demanded from France that the Spanish part of the island be recognized by France as the territory of Haiti in the aforementioned Ordinance. The French rejected this Haitian demand as inadmissible, ill-founded and lacking legal basis; France, they argued, had
229:
and sought the international isolation of Haiti. Britain and Spain who had likewise intervened in the Haitian Revolution on various sides â sometimes allied with, sometimes opposed to, the L'Ouverturian state and its successors â subsequently had no appetite for a formal recognition of Haitian
188:
slaves to what was then known as Saint-Domingue to work on the vast plantations. The Saint-Domingue population reached 520,000 in 1790, and of those 425,000 were slaves. The mortality rate among slaves was high, with the French often working slaves to death and transporting more to the colony
1059:
Matt Apuzzo, Selam Gebrekidan, Constant MĂ©heut, and Catherine Porter, analyze how Haitiâs current troubles stem from its colonial past drawing references from the early 19th-century indemnity demand and how it had severely depleted the Haitian government's treasury and economic capabilities.
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who established himself when France controlled Haiti. Haitian Charles Laforestrie, who mainly lived in France and successfully pushed for Haiti to accept the 1875 loan with the CIC, later retired from his positions in Haiti amid corruption allegations, joining the BNH board in Paris after its
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The King is the Supreme Head of the State, commands the land and sea forces, declares war, makes treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appoints to all places of public administration, and makes the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the
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Until France recognized Haiti's independence, the fear of reconquest and continued isolation persisted among Haitians. Haiti was also financially strained after purchasing equipment to defend itself from invasion. Knowing that improvements could not happen until Haiti received international
388:
protection. After being summoned by France, two Haitian envoys traveled to Paris. At the meetings held between June and August 1824, Haiti offered to pay an indemnity to France, though negotiations ended after France said it would only recognize their former territory on the west half of
2645:"This claim was illegal, ridiculous and was made only for political reasons," Prime Minister Gerard Latortue said Sunday. "This matter is closed. What we need now is increased cooperation with France that could help us build roads, hospitals, schools and other infrastructure.".
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was thus received with great fear and rejection by the countries and colonial powers of the region, since all of these countries were slaveholding nations and were nervous that their slaves might follow the Haitian example. The Haitian diplomat and politician,
108:), successive governments, be they imperial, monarchist or republican, continued enforcing the debt and coercing Haiti to pay. Haiti had to take a loan in 1875 to pay back the final portion of the original loan, and the bank that benefited most from this was
96:'s demand of payments in exchange for recognizing Haiti's independence was delivered to the country by several French warships in 1825, twenty-one years after Haiti's declaration of independence in 1804. Despite several revolutions in France after that date (
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demanded that France pay Haiti over 21 billion U.S. dollars, what he said was the equivalent in today's money of the 90 million gold francs Haiti was forced to pay Paris after winning its freedom from France. French and Haitian officials later claimed to
483:"The duties levied in these ports either on ships or merchandise at the times of their entry or departure shall be equal and uniform for all nations except for the French flag, on behalf of which these duties are to be reduced to half the amount.
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that Aristide's calls for reparations led to French and Haitian officials collaborating with the United States on removing Aristide because France feared that discussions of reparations would set a precedent for other former colonies, such as
732:
Furthermore, France and other major powers had not yet (as of 1822) recognized Haiti as an independent nation, therefore, the overseas territory of a country could not recognize the sovereignty of another overseas territory of another empire.
902:
in 1914, the National City Bank and the BNRH demanded the United States Marines to take custody of Haiti's gold reserve of about US$ 500,000 â equivalent to $ 13,526,578 in 2021 â in December 1914; the gold was transported aboard the
717:, very much like Charles X. Whatever the political expediency might have been (and there seemed to be none), Charles X was not of a disposition to reward a revolutionary Republic at the expense of a regime he viewed very much as kindred.
82:
in return for diplomatic recognition. Haiti was forced to take a loan for the first 30 million, and in 1838 France agreed to reduce the remaining debt to 60 million to be paid over 30 years, with the final payment paid in 1883. However,
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while refraining from extending recognition to Haiti, further disillusioning Haitians seeking recognition. The United States likewise could not be counted on as a potential ally. Despite their anti-colonial assertion in the
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agreed not to prevent France's actions by "whatever means possible, including that of arms, to recover Saint-Domingue and to subdue the inhabitants of that colony". In 1823, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of
1023:
to be sent into its member state Haiti. However, the Security Council voted unanimously to send troops into Haiti three days later, just hours after Aristide's controversial resignation. The provisional prime minister
883:
credit establishment in Port-au-Prince ... Without any close link to the Haitian government." Businesses from the United States had pursued the control of Haiti for years and from 1910 to 1911, the
498:, in five annual instalments, the first one due on 31 December 1825, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs, in order to compensate the former colonists who may claim an indemnity.
