2004:
1800:
747:) is a variety of overshot wheel where the water is introduced just before the summit of the wheel. In many situations, it has the advantage that the bottom of the wheel is moving in the same direction as the water in the tailrace which makes it more efficient. It also performs better than an overshot wheel in flood conditions when the water level may submerge the bottom of the wheel. It will continue to rotate until the water in the wheel pit rises quite high on the wheel. This makes the technique particularly suitable for streams that experience significant variations in flow and reduces the size, complexity, and hence cost of the tailrace.
764:
253:
1340:
434:
497:
465:
403:
1288:
336:
1532:. The decision was influenced by the fact that the buckets could catch and use even a small volume of water. For large volumes of water with small waterfalls the undershot wheel would have been used, since it was more adapted to such conditions and cheaper to construct. So long as these water supplies were abundant the question of efficiency remained irrelevant. By the 18th century, with increased demand for power coupled with limited water locales, an emphasis was made on efficiency scheme.
372:
1746:
622:
588:
533:, the horizontal wheel is a primitive and inefficient form of the modern turbine. However, if it delivers the required power then the efficiency is of secondary importance. It is usually mounted inside a mill building below the working floor. A jet of water is directed on to the paddles of the water wheel, causing them to turn. This is a simple system usually without gearing so that the vertical axle of the water wheel becomes the drive spindle of the mill.
736:
683:
511:
542:
6012:
1485:. It has been used for centuries before the technology was brought into Spain by Arabs who had adopted it from the Romans. Thus the distribution of the Noria in the Iberian peninsula "conforms to the area of stabilized Islamic settlement". This technology has a profound effect on the life of peasants. The Noria is relatively cheap to build. Thus it allowed peasants to cultivate land more efficiently in Europe. Together with the
1567:
1772:
or shroud of the wheel. A stub gear engaged the rim-gear and took the power into the mill using an independent line shaft. This removed the rotative stress from the axle which could thus be lighter, and also allowed more flexibility in the location of the power train. The shaft rotation was geared up from that of the wheel which led to less power loss. An example of this design pioneered by Thomas Hewes and refined by
1477:. At around the 8th to 10th century, a number of irrigation technologies were brought into Spain and thus introduced to Europe. One of those technologies is the Noria, which is basically a wheel fitted with buckets on the peripherals for lifting water. It is similar to the undershot water wheel mentioned later in this article. It allowed peasants to power watermills more efficiently. According to Thomas Glick's book,
828:
or a horizontal axle. The latter type can be subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into overshot, breastshot and undershot wheels. The two main functions of waterwheels were historically water-lifting for irrigation purposes and milling, particularly of grain. In case of horizontal-axle mills, a system of gears is required for power transmission, which vertical-axle mills do not need.
1437:
837:
1635:
2698:
1235:
1937:
1065:
784:
4759:
1139:
73:
1894:. Terry S. Reynolds, however, argues that the "term used in Indian texts is ambiguous and does not clearly indicate a water-powered device." Thorkild Schiøler argued that it is "more likely that these passages refer to some type of tread- or hand-operated water-lifting device, instead of a water-powered water-lifting wheel."
1327:, several installations from around 300 AD were found where vertical-axle waterwheels fitted with angled blades were installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill-race which entered tangentially the pit created a swirling water column that made the fully submerged wheel act like true
100:
1284:
the separate Greek inventions of the toothed gear and the waterwheel into one effective mechanical system for harnessing water power. Vitruvius' waterwheel is described as being immersed with its lower end in the watercourse so that its paddles could be driven by the velocity of the running water (X, 5.2).
1613:
also discussed water power, noting "the blow is not weight, but excites a power of weight, almost equal to its own power". However, even realisation of the two forces, weight and impulse, confusion remained over the advantages and disadvantages of the two, and there was no clear understanding of the
1544:
Harnessing water-power enabled gains in agricultural productivity, food surpluses and the large scale urbanization starting in the 11th century. The usefulness of water power motivated
European experiments with other power sources, such as wind and tidal mills. Waterwheels influenced the construction
1225:
to about 90 AD, and since the wood from which it was made is much older than the deep mine, it is likely that the deep workings were in operation perhaps 30–50 years after. It is clear from these examples of drainage wheels found in sealed underground galleries in widely separated locations that
698:
Nearly all of the energy is gained from the weight of water lowered to the tailrace although a small contribution may be made by the kinetic energy of the water entering the wheel. They are suited to larger heads than the other type of wheel so they are ideally suited to hilly countries. However even
2249:
The kinetic energy can be accounted for by converting it into an equivalent head, the velocity head, and adding it to the actual head. For still water the velocity head is zero, and to a good approximation it is negligible for slowly moving water, and can be ignored. The velocity in the tail race is
2200:
A recent development of the breastshot wheel is a hydraulic wheel which effectively incorporates automatic regulation systems. The
Aqualienne is one example. It generates between 37 kW and 200 kW of electricity from a 20 m (710 cu ft) waterflow with a head of 1 to 3.5 m
1897:
According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain
Metrodoros introduced "water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then". Irrigation water for crops was provided by using water raising wheels, some driven by the
1771:
and rim gearing. Suspension wheels are constructed in the same manner as a bicycle wheel, the rim being supported under tension from the hub- this led to larger lighter wheels than the former design where the heavy spokes were under compression. Rim-gearing entailed adding a notched wheel to the rim
4139:
As a result of his investigations, Laessoe writes as follows on the question of the saqiya: "I consider it unlikely that any reference to the saqiya will appear in ancient
Mesopotamian sources." In his opinion, we should turn our attention to Alexandria, "where it seems plausible to assume that the
1540:
By the 11th century there were parts of Europe where the exploitation of water was commonplace. The water wheel is understood to have actively shaped and forever changed the outlook of
Westerners. Europe began to transit from human and animal muscle labor towards mechanical labor with the advent of
1134:
can be deduced from its pronounced absence from the otherwise rich oriental iconography on irrigation practices. Unlike other water-lifting devices and pumps of the period though, the invention of the compartmented wheel cannot be traced to any particular
Hellenistic engineer and may have been made
1083:
gear. While the tympanum had a large discharge capacity, it could lift the water only to less than the height of its own radius and required a large torque for rotating. These constructional deficiencies were overcome by the wheel with a compartmented rim which was a less heavy design with a higher
982:
In the seventh year of the Chien-Wu reign period (31 AD) Tu Shih was posted to be
Prefect of Nanyang. He was a generous man and his policies were peaceful; he destroyed evil-doers and established the dignity (of his office). Good at planning, he loved the common people and wished to save their
827:
As in all machinery, rotary motion is more efficient in water-raising devices than oscillating motion. In terms of power source, waterwheels can be turned by either human respectively animal force or by the water current itself. Waterwheels come in two basic designs, either equipped with a vertical
557:
Stream wheels are cheaper and simpler to build and have less of an environmental impact than other types of wheels. They do not constitute a major change of the river. Their disadvantages are their low efficiency, which means that they generate less power and can only be used where the flow rate is
1283:
The first clear description of a geared watermill offers the late 1st century BC Roman architect
Vitruvius who tells of the sakia gearing system as being applied to a watermill. Vitruvius's account is particularly valuable in that it shows how the watermill came about, namely by the combination of
804:
industry in order to power various means of ore conveyance. By changing the direction of the wheel, barrels or baskets of ore could be lifted up or lowered down a shaft or inclined plane. There was usually a cable drum or a chain basket on the axle of the wheel. It is essential that the wheel have
633:
is used in a variety of ways. Some authors restrict the term to wheels where the water enters at about the 10 o’clock position, others 9 o’clock, and others for a range of heights. In this article it is used for wheels where the water entry is significantly above the bottom and significantly below
694:
A typical overshot wheel has the water channeled to the wheel at the top and slightly beyond the axle. The water collects in the buckets on that side of the wheel, making it heavier than the other "empty" side. The weight turns the wheel, and the water flows out into the tail-water when the wheel
595:
An undershot wheel is a vertically mounted water wheel with a horizontal axle that is rotated by the water from a low weir striking the wheel in the bottom quarter. Most of the energy gain is from the movement of the water and comparatively little from the head. They are similar in operation and
101:
1600:, beating material to a pulp. In the 13th century water mills used for hammering throughout Europe improved the productivity of early steel manufacturing. Along with the mastery of gunpowder, waterpower provided European countries worldwide military leadership from the 15th century.
296:
Overshot and pitchback water wheels are suitable where there is a small stream with a height difference of more than 2 metres (6.5 ft), often in association with a small reservoir. Breastshot and undershot wheels can be used on rivers or high volume flows with large reservoirs.
3324:
These type of water wheels have high efficiency at part loads / variable flows and can operate at very low heads, < 1 m (3 ft 3 in). Combined with direct drive Axial Flux
Permanent Magnet Alternators and power electronics they offer a viable alternative for
2019:
The industrial uses of watermills in the
Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use by the 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including
3320:
School of Civil Engineering and the Environment in the UK has investigated both types of Hydraulic wheel machines and has estimated their hydraulic efficiency and suggested improvements, i.e. The Rotary Hydraulic Pressure Machine. (Estimated maximum efficiency 85%).
1614:
superior efficiency of weight. Prior to 1750 it was unsure as to which force was dominant and was widely understood that both forces were operating with equal inspiration amongst one another. The waterwheel sparked questions of the laws of nature, specifically the
799:
A special type of overshot/backshot wheel is the reversible water wheel. This has two sets of blades or buckets running in opposite directions so that it can turn in either direction depending on which side the water is directed. Reversible wheels were used in the
1608:
Millwrights distinguished between the two forces, impulse and weight, at work in water wheels long before 18th-century Europe. Fitzherbert, a 16th-century agricultural writer, wrote "druieth the wheel as well as with the weight of the water as with strengthe ".
52:
3312:
A parallel development is the hydraulic wheel/part reaction turbine that also incorporates a weir into the centre of the wheel but uses blades angled to the water flow. The WICON-Stem Pressure Machine (SPM) exploits this flow. Estimated efficiency 67%.
2084:
as a source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills and steel mills may have spread from Islamic Spain to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial water mills were also employed in large
549:
A stream wheel is a vertically mounted water wheel that is rotated by the water in a water course striking paddles or blades at the bottom of the wheel. This type of water wheel is the oldest type of horizontal axis wheel. They are also known as
1311:(ca. 99–55 BC) who likens the rotation of the waterwheel to the motion of the stars on the firmament (V 516). The third horizontal-axled type, the breastshot waterwheel, comes into archaeological evidence by the late 2nd century AD context in
2779:
can be measured by the pooh sticks method, timing a floating object over a measured distance. The water at the surface moves faster than water nearer to the bottom and sides so a correction factor should be applied as in the formula below.
690:
A vertically mounted water wheel that is rotated by water entering buckets just past the top of the wheel is said to be overshot. The term is sometimes, erroneously, applied to backshot wheels, where the water goes down behind the wheel.
2250:
not taken into account because for a perfect wheel the water would leave with zero energy which requires zero velocity. That is impossible, the water has to move away from the wheel, and represents an unavoidable cause of inefficiency.