466:"Wishing to attend to the interest of French Commerce, to the misfortunes of the former colonists of Saint-Domingue and to the precarious condition of the present inhabitants of the island;
662:
The final discussions between France and Haiti regarding the signing of the Ordinance took place between the months of April and July 1825. By those dates, the Haitians had already been
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and his fellow citizens, deliberately ignored the people who had helped him, thus belittling the only nation that had supported him in his fight for the independence of his country...
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330:
2079:... The existence of Haiti gave hope to the slaves of the New World, and this constituted a threat to the European colonial powers and to slave owners in the United States...
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The Haitians wanted the French to recognize the Spanish part of the island as part of Haitian territory. However, the French flatly ignored this request. France had returned
2042:
790:. In 1874 and 1875 Haiti took out two large loans from CIC, greatly increasing the nation's debt. French banks charged Haiti 40% of the capital in commissions and fees.
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and Grivel arrived at Haiti. A total of fourteen French warships equipped with 528 cannons presented demands that Haiti compensate France for its loss of slaves and the
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Photograph of the ordinance in the French Law Bulletin, the official gazette of the French government (Law Bulletin, Volume No. 58 â Law No. 1798 â April 17, 1825)
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Haiti had hoped that the United Kingdom would support their recognition due to the kingdom's strained history with France, even providing British merchants lower
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in Haiti, the question that dominated everything else for us", according to a French minister. Much of the debt would be paid directly to the French state-owned
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Being a black-majority Republic that was born from a slave rebellion and a war of independence, Haiti was surrounded by cautious neighbors in every scenario.
214:
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782:, was inspired to increase revenue for the bank by following the example of state-run banks acquiring capital from other distant French colonies such as
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embargo lifted. Nevertheless, the French calculation of the indemnification (made in 1825 and confirmed in 1826) was based on articles 44 and 48 of the
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Haiti continued to take out loans from France and the United States in order to fulfill payments. Such large payments became impossible for Haiti and
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ordering the invasion of Haiti to protect American business interests on 28 July 1915. Six weeks later, the United States seized control of Haiti's
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176:, now Haiti, was the most profitable and productive European colony in the world going into the 1800s. France acquired much of its wealth by using
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1885:
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De l'alienation de l'ager publicus pendant la période républicaine: Des rÚgles de compÚtence applicables aux états et aux souverains étrangers
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1961:
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1035:, "I believe that could have something to do with it, because they were definitely not happy about it, and made some very hostile comments
165:. At first, the entire island of Hispaniola belonged to Spain, but the French managed to seize the western part of the island thanks to the
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By the late 1800s, eighty percent of Haiti's wealth was being used to pay foreign debt; France was the highest collector, followed by the
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any loss for France that had to be compensated. Furthermore, the French never created slave plantations on the Spanish part of the island
421:
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35:
1129:. To the left of him, in the background, French sailors can be seen on the Port-au-Prince dock, making sure that the ordinance is signed.
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284:, which established that the enslaved labourers on an estate in the preceding 30 years constituted 30â60 percent of the property value.
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funded the acquisition of Haiti's treasury in 1911, and in 1922, the rest of Haiti's debt was moved to be paid to American investors.
109:
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1982:
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states that it took until 1947 for Haiti to finally pay off all the associated interest to the National City Bank of New York (now
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Furthermore, the French were not going to reward Haiti by giving the Haitians a territory that did not belong to France, when the
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3000:
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678:. Therefore, this territory was not theirs to dispose of, therefore, the Haitians were occupying Spanish territory, not French.
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2107:, to please them, thought it convenient to overlook the services that Haiti and the Haitians provided him. When convening the
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Lost White Tribes: The End of Privilege and the Last Colonials in Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Brazil, Haiti, Namibia, and Guadeloupe
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in wooden boxes and place into the National City Bank's New York City vault days later. The overthrow of Haiti's president
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French Saint Domingue at its height in the 1780s had become the single richest and most productive colony in the world.
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547:. Therefore France had no claim to the formerly Spanish part of Hispaniola which it could renounce in favor of Haiti.
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who assumed office after the coup would later rescind the reparations demand, calling it "ridiculous" and "illegal".
961:. Aristocratic French families have largely forgotten that their families benefited from the debt payments of Haiti.
690:
575:
2885:
2602:
1765:
3311:
3025:
2920:
2320:
BriÚre, Jean-François (Fall 2006). "L'Emprunt de 1825 dans la dette de l'indépendance haitienne envers la France".
1406:
Gamio, Lazaro; MĂ©heut, Constant; Porter, Catherine; Gebrekidan, Selam; McCann, Allison; Apuzzo, Matt (2022-05-20).
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France would still keep a stake in the BNRH, though CIC was excluded. Following the overthrow of Haitian president
322:
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After the declaration of independence, no state was willing to trade with Haiti, which led Haiti's first president
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225:, feared a slave revolt would spread to the United States, ceased the aid that was initiated by his predecessor
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to suggest paying an indemnification to France, solely for the value of lost real estate, in order to see the
258:
2965:
2900:
1039:... I believe that he did have grounds for that demand, because that is what started the downfall of Haiti."
968:
would eventually describe the money paid by Haiti to France as "the ransom of independence" and in 2016, the
112:. Even after the indemnity was paid, Haiti had to continue paying the other loans, and the government of the
3392:
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1918:
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Engraving showing Haitian President Jean Pierre Boyer with an inkwell, quill, and scroll in his right hand,
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have been denounced by some historians and activists as responsible for Haiti's poverty today and a case of
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of 1823, the US refused to recognize Haiti, largely due to opposition by Southern slaveowners. The first
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235:"An army of black troops might conquer all the British Isles and put in jeopardy our Southern states."
30:
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on 17 January 2010 to completely cancel Haiti's external debt. A number of commentators, for example
969:
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181:
125:
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The Haitians alleged that they were militarily occupying the territory of an independent state, the
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2112:
1919:"Slave-based coffee in the eighteenth century and the role of the Dutch in global commodity chains"
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2009:
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part. France recognized the independence of its colony on the French part, under Article 8 of the
262:
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519:"Done at Paris in the Palace of Tuileries, this 17 April A. D. 1825, and the first of our reign.
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180:, with the slave population of Saint-Domingue alone accounting for forty percent of the entire
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2019:
1957:
1899:
1889:
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1802:
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1683:
1581:
1467:
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767:
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in five annual payments of 30 million to be paid by Haiti in claims over property â including
43:
1977:
1197:
According to NYT, 30 million francs was about six times that of the Haitian income that year.
3165:
2799:
2494:
2275:
1930:
1648:
1281:
1126:
759:
649:, in which France returned the Spanish part of the island to Spain, thereby superseding the
625:
525:"By the King: The Peer of France, Minister-Secretary of State for the Navy and the colonies.
218:
75:
895:, with the new bank often holding payments from the Haitian government, leading to unrest.
3225:
3085:
2348:
Race, Reality, and Realpolitik: U.S.-Haiti Relations in the Lead Up to the 1915 Occupation
706:
694:
459:
314:
97:
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821:, headquartered in Paris by CIC which was simultaneously funding the construction of the
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2189:. The Neale Publishing Co.: New York & Washington. 1907. Accessed 19 February 2011.
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Payments by Haiti to France in compensation for property lost in the Haitian Revolution
17:
1015:, of which France is a permanent member, rejected a 26 February 2004, appeal from the
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3090:
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2100:
1853:. Translated by Goldhammer, Arthur. Cambridge, Massachusetts ; London, England:
1616:
899:
865:
775:
702:
401:
113:
105:
2623:
1307:
3416:
2520:
MĂ©heut, Constant; Porter, Catherine; Gebrekidan, Selam; Apuzzo, Matt (2022-05-20).
2371:
Gebrekidan, Selam; Apuzzo, Matt; Porter, Catherine; MĂ©heut, Constant (2022-05-20).
1791:
Porter, Catherine; MĂ©heut, Constant; Apuzzo, Matt; Gebrekidan, Selam (2022-05-20).
1570:
Apuzzo, Matt; MĂ©heut, Constant; Gebrekidan, Selam; Porter, Catherine (2022-05-20).
1456:
MĂ©heut, Constant; Porter, Catherine; Gebrekidan, Selam; Apuzzo, Matt (2022-05-20).
1346:
Porter, Catherine; MĂ©heut, Constant; Apuzzo, Matt; Gebrekidan, Selam (2022-05-20).
875:
In 1903, Haitian authorities began to accuse the BNH of fraud and by 1908, Haitian
822:
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184:
by the 1780s. Between the years of 1697 and 1804, French colonists brought 800,000
71:
1935:
1506:"France Urged to Pay $ 40 Billion to Haiti in Reparations for "Independence Debt""
2657:
2129:"La dette de l'indépendance d'Haïti. L'esclave comme unité de compte (1794-1922)"
1951:
1708:
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France Urged to Pay $ 40 Billion to Haiti in Reparations for "Independence Debt"
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and in turn was one of many causative factors leading to the Haitian Revolution.