1553:
focused path, for instance water supply and irrigation technology was combined to modify supply power of the wheel. Illustrating the extent to which there was a great degree of technological innovation that met the growing needs of the
4082:
The sudden appearance of literary and archaological evidence for the compartmented wheel in the third century B.C. stand in marked contrast to the complete absence of earlier testimony, suggesting that the device was invented not long
1951:
After the spread of Islam engineers of the Islamic world continued the water technologies of the ancient Near East; as evident in the excavation of a canal in the Basra region with remains of a water wheel dating from the 7th century.
940:), thus increasing the efficiency ten times. Afterwards the power of animals—donkeys, mules, oxen, and horses—was applied by means of machinery, and water-power too used for pounding, so that the benefit was increased a hundredfold.
1520:" or Doomsday survey, took an inventory of all potentially taxable property in England, which included over six thousand mills spread across three thousand different locations, up from less than a hundred in the previous century.
2265:, the horizontal waterwheel creating slightly more than one-half of a horsepower, the undershot vertical waterwheel produced about three horsepower, and the medieval overshot waterwheel produced up to forty to sixty horsepower.
1541:
the water wheel. Medievalist Lynn White Jr. contended that the spread of inanimate power sources was eloquent testimony to the emergence of the West of a new attitude toward, power, work, nature, and above all else technology.
1154:
gear, which is here for the first time attested, too. The Greek sakia gear system is already shown fully developed to the point that "modern Egyptian devices are virtually identical". It is assumed that the scientists of the
1921:
works. During medieval times, the diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an advanced irrigation system which bought about economic growth and also helped in the growth of material culture.
1736:
is much greater than the diameter of the turbine, whereas a water wheel cannot effectively harness head greater than its diameter. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years.
1319:
a series of sixteen overshot wheels was fed by an artificial aqueduct, a proto-industrial grain factory which has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".
669:
Breastshot wheels are less efficient than overshot and backshot wheels but they can handle high flow rates and consequently high power. They are preferred for steady, high-volume flows such as are found on the
1810:
Australia has a relatively dry climate, nonetheless, where suitable water resources were available, water wheels were constructed in 19th-century Australia. These were used to power sawmills, flour mills, and
718:
Overshot wheels require a large head compared to other types of wheel which usually means significant investment in constructing the headrace. Sometimes the final approach of the water to the wheel is along a
2874:
4636:
1968:, although they are no longer in use. One of the largest had a diameter of about 20 metres (66 ft) and its rim was divided into 120 compartments. Another wheel that is still in operation is found at
1469:. Grist mills (for grain) were undoubtedly the most common, but there were also sawmills, fulling mills and mills to fulfil many other labour-intensive tasks. The water wheel remained competitive with the
987:) for the casting of (iron) agricultural implements. Those who smelted and cast already had the push-bellows to blow up their charcoal fires, and now they were instructed to use the rushing of the water (
2791:
From the cross sectional area and the velocity. They must be measured at the same place but that can be anywhere in the head or tail races. It must have the same amount of water going through it as the
1902:, predating, according to Pacey, its use in the later Roman Empire or China, even though the first literary, archaeological and pictorial evidence of the water wheel appeared in the Hellenistic world.
1221:
in the 1930s when the mine was briefly re-opened. It was found about 160 feet below the surface, so must have been part of a similar sequence as that discovered at Rio Tinto. It has recently been
1315:. Most excavated Roman watermills were equipped with one of these wheels which, although more complex to construct, were much more efficient than the vertical-axle waterwheel. In the 2nd century AD
137:
arranged on the outside rim forming the driving car. Water wheels were still in commercial use well into the 20th century, but they are no longer in common use today. Uses included milling flour in
55:
1110:(91.43−44), Philo advises the use of such wheels for submerging siege mines as a defensive measure against enemy sapping. Compartmented wheels appear to have been the means of choice for draining
59:
58:
54:
53:
60:
1996:
in Iraq that could lift as much as 153,000 litres per hour (34,000 imp gal/h), or 2,550 litres per minute (560 imp gal/min). This is comparable to the output of modern norias in
936:
Fu Hsi invented the pestle and mortar, which is so useful, and later on it was cleverly improved in such a way that the whole weight of the body could be used for treading on the tilt-hammer (
99:
4167:
concludes that the Akkadian passages "are counched in terms too general too allow any conclusion as to the excat structure" of the irrigation apparatus, and states that "the latest official
2987:
278:
Overshot and backshot water wheels are typically used where the available height difference is more than a couple of meters. Breastshot wheels are more suited to large flows with a moderate
1249:, the British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis dates the appearance of the vertical-axle watermill to the early 3rd century BC, and the horizontal-axle watermill to around 240 BC, with
3154:
1645:
The water wheel was a driving force behind the earliest stages of industrialization in Britain. Water-powered reciprocating devices were used in trip hammers and blast furnace bellows.
1457:, in particular, made extensive use of water wheels to power watermills of many kinds. An early example of a very large water wheel is the still extant wheel at the early 13th century
102:
4486:
2179:
in the 16th century described many inventive water-raising machines in their technological treatises. They also employed water wheels to power a variety of devices, including various
3258:
3189:
3079:
3299:
1528:
The type of water wheel selected was dependent upon the location. Generally if only small volumes of water and high waterfalls were available a millwright would choose to use an
496:
464:
3958:
It is no surprise that all the water-lifting devices that depend on subdivided wheels or cylinders originate in the sophisticated, scientifically advanced Hellenistic period, ...
3034:
1079:) and the wheel with compartmented rim or a rim with separate, attached containers. The wheels could be either turned by men treading on its outside or by animals by means of a
57:
1656:
water wheel near Manchester. A high breastshot design, it was retired in 1904 and replaced with several turbines. It has now been restored and is a museum open to the public.