564:
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began shortly after a widespread slave revolt against the French, with Haitians
185:
137:
2435:
Central Banks and Gold: How Tokyo, London, and New York Shaped the Modern World
2572:
2283:
2014:
1903:
1879:
1276:
Forsdick, Charles (2013). "Haiti and France: Settling the Debts of the Past".
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From 1880 to 1881, Haiti granted a currency issuance concession to create the
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invested in the Haitian economy instead, it could be valued at $ 115 billion.
2535:
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2023:
1806:
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1471:
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1359:
1321:
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67:
2243:"Empires against Emancipation: Spain, Brazil, and the Abolition of Slavery"
1676:"France dismisses petition for it to pay $ 17 billion in Haiti reparations"
1637:
Hubert, Giles A. (January 1947). "War and the Trade Orientation of Haiti".
1031:
Myrtha Desulme, chairperson of the Haiti-Jamaica Exchange Committee, told
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888:
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491:
384:
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Map of the French Colony of Saint-Domingue, in 1777. To the east, is the
121:
2485:
Munro, Dana G. (1969). "The American Withdrawal from Haiti, 1929â1934".
2333:
2258:
2242:
2199:
Skidmore, Thomas E.; Smith, Peter H.; Green, James Naylor (2014). "14".
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Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National: Independence in Haiti
1215:
For comparison, Haiti's nominal GDP in 2020 stood at 14.508 billion USD.
3220:
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1660:
1001:
951:
920:
177:
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For an early Haitian treatment of the science of racial equality, cf.
2045:. Smithsonian Magazine. written by Nicholas Foreman, January 5, 2016.
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and that it sought to maintain control of Haiti's foreign relations.
305:
161:. The border dividing the island on the map is the one agreed in the
63:
39:
2565:"Haiti: Aristide's Call for Reparations From France Unlikely to Die"
2498:
1652:
852:
551:
July 1825, the senate of Haiti signed the agreement to pay France.
1923:
Slavery & Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies
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624:
360:
152:
59:
47:
29:
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and subsequent unrest resulted in President of the United States
891:â to acquire control of the National Bank of Haiti to create the
658:
Territorial discussions between France and Haiti in the Ordinance
2274:
516:"And the present Ordinance shall be sealed with the great seal.
480:
of Saint-Domingue shall be open to the commerce of all nations.
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1224:
France itself had defaulted on two thirds of its debt in 1797 (
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and the United States. Henri Durrieu, head of the French bank
558:
505:
Under these conditions we grant, by the present Ordinance, to
383:
sent envoys to negotiate terms with France. At one meeting in
1713:(reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 63.
1613:
ed. Emily Greene Balch (New York, 1972), 15â52 reprinted in:
1308:"Impoverished Haiti Pins Hopes for Future On a Very Old Debt"
1255:
The colonies will be governed by special laws and regulations
1082:
Image of the first page of the original handwritten ordinance
513:
of Saint-Domingue the full independence of their Government.
1884:(Third edition, revised and updated ed.). Chapel Hill:
829:
economic historian Ăric Monnet. On the board of the BNH was
1831:
1051:, the French foreign ministry made a formal request to the
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experienced a level of development on par with neighboring
445:"Charles, by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre.
1710:
Colonialism and Science: Saint Domingue and the Old Regime
957:
The history of Haiti's indemnity is not taught as part of
887:
backed a consortium of American investors â headed by the
736:
At the same time, the Haitians wanted France to force the
420:
on 3 July 1825. Soon after, more warships led by admirals
217:, ordered the execution of remaining whites; in response,
1832:"Latest News | The Canada-Haiti Information Project"
825:. BNH was described as an entity of "pure extraction" by
1881:
Black marxism: the making of the Black radical tradition
724:, free of any power, and that its president and founder
670:
returned the Spanish part of the island to Spain in the
358:
for their lost "property" rather than to the enslaved.
2658:"A Country Study: Haiti â Boyer: Expansion and Decline"
1526:"Why The US Owes Haiti Billions - The Briefest History"
209:
of much of the remaining European population of Haiti.
3287:
Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau
2055:
Girard, Philippe R. (2010). "The Tumultuous History".
2043:
The History of the United Statesâ First Refugee Crisis
1793:"The Root of Haiti's Misery: Reparations to Enslavers"
1615:
Money Doctors, Foreign Debts, and Economic Reforms in
1348:"The Root of Haiti's Misery: Reparations to Enslavers"
833:, the great-grandson of French slave trader and owner
494:
of the French part of Saint-Domingue shall pay at the
2077:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers UP. p. 36.
2111:, he, who personally had the greatest obligation to
128:
repealed the 1825 ordinance of Charles X, though no
3380:
3354:
3334:
3259:
3073:
3066:
2823:
2787:
2373:"Invade Haiti, Wall Street Urged. The U.S. Obliged"
972:repealed the 1825 ordinance in a symbolic gesture.
230:independence and â more crucially â emancipation.
1143:"His Majesty, Charles X, The Beloved, recognizing
329:) and the United States (until the passage of the
2558:
2556:
2103:. Their attitude was so irreconcilable that even
1978:"Milestones: 1784â1800 - Office of the Historian"
2407:"U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915-34"
2127:Gaillard-Pourchet, Gusti-Klara (November 2023).
697:(1820â1823) had markedly improved following the
2687:"France asks Paris Club to speed up Haiti debt"
2624:"Haiti Drops Its Demand For Refund From France"
2522:"Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile"
1458:"Demanding Reparations, and Ending Up in Exile"
539:the Spanish part of the island to Spain in the
233:
371:, who demanded debt repayment for freed slaves
2765:
2592:
2590:
2433:Bytheway, Simon James; Metzler, Mark (2016).
2135:(in French). BibliothĂšque nationale de France
944:gained independence in the early 19th century
8:
2059:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 61.
1492:"Report for Selected Countries and Subjects"
794:described the loans as an early example of "
496:Caisse des DĂ©pots et Consignations of France
593:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3070:
2772:
2758:
2750:
469:"We have ordered and order the following:
3292:Philibert François Rouxel de Blanchelande
2563:Jackson Miller, Dionne (March 12, 2004).
2315:
2313:
2282:(in French). Paris: Cotillon – via
2230:https://history.state.gov/countries/haiti
1934:
1011:occurred against President Aristide. The
613:Learn how and when to remove this message
269:for fear of offending the United States.
3388:United States and the Haitian Revolution
3317:Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville
2468:
2466:
2437:. Cornell University Press. p. 43.
864:, which transported Haiti's gold to the
441:
2487:The Hispanic American Historical Review
2306:(in French). Impr. F. Levé. p. 83.
2057:Pearl of the Caribbean to Broken Nation
1632:
1630:
1268:
1190:
1115:
1072:
3452:Third World debt cancellation activism
2712:"Haiti's Troubled Path to Development"
2179:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1886:The University of North Carolina Press
1759:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1206:The New York Times states it was 1888.
447:"To everyone here present, Greetings.
2366:
2364:
2295:
2293:
2186:Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2097:. New York: The Neale Publishing Co.
2094:Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
780:Crédit Industriel et Commercial (CIC)
325:), the Spanish Empire (until 1886 in
205:from France in 1804, followed by the
7:
3277:Thomas-Antoine de Mauduit du Plessis
2241:Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher (2008).
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1341:
1339:
1337:
893:Bank of the Republic of Haiti (BNRH)
666:militarily for 3 years and 1 month.
591:adding citations to reliable sources
3053:Haitian Declaration of Independence
58:involves an 1825 agreement between
3367:John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
3121:Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture
2010:"Haiti: The Pearl of the Antilles"
1766:"The Case for Haitian Reparations"
1572:"How a French Bank Captured Haiti"
756:Caisse des dépÎts et consignations
637:, which divided the island into a
167:Devastations of Osorio (1605â1606)
159:Captaincy General of Santo Domingo
66:that included France demanding an
25:
2412:United States Department of State
1983:United States Department of State
885:United States Department of State
848:United States occupation of Haiti
842:United States occupation of Haiti
422:Pierre Roch Jurien de La GraviĂšre
406:Ange René Armand, baron de Mackau
265:ignored Haiti when he called the
3410:
1624:: Edited by Paul W. Drake, 1994.
1134:
1118:
1099:
1087:
1075:
763:the remaining 6 million francs.
743:when it was under French control
693:which had been tense during the
563:
3398:Women in the Haitian Revolution
3282:Honoré Joseph Antoine Ganteaume
2668:from the original on 2009-06-01
2636:from the original on 2024-08-04
2605:from the original on 2009-02-12
2542:from the original on 2024-07-14
2277:De l'égalité des races humaines
2247:Review (Fernand Braudel Center)
2091:Leger, Jacques Nicolas (1907).
1813:from the original on 2022-05-21
1674:Marquand, Robert (2010-08-17).
1306:de Cordoba, Jose (2004-01-02).
1013:United Nations Security Council
110:Crédit Industriel et Commercial
3126:Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité
1232:which was caused in part by a
889:National City Bank of New York
701:of an absolutist regime under
555:Border aspect of the Ordinance
1:
2099:Even less could he trust the
2008:Barnes, Joslyn (2010-01-19).