1584:
The water mill was used for grinding grain, producing flour for bread, malt for beer, or coarse meal for porridge. Hammermills used the wheel to operate hammers. One type was
1659:
The biggest working water wheel in mainland Britain has a diameter of 15.4 m (51 ft) and was built by the De Winton company of Caernarfon. It is located within the
775:
in Devon, UK. The head race is the overhead timber structure and a branch to the left supplies water to the wheel. The water exits from under the wheel back into the stream.
433:
2926:
402:
2224:
wheels with their improved efficiency (>67%) opened up an alternative path for the installation of water wheels in existing mills, or redevelopment of abandoned mills.
2653:
5976:
3424:
3397:
Dotted notation. A dot above the quantity indicates that it is a rate. In other how much each second or how much per second. In this article q is a volume of water and
924:). Although the author speaks of the mythological Fu Xi, a passage of his writing gives hint that the water wheel was in widespread use by the 1st century AD in
2563:
2528:
2321:
2294:
674:
of the North American East Coast. Breastshot wheels are the most common type in the United States of America and are said to have powered the industrial revolution.
2757:
2730:
2003:
750:
The direction of rotation of a backshot wheel is the same as that of a breastshot wheel but in other respects, it is very similar to the overshot wheel. See below.
4596:
Smeaton, "An Experimental Inquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills, and Other Machines, depending on Circular Motion," Royal Society,
558:
sufficient. A typical flat board undershot wheel uses about 20 percent of the energy in the flow of water striking the wheel as measured by English civil engineer
4640:
1441:
271:
The latter can be subdivided according to where the water hits the wheel into backshot (pitch-back), overshot, breastshot, undershot, and stream-wheels. The term
2681:
2616:
2591:
2493:
2465:
2437:
2409:
2381:
2353:
771:
Some wheels are overshot at the top and backshot at the bottom thereby potentially combining the best features of both types. The photograph shows an example at
2777:
1858:
Water wheels were used extensively in New Zealand. The well-preserved remains of the Young Australian mine's overshot water wheel exist near the ghost town of
5918:
1209:, one system involving 16 such wheels stacked above one another so as to lift water about 80 feet from the mine sump. Part of such a wheel was found at
1458:
1414:(c. 630). As for the use in a common Norse or Greek mill, the oldest known horizontal-wheels were excavated in the Irish Ballykilleen, dating to c. 636.
5879:
1756:
Water wheels were used to power sawmills, grist mills and for other purposes during development of the United States. The 40 feet (12 m) diameter
5901:
5498:
Lucas, A.R. (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
1170:
was finally introduced when the wooden compartments were replaced with inexpensive ceramic pots that were tied to the outside of an open-framed wheel.
991:) to operate it ... Thus the people got great benefit for little labor. They found the 'water(-powered) bellows' convenient and adopted it widely.
4587:, ed Charles Ravaisson-Moilien (Paris, 1889), vol.4; cf, Codex Madrid, vol. 1, 69r , trans. And transcribed by Ladislao Reti (New York, 1974), vol. 4.
107:
5659:
Quaranta Emanuele, Revelli Roberto (2015), "Performance characteristics, power losses and mechanical power estimation for a breastshot water wheel",
4971:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. A.D. 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then".
2096:
The engineers of the Islamic world developed several solutions to achieve the maximum output from a water wheel. One solution was to mount them to
5809:
4739:
4744:
1163:
in 48 BC tells of how Caesar's enemies employed geared waterwheels to pour sea water from elevated places on the position of the trapped Romans.
56:
5308:
3896:
1622:'s work on water wheels used an analysis of Galileo's work on falling bodies, that the velocity of a water sprouting from an orifice under its
5800:
5728:
5692:
5650:
5556:
5084:
5060:
4668:
3981:
3504:
5168:
2759:
is calculated from the velocity of the water in the head race at the same place as the pressure head is measured from. The velocity (speed)
5945:
5564:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from
4637:"Hydro Power from the Early Modern to the Industrial Age: Ca. 1500–1850 - Electricity & Alternative Energy - Alberta's Energy Heritage"
708:
2257:
is how fast that energy is delivered which is determined by the flow rate. It has been estimated that the ancient donkey or slave-powered
1360:, the earliest of its kind. The first mention of paddle wheels as a means of propulsion comes from the 4th–5th century military treatise
5738:
5132:
1984:
is otherwise virtually unchanged. Some medieval Islamic compartmented water wheels could lift water as high as 30 metres (100 ft).
335:
1799:
1545:
of cities, more specifically canals. The techniques that developed during this early period such as stream jamming and the building of
805:
braking equipment to be able to stop the wheel (known as a braking wheel). The oldest known drawing of a reversible water wheel was by
4161:
2820:
2176:
1380:
Ancient water-wheel technology continued unabated in the early medieval period where the appearance of new documentary genres such as
1126:
of the 3rd to 2nd century BC mention the use of these wheels, but do not give further details. The non-existence of the device in the
3543:
666:('screen' in British English) to prevent debris from jamming between the wheel and the apron and potentially causing serious damage.
6001:
5713:
5632:
5618:
5604:
5590:
5549:
5535:
5465:
5413:
3863:
3712:
3629:
3470:
2155:
mechanism, which is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine, was invented by Ibn Bassal (
1375:
371:
3558:
2000:, which can lift up to 288,000 litres per hour (63,000 imp gal/h), or 4,800 litres per minute (1,100 imp gal/min).
695:
rotates enough to invert the buckets. The overshot design is very efficient, it can achieve 90%, and does not require rapid flow.
1226:
building water wheels was well within their capabilities, and such verticals water wheels commonly used for industrial purposes.
1909:
observed water-raising wheels and imagined such a wheel lifting enough water to replenish the stream driving it, effectively, a
293:
for the same amount of water so the reservoirs for overshot and backshot wheels tend to be smaller than for breast shot wheels.
5981:
4685:
3853:
647:
a masonry "apron" closely conforming to the wheel face, which helps contain the water in the buckets as they progress downwards
275:
can refer to any wheel where the water passes under the wheel but it usually implies that the water entry is low on the wheel.
215:'s scientific investigation of the water wheel led to significant increases in efficiency, supplying much-needed power for the
5206:
1931:
5425:
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",
1596:
and for working iron into useful shapes, an activity that was otherwise labour-intensive. The water wheel was also used in
1985:
180:
5888:
240:
The main difficulty of water wheels is their dependence on flowing water, which limits where they can be located. Modern
6095:
5823:
5471:
Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",
1757:
1190:
1182:
1014:
1898:
force of the current in the river from which the water was being raised. This kind of water raising device was used in
920:
was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar, which evolved into the tilt-hammer and then trip hammer device (see
795:
is undershot, backshot, and overshot using two sources of water. This allows the direction of the wheel to be reversed.
763:
252:
6100:
6090:
4168:
2048:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from
1824:
1131:
671:
31:
5911:
Guide to the Water Wheel Construction: A Thesis Presented to N.C. College of Agri. and Mech. Arts by L. T. Yarbrough
3520:
2937:
3772:
1709:
that could work on very low heads, which was commercialized and became popular by late 1830s. Other designs, as the
4780:
3112:
1773:
1316:
1043:
1000:
244:
can be viewed as the descendants of the water wheel, as they too take advantage of the movement of water downhill.
1690:. It is 72 feet 6 inches (22.10 m) in diameter and 6 feet (1.83 m) wide and is maintained by
1159:, at the time the most active Greek research center, may have been involved in its invention. An episode from the
4102:
is interpreted as an metaphor referring to the digging of irrigation channels rather than treading a waterwheel (
3317:
1815:
used to crush gold-bearing ore. Notable examples of water wheels used in gold recovery operations were the large
1304:
1053:
4710:
1433:
became common in estuaries with a good tidal range in both Europe and America generally using undershot wheels.
1339:
5938:
4928:
5876:
3426:
is a volume of water per second. q, as in quantity of water, is used to avoid confusion with v for velocity.
3218:
3165:
3045:
6105:
5898:
5583:
Science and Civilization in China – Vol. 4: Physics and physical technology – Part 2: Mechanical engineering
5383:
3269:
1732:
led to decreased popularity of water wheels. The main advantage of turbines is that its ability to harness
6044:
1691:
1619:
1422:
1277:
449:
The water hits near the top of the wheel and in front of the axle so that it turns away from the head race
200:
176:
2998:
1087:
The earliest literary reference to a water-driven, compartmented wheel appears in the technical treatise
418:
The water hits the wheel roughly central, typically between one quarter and three quarters of the height.
6085:
4660:
4126:, found in handbooks and popular accounts, are for the most part based on the false assumption that the
1859:
1836:
1698:
1664:
1626:
was exactly equivalent to the velocity a drop of water acquired in falling freely from the same height.
1474:
1156:
874:
481:
The water hits near the top of the wheel and before the axle so that it turns back towards the head race
216:
5751:
Siddiqui, Iqtidar Husain (1986). "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times".
5108:
4734:
5419:
1352:
Apart from its use in milling and water-raising, ancient engineers applied the paddled waterwheel for
1287:
1006:(78–139) was the first in history to apply motive power in rotating the astronomical instrument of an
3813:
3326:
2655:
2355:
2112:
1816:
1803:
1722:
1702:
1312:
792:
290:
224:
5279:
3885:
6110:
5931:
4967:
This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to
4563:
2885:
1777:
1750:
1745:
1513:
1411:
1246:
1022:
1011:
886:
5565:
4766:
3492:
Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United States 1790–1865
2732:
is the difference in height between the head race and tail race water surfaces. The velocity head
1913:
machine. The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in
662:
The small clearance between the wheel and the masonry requires that a breastshot wheel has a good
568:
Stream wheels mounted on floating platforms are often referred to as hip wheels and the mill as a
6059:
5844:
5836:
5515:
5446:
5438:
5254:
5172:
4503:
3735:
3604:
2626:
1828:
1292:
1092:
1049:
208:
184:
5558:
Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project
5152:
4879:
3400:
2795:
It is sometimes practicable to measure the volume flow rate by the bucket and stop watch method.
579:
Historically they were very inefficient but major advances were made in the eighteenth century.
129:. A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or metal), with a number of
4855:
3757:
3678:
3652:
3593:
3582:
3496:
3490:
1839:, constructed in 1847, was the first machine used to extract energy—for flour milling—from the
621:
5796:
5779:
5742:
5724:
5709:
5688:
5680:
5646:
5638:
5628:
5614:
5600:
5586:
5545:
5531:
5461:
5409:
5202:
5129:
5080:
5056:
4664:
4157:
4127:
3977:
3859:
3795:
3625:
3500:
3466:
1820:
1646:
1610:
1366:(chapter XVII), where the anonymous Roman author describes an ox-driven paddle-wheel warship.
1362:
1356:
and in navigation. Vitruvius (X 9.5–7) describes multi-geared paddle wheels working as a ship
1345:
1273:
1202:
1194:
1127:
970:
806:
587:
156:
Some water wheels are fed by water from a mill pond, which is formed when a flowing stream is
91:
3462:
1760:, built in 1922, is a surviving one out of many which lifted water for irrigation out of the
1056:
praised the water wheel for freeing women from the exhausting labor of milling and grinding.
707:, only utilises a head of around 30 m (100 ft). The world's largest head turbines,
289:, a reservoir for storing water and hence energy until it is needed. Larger heads store more
6020:
5962:
5828:
5760:
5668:
5507:
5476:
5430:
5052:
4762:
Text is licensed by State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) under
4495:
3787:
3338:
2784:
2538:
2503:
2467:
2303:
2276:
2242:
2213:
wheel can be more efficient (about 60%) than all but the most advanced and well-constructed
2201:(3 to 11 ft). It is designed to produce electricity at the sites of former watermills.
1918:
1910:
1899:
1875:
1733:
1653:
1623:
1426:
1007:
949:
836:
735:
682:
656:
510:
324:
279:
241:
229:
196:
192:
5861:
2735:
2708:
1701:, in the first half of the 19th century engineers started to design better wheels. In 1823
1072:
The compartmented water wheel comes in two basic forms, the wheel with compartmented body (
6029:
6011:
5905:
5892:
5883:
5136:
2683:
2411:
2254:
1847:
1660:
1576:
1324:
1307:, which praises it as a labour-saving device (IX, 418.4–6). The motif is also taken up by
1160:
1147:
541:
86:
5812:(1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel",
5231:
1150:
which dates to the 2nd century BC. It shows a pair of yoked oxen driving the wheel via a
5109:
Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
3698:
The History of Science and Technology by Bryan Bunch with Alexander Hellmans p. 114
2663:
2598:
2573:
2475:
2447:
2419:
2391:
2363:
2335:
1823:—one of at least seven water wheels in the surrounding area—and the two water wheels at
27:
Machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power
6034:
5148:
3618:
3562:
2762:
2495:
2245:– depends on the change in height of the water between entry to and exit from the wheel
2236:
2041:
1961:
1941:
1887:
1761:
1710:
1706:
1571:
1566:
1529:
1502:
1021:
once used a water wheel to power and operate a large mechanical puppet theater for the
850:
652:
219:. Water wheels began being displaced by the smaller, less expensive and more efficient
2104:
to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the shipmill, a type of
1185:
designed for dewatering deep underground mines. Several such devices are described by
1135:
in the late 4th century BC in a rural context away from the metropolis of Alexandria.
565:
Stream wheels gain little or no advantage from the head, a difference in water level.
421:
Driving surfaces – buckets – carefully shaped to ensure that the water enters smoothly
6079:
6054:
6039:
5848:
5519:
5450:
3455:
3348:
2565:
2530:
2221:
2214:
2069:
1965:
1945:
1878:
is obscure. Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term
1729:
1714:
1615:
1550:
1498:
1328:
1257:
as the assigned places of invention. A watermill is reported by the Greek geographer
961:
862:
858:
772:
2209:
Overshot (and particularly backshot) wheels are the most efficient type; a backshot
644:
buckets ventilated with holes in the side to allow air to escape as the water enters
6049:
3343:
2061:
2053:
1593:
1555:
1470:
1436:
1222:
855:
576:
where the flow restriction of the bridge piers increased the speed of the current.
559:
551:
347:
212:
188:
146:
5795:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400,
5687:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 217–302,
5196:
3441:
1850:, were used not as sources of power but to measure water flows to irrigated land.
1634:
1410:, while the first known horizontal-wheel in such a type of mill is from the Irish
168:; the one carrying water after it has left the wheel is commonly referred to as a
44:
This article is about water power. For water-lifting irrigation water wheels, see
5672:
5330:
3997:
1976:, La Nora, and although the original wheel has been replaced by a steel one, the
1280:, but its exact construction cannot be gleaned from the text (XII, 3, 30 C 556).
227:, beginning with his first model in 1827. Turbines are capable of handling high
5991:
5986:
5910:
5359:
4123:
4095:
3971:
3791:
3382:
2258:
2180:
2057:
1906:
1840:
1832:
1687:
1675:
1638:
1597:
1589:
1418:
1392:
1303:
About the same time, the overshot wheel appears for the first time in a poem by
921:
877:(476-221 BC). It says that the waterwheel was invented by Zigong, a disciple of
870:
712:
704:
700:
609:
wheels where paddles are placed into the flow of a stream. See the stream above.
204:
142:
4763:
5996:
5954:
4829:
4805:
3780:
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering Sustainability
2697:
2296:
2262:
2168:
2160:
2105:
2090:
2065:
2049:
2037:
2033:
1981:
1812:
1784:
1768:
1652:
The most powerful water wheel built in the United Kingdom was the 100 hp
1451:
1395:
was accompanied with a sharp increase in references to watermills and wheels.
1381:
1296:
1254:
1234:
1210:
1177:
projects, with enormous Roman-era waterwheels found in places like modern-day
1119:
1115:
1003:
929:
845:
663:
81:
5643:
Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology
5198:
Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages
5185:
For a discussion of the different types of water wheels, see Syson, pp. 76–91
3799:
1831:
once had at least two water wheels, one of which was rolled to its site from
956:(d. 38), applied a complex use of the water wheel and machinery to power the
5782:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report",
5764:
5480:
4398:
De Rebus Bellicis (anon.), chapter XVII, text edited by Robert Ireland, in:
3353:
2184:
2172:
2140:
2120:
2045:
2021:
1997:
1490:
1486:
1454:
1430:
1429:
which has been dated to 787, although a possible earlier mill dates to 619.
1403:
1399:
1385:
1353:
1308:
1250:
1245:
Taking indirect evidence into account from the work of the Greek technician
1238:
1214:
1186:
965:
913:
898:
878:
841:
818:
569:
234:
161:
138:
126:
38:
5511:
1936:
1146:
The earliest depiction of a compartmented wheel is from a tomb painting in
1064:
149:, machining, ore crushing and pounding fibre for use in the manufacture of
4471:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). pp. 31–2b.
783:
599:
The term undershot is sometimes used with related but different meanings:
5597:
Wasserräder mit Kropfgerinne: Berechnungsgrundlagen und neue Erkenntnisse
4968:
4904:
2618:
2439:
2383:
2152:
1835:, on its rim using a novel trolley arrangement, taking nearly 90 days. A
1517:
1357:
1111:
1048:
The technological breakthrough occurred in the technologically developed
909:
894:
724:
554:
wheels because the water is not constrained by millraces or wheel pits.
390:
Driving surfaces – blades – flat prior to 18th century, curved thereafter
359:
Driving surfaces – blades – flat prior to 18th century, curved thereafter
286:
65:
4862:, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University
889:
were using water wheels to crush grain in mills and to power the piston-
17:
5866:
5840:
5442:
4758:
4686:"The Garfield water wheel: hydraulic power on the Victorian goldfields"
4507:
4134:
and denotes an instrument for watering ("instrument for making moist").
2323:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2086:
2077:
2029:
2012:
1585:
1445:
1407:
1388:
1258:
1138:
1018:
957:
945:
890:
573:
220:
160:. A channel for the water flowing to or from a water wheel is called a
118:
5486:
Hill, D.R. (1991) "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",
4528:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). p. 33.
72:
4541:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007). p. 34
2116:
2101:
2025:
2008:
1969:
1914:
1863:
1788:
1546:
1494:
1482:
1462:
1198:
1174:
1123:
999:
found practical uses such as this, as well as extraordinary use. The
953:
801:
164:. The race bringing water from the mill pond to the water wheel is a
134:
5832:
5791:
Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
5434:
4524:. Baltimore; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Robert, Friedel,
4499:
4572:
Certain Ancient Tracts Concerning the Management of Landed Property
2217:. In some situations an overshot wheel is preferable to a turbine.
739:
Backshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, water, and spillage
686:
Overshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, water, and spillage
282:. Undershot and stream wheel use large flows at little or no head.
5821:
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy",
5702:
Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel
5408:, Manchester: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation,
4522:
Stronger than a Hundred Men; A History of the Vertical Water Wheel
3370:
3365:
2696:
2327:
2239:– depends on how fast the water is moving when it enters the wheel
2210:
2164:
2002:
1993:
1977:
1973:
1957:
1935:
1891:
1744:
1683:
1668:
1633:
1565:
1466:
1435:
1338:
1233:
1218:
1206:
1178:
1167:
1151:
1137:
1080:
1073:
1063:
996:
925:
917:
882:
835:
822:
782:
762:
720:
562:
in the 18th century. More modern wheels have higher efficiencies.
387:
The water hits the wheel low down, typically in the bottom quarter
251:
150:
130:
122:
97:
71:
50:
45:
5704:, Johns Hopkins studies in the history of technology: New Series
3553:
3551:
5919:
Foundry Patterns for 18 different Welsh waterwheel shrouds- 2015
2869:{\displaystyle P=\eta \cdot \rho \cdot g\cdot h\cdot {\dot {q}}}
2701:
Parameters for measuring the head and flow rate of a water wheel
2132:
2128:
2124:
2109:
2097:
2073:
1953:
881:
in the 5th century BC. By at least the 1st century AD, the
396:
Efficiency – about 20% prior to 18th century and later 50 to 60%
365:
Efficiency – about 20% prior to 18th century and later 50 to 60%
5927:
1343:
Ox-powered Roman paddle wheel boat from a 15th-century copy of
641:
buckets carefully shaped to minimize turbulence as water enters
175:
Waterwheels were used for various purposes from things such as
5971:
5871:
4554:. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. (2007)
3711:
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (December 2006).
2136:
2081:
869:
The earliest waterwheel working like a lever was described by
157:
5923:
5611:
Wasserräder mit Freihang: Entwurfs- und Berechnungsgrundlagen
3495:. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p.
1862:, and those of the Phoenix flour mill's water wheel are near
1717:
was working on a radically different machine which he called
1272:) to have existed sometime before 71 BC in the palace of the
237:, that exceed the capability of practical-sized waterwheels.
5460:, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
4171:
reports meanings not related to types of irrigation system".
5429:, vol. 52, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17,
1570:
Ore stamp mill (behind worker taking ore from chute). From
916:), it states that the legendary mythological king known as
625:
Breastshot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, and water
37:"Headrace" redirects here. For the rowing competition, see
5627:, 1st MIT Press ed., Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT,
5049:
Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology
4154:
Water architecture in the lands of Syria: the water-wheels
591:
Undershot waterwheel showing headrace, tailrace, and water
572:. They were sometimes mounted immediately downstream from
5872:
WaterHistory.org Several articles concerning water wheels
5625:
Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History
4781:"Water-Powered Flourmills in Nineteenth-Century Tasmania"
4657:
Portland Basin and the archaeology of the Canal Warehouse
4598:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
4437:
4435:
5753:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
5372:
5077:
A history of engineering in classical and medieval times
4194:
4192:
1827:; some remnants exist at both sites. The mining area at
1787:
used in the American Northwest and Alaska, which lifted
4487:
Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology
4100:
where you sowed your seed and watered it with your feet
211:, but also elsewhere. In the mid- to late 18th century
5404:
al-Hassani, S.T.S., Woodcock, E. and Saoud, R. (2006)
4999:
4386:
4354:
4326:
4314:
4298:
4238:
3521:"Types of Water Wheels – The Physics of a Water Wheel"
2232:
The energy available to the wheel has two components:
5311:. M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies. p. 44
3403:
3272:
3221:
3168:
3115:
3048:
3001:
2940:
2888:
2823:
2765:
2738:
2711:
2666:
2629:
2601:
2576:
2541:
2506:
2478:
2450:
2422:
2394:
2366:
2338:
2306:
2279:
4484:
Howard, Robert A. (1983). "Primer on Water Wheels".
2593:
velocity correction factor. 0.9 for smooth channels.
2115:
in midstream. This technique was employed along the
1674:
The largest working water wheel in the world is the
606:
wheels where the water enters in the bottom quarter.
356:
The bottom of the wheel is placed into flowing water
6019:
5961:
5406:
1001 inventions : Muslim heritage in our world
4626:, ed. Gino Loria and Giuseppe Vassura (Rome, 1919.)
4613:, ed. Gino Loria and Giuseppe Vassura (Rome, 1919.)
4179:
4177:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4019:
4017:
3998:"Antipater of Thessalonica: Epigrams - translation"
3836:
3834:
3773:"The breastshot waterwheel: design and model tests"
3457:
Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution
1886:(machine with wheel-pots attached). On this basis,
3617:
3454:
3418:
3293:
3252:
3183:
3148:
3073:
3028:
2981:
2920:
2868:
2771:
2751:
2724:
2675:
2647:
2610:
2585:
2557:
2522:
2487:
2459:
2431:
2403:
2375:
2347:
2315:
2288:
1481:, the Noria probably originated from somewhere in
5977:List of conventional hydroelectric power stations
1440:Water wheel powering a small village mill at the
613:This is the oldest type of vertical water wheel.
603:all wheels where the water passes under the wheel
317:A jet of water strikes blades mounted on the axle
30:"Waterwheel" redirects here. For other uses, see
5528:Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power
2108:powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of
1725:designed the first commercial one in the 1830s.
121:for converting the energy of flowing or falling
5877:Computer simulation of an undershot water wheel
5679:Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in
4965:
4137:
4120:
4080:
3956:
2982:{\displaystyle h_{v}={\frac {v^{2}}{2\cdot g}}}
1882:(turning wheel), which commentaries explain as
983:labor. He invented a water-power reciprocator (
5899:Computer simulation of an overshot water wheel
3715:. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
3620:Ingenium: Five Machines That Changed the World
3484:
3482:
2163:; he pioneered the use of the flywheel in the
1776:can be seen at the 1849 restored wheel at the
1641:, Laxey, Isle of Man, used to drive mine pumps
1442:Museum of Folk Architecture and Life, Uzhhorod
1241:' undershot-wheeled watermill (reconstruction)
1197:. Many were found during modern mining at the
1052:between the 3rd and 1st century BC. A poem by
715:, utilise about 1,869 m (6,132 ft).
5939:
5708:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
5302:
5300:
3814:"What type of water wheel is most efficient?"
3149:{\displaystyle P=7000\cdot {\dot {q}}\cdot h}
1749:The suspension wheel with rim-gearing at the
1649:'s water frame was powered by a water wheel.
1417:The earliest excavated water wheel driven by
8:
5475:, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59,
5401:. vol. 163. No. 4. (Jan., 1994), p. 197
4661:University of Manchester Archaeological Unit
4463:
4461:
4459:
3706:
3704:
3672:
3670:
5458:Irrigation and society in medieval Valencia
4880:"Watermills and waterwheels of New Zealand"
2064:. Muslim and Christian engineers also used
1508:Domesday inventory of English mills c. 1086
1479:Irrigation and Society in Medieval Valencia
1173:The Romans used waterwheels extensively in
1068:Sequence of wheels found in Rio Tinto mines
912:about 20 AD (during the usurpation of
350:). Ship wheels are a type of stream wheel.
264:a horizontal wheel with a vertical axle; or
5946:
5932:
5924:
1459:Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda
5354:
5352:
5201:. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 115.
4479:
4477:
4156:, L'Erma di Bretschneider, pp. 48f,
3879:
3877:
3875:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3273:
3271:
3244:
3220:
3169:
3167:
3129:
3128:
3114:
3061:
3047:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2960:
2954:
2945:
2939:
2912:
2899:
2887:
2855:
2854:
2822:
2764:
2743:
2737:
2716:
2710:
2665:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2600:
2575:
2546:
2540:
2511:
2505:
2477:
2449:
2421:
2393:
2365:
2337:
2305:
2278:
944:In the year 31 AD, the engineer and
659:(height and weight) energy are utilised.
518:A horizontal wheel with a vertical axle.
108:Manchester Museum of Science and Industry
5544:, 4th Ed., New York : McGraw-Hill,
5003:
4961:
4745:Department of Planning & Environment
4441:
4411:
4382:
4342:
4310:
4294:
4258:
4254:
4234:
4130:equivalent of the logogram GIS.APIN was
4116:
3948:
3360:For devices to lift water for irrigation
3201:
3095:
2803:
1798:
1588:, which was used for cloth making. The
1286:
734:
681:
620:
586:
540:
509:
304:
267:a vertical wheel with a horizontal axle.
260:Water wheels come in two basic designs:
5255:"Estimating Discharge and Stream Flows"
5232:"Float Method for Estimating Discharge"
5226:
5224:
5222:
5220:
5218:
4929:"Water wheel of mill nears restoration"
4740:New South Wales State Heritage Register
4684:Davies, Peter; Lawrence, Susan (2013).
3970:Jahren, Per