1936:10.1080/0144039X.2020.1860465
1094:Printed copy of the ordinance
633:divided by the border of the
132:have been offered by France.
3307:Louis-Marie Stanislas Fréron
2716:Council on Foreign Relations
1878:Robinson, Cedric J. (2020).
1707:McLellan, James May (2010).
1019:(CARICOM) for international
819:National Bank of Haiti (BNH)
685:its most profitable colony,
439:(1824â1830), was presented:
319:American ambassador to Haiti
78:â that was lost through the
3272:Gabriel, comte d'HĂ©douville
3043:Armistice of March 30, 1798
2664:Library of Congress. 200a.
1278:Politics and Power in Haiti
1127:ready to sign the ordinance
431:The following ordinance of
3468:
3026:Blockade of Saint-Domingue
2322:Journal of Haitian Studies
2205:(8th ed.). New York:
1228:) as a consequence of the
1179:Foreign relations of Haiti
845:
689:, in the first place. The
635:Treaty of Aranjuéz of 1777
203:gaining their independence
163:Treaty of Aranjuez of 1777
3437:Economic history of Haiti
3406:
3372:Denmark Vesey's rebellion
3151:Marie-Jeanne LamartiniĂšre
2996:Saint-Domingue expedition
1950:Orizio, Riccardo (2001).
1680:Christian Science Monitor
1640:Southern Economic Journal
1230:French Revolution of 1789
1164:Chilean independence debt
827:Paris School of Economics
729:international community.
722:Republic of Spanish Haiti
683:Haitians made France lose
308:and other nations in the
215:Governor-General of Haiti
102:French Revolution of 1848
56:Haitian independence debt
3156:Léger-Félicité Sonthonax
2273:Firmin, Anténor (1885).
2101:United States of America
2073:Nicholls, David (1996).
1917:Cobrink, Tamira (2021).
1855:Harvard University Press
1849:Piketty, Thomas (2020).
940:Caribbean island nations
691:French-Spanish relations
3447:Reparations for slavery
3393:Haiti Independence Debt
3342:JoaquĂn GarcĂa y Moreno
3312:Louis Jean Nicolas Abbé
3096:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
2629:The Wall Street Journal
2207:Oxford University Press
1408:"Haiti's Lost Billions"
1313:The Wall Street Journal
1286:10.1057/9781137312006_7
1069:Copies of the ordinance
676:Treaty of Basel of 1795
672:Treaty of Paris of 1814
664:occupying Santo Domingo
647:Treaty of Paris of 1814
545:Treaty of Basel of 1795
541:Treaty of Paris of 1814
507:the present inhabitants
356:to the former enslavers
223:United States President
211:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
18:Haiti Independence Debt
3442:FranceâHaiti relations
3236:Jean-Pierre Louverture
3231:Jean-François Papillon
3216:Charles RiviĂšre-HĂ©rard
2795:Devastations of Osorio
1956:. Simon and Schuster.
1609:Douglas, Paul H. from
1174:FranceâHaiti relations
1169:External debt of Haiti
990:Jean-Bertrand Aristide
872:
835:Jean-Joseph de Laborde
814:
807:National Bank of Haiti
654:
450:"Having seen articles
396:Ordinance of Charles X
372:
337:having been banned in
237:
170:
51:
42:presenting demands to
3058:1804 Haitian massacre
2599:"Haiti, 1789 to 1806"
2473:Weinstein, Segal 1984
2458:Weinstein, Segal 1984
2300:Piot, Gaston (1887).
1234:sovereign debt crisis
1049:2010 Haiti earthquake
913:Vilbrun Guillaume Sam
855:
804:
726:JosĂ© NĂșñez de CĂĄceres
674:, which annulled the
628:
543:, which annulled the
364:
346:an era of widespread
259:Jacques Nicolas LĂ©ger
156:
149:Saint-Domingue colony
33:
3302:Jean Augustin Ernouf
3201:Jean-Baptiste Belley
3131:Henriette Saint Marc
3081:Toussaint Louverture
2571:news. Archived from
2202:Modern Latin America
1851:Capital and ideology
1622:Wilmington, Delaware
1530:www.africaspeaks.com
1007:In February 2004, a
970:Parliament of France
868:to be placed in the
651:1795 Treaty of Basel
631:Island of Hispaniola
587:improve this section
331:Thirteenth Amendment
291:, though during the
182:Atlantic slave trade
126:Parliament of France
3001:Ravine-Ă -Couleuvres
2569:Inter Press Service
1764:Alcenat, Westenly.
1057:The New York Timesâ
1021:peacekeeping forces
1017:Caribbean Community
981:Aristide government
976:Reparation requests
963:President of France
959:education in France
877:Minister of Finance
699:imposition by force
528:"Comte de Chabrol."
492:present inhabitants
426:1804 Haiti massacre
3362:Louisiana Purchase
3181:Jean-Louis Pierrot
3048:Law of 20 May 1802
3031:MĂŽle-Saint-Nicolas
3021:2nd Port-au-Prince
2851:1st Port-au-Prince
2836:Croix-des-Bouquets
2824:Battles and events
2810:François Mackandal
2781:Haitian Revolution
2741:â video report by
2575:on 2 December 2008
2527:The New York Times
2378:The New York Times
2346:Sommers, Jeffrey.
2109:Congress of Panama
1798:The New York Times
1577:The New York Times
1463:The New York Times
1413:The New York Times
1352:The New York Times
1226:Consolidated Third
1141:Engraving titledË
996:The New York Times
987:President of Haiti
948:Dominican Republic
934:The New York Times
873:
815:
809:(BNH) building in
655:
478:of the French part
378:President of Haiti
373:
297:British government
293:Congress of Vienna
267:Congress of Panama
245:Secretary of State
171:
118:The New York Times
94:Restoration France
86:The New York Times
80:Haitian Revolution
52:
3424:
3423:
3350:
3349:
3211:Magloire Ambroise
3196:Philippe Guerrier
3191:Faustin Soulouque
3101:Jean-Pierre Boyer
3074:Rebels and allies
2805:French Revolution
2597:Frank E. Smitha.
2216:978-0-19-992923-8
1963:978-0-7432-1197-0
1895:978-1-4696-6371-5
1864:978-0-674-98082-2
1514:. 17 August 2010.
1149:of Saint-Domingue
1145:the Independence
985:On 7 April 2003,
966:François Hollande
880:Frédéric Marcelin
831:Ădouard Delessert
749:Indemnity payment
623:
622:
615:
533:
532:
412:, along with two
381:Jean-Pierre Boyer
348:scientific racism
343:by 1808 by the US
261:writes that even
254:New Haitian State
241:Timothy Pickering
193:Independent Haiti
44:Jean-Pierre Boyer
16:(Redirected from
3459:
3417:Haiti portal
3415:
3414:
3413:
3206:Ătienne Polverel
3166:Henri Christophe
3161:Alexandre PĂ©tion
3071:
2896:Port-RĂ©publicain
2800:Slavery in Haiti
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760:Jacques Laffitte
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274:Alexandre PĂ©tion
252:The news of the
248:
219:Thomas Jefferson
124:). In 2016, the
21:
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3255:
3246:Gaou Louverture
3241:Paul Louverture
3226:Victoria Montou
3186:François Capois
3086:Georges Biassou
3062:
3016:CrĂȘte-Ă -Pierrot
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1888:. p. 146.
1877:
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1857:. p. 216.
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1653:10.2307/1053341
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1045:
1043:2010 earthquake
1036:
1026:GĂ©rard Latortue
983:
978:
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844:
798:through debt".
751:
695:Trienio Liberal
660:
619:
608:
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511:the French part
398:
339:1807 by Britain
315:Monroe Doctrine
250:
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98:July Revolution
70:of 150 million
46:, President of
36:Baron de Mackau
28:
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3355:Related events
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3146:Catherine Flon
3143:
3141:Charles BĂ©lair
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333:in 1865). The
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572:This section
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402:show of force
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376:recognition,
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106:Paris Commune
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61:
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49:
45:
41:
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19:
3408:
3111:Dédée Bazile
3106:André Rigaud
2906:2nd Tannerie
2891:Les GonaĂŻves
2866:Fort-Dauphin
2856:Cap-Français
2846:1st Tannerie
2742:
2719:. Retrieved
2715:
2706:
2695:. Retrieved
2693:. 2010-01-15
2690:
2681:
2670:. Retrieved
2652:
2644:
2638:. Retrieved
2627:
2618:
2607:. Retrieved
2577:. Retrieved
2573:the original
2544:. Retrieved
2525:
2515:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2453:
2434:
2428:
2417:. Retrieved
2415:. 2007-07-13
2410:
2401:
2390:. Retrieved
2376:
2347:
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2325:
2321:
2302:
2276:
2267:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2225:
2201:
2194:
2184:
2183:Leger, J.N.
2137:. Retrieved
2132:
2122:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2038:
2027:. Retrieved
2013:
1987:. Retrieved
1981:
1972:
1952:
1945:
1929:(1): 15â42.
1926:
1922:
1912:
1880:
1873:
1850:
1844:
1835:
1826:
1815:. Retrieved
1796:
1786:
1775:. Retrieved
1769:
1730:
1724:. Retrieved
1709:
1702:
1691:. Retrieved
1679:
1669:
1644:
1638:
1614:
1610:
1589:. Retrieved
1575:
1529:
1520:
1509:
1500:
1486:
1475:. Retrieved
1461:
1425:. Retrieved
1411:
1363:. Retrieved
1351:
1325:. Retrieved
1311:
1277:
1271:
1251:
1241:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1147:
1146:
1112:Other images
1056:
1046:
1030:
1006:
994:
984:
956:
932:
931:
906:
897:
874:
859:
823:Eiffel Tower
816:
773:
765:
752:
735:
731:
719:
680:
668:
661:
609:
600:
585:Please help
573:
549:
536:
534:
518:
515:
502:
500:
487:
485:
482:
473:
471:
468:
465:
460:
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449:
446:
430:
409:
399:
374:
327:Spanish Cuba
295:in 1815 the
286:
277:
271:
251:
238:
234:
196:
186:West African
172:
117:
92:
85:
55:
53:
3322:French Army
2946:Las Cahobas
2931:3rd Tiburon
2886:2nd Tiburon
2881:La Bombarde
2871:1st Tiburon
2831:Bois CaĂŻman
2815:Vincent Ogé
2493:(1): 1â26.
1280:: 141â159.
1009:coup d'Ă©tat
629:Map of the
352:reparations
335:Slave Trade
243:, 3rd U.S.
138:odious debt
134:These debts
130:reparations
3431:Categories
2976:Jean-Rabel
2966:2nd Dondon
2951:Mirebalais
2911:Saint-Marc
2901:1st Dondon
2841:Morne Pelé
2788:Background
2721:2022-12-05
2697:2022-12-05
2672:2007-08-30
2640:2024-08-05
2609:2009-04-20
2546:2024-08-05
2419:2021-02-24
2392:2022-05-24
2356:1498509142
2284:Wikisource
2139:2024-03-31
2029:2021-02-20
2015:The Nation
1989:2021-02-20
1904:1195468275
1817:2024-08-09
1777:2021-02-20
1726:2010-11-22
1693:2019-08-31
1591:2022-05-24
1477:2022-05-24
1427:2022-05-24
1365:2022-05-23
1327:2021-02-20
1263:References
1053:Paris Club
784:Martinique
738:Dominicans
715:Absolutist
711:Legitimist
705:which was
476:The ports
414:men-of-war
404:, captain
390:Hispaniola
354:were paid
323:until 1833
227:John Adams
3036:VertiĂšres
3011:Plaisance
2981:2nd Irois
2971:1st Irois
2861:Marmelade
2536:0362-4331
2387:0362-4331
2358:. p. 124.
2024:0027-8378
1807:0362-4331
1688:0882-7729
1586:0362-4331
1472:0362-4331
1422:0362-4331
1360:0362-4331
1322:0099-9660
928:Aftermath
574:does not
522:"Charles.
503:Art. III.
433:Charles X
369:Charles X
282:Code Noir
68:indemnity
50:, in 1825
3381:See also
3267:Napoleon
2666:Archived
2634:Archived
2603:Archived
2579:20 April
2540:Archived
2475:, p. 29.
2460:, p. 28.
2350:. 2015.
2334:41715332
2259:40241710
1811:Archived
1158:See also
768:defaults
488:Art. II.
410:La Circe
385:Brussels
310:Americas
302:Colombia
278:de facto
197:Haiti's
122:Citibank
3221:Jeannot
3006:Kellola
2926:Trutier
2916:LĂ©ogane
2691:Reuters
2507:2511314
1771:Jacobin
1661:1053341
1064:Gallery
1002:Algeria
952:Jamaica
921:customs
907:Machias
860:Machias
788:Senegal
707:Bourbon
643:Spanish
595:removed
580:sources
537:de jure
474:Art. I.
461:Charter
458:of the
144:History
3260:French
3176:Macaya
3067:People
2986:Jacmel
2534:
2505:
2441:
2385:
2354:
2332:
2279:
2257:
2213:
2133:bnf.fr
2113:PĂ©tion
2022:
1960:
1902:
1892:
1861:
1805:
1717:
1686:
1659:
1584:
1470:
1420:
1358:
1320:
1246:state.
1037:
909:(PG-5)
862:(PG-5)
813:, 1907
641:and a
639:French
306:Mexico
178:slaves
72:francs
64:France
40:France
3335:Other
2503:JSTOR
2330:JSTOR
2255:JSTOR
1657:JSTOR
1185:Notes
942:that
400:As a
60:Haiti
48:Haiti
3326:Navy
3324:and
2876:Acul
2581:2009
2532:ISSN
2439:ISBN
2383:ISSN
2352:ISBN
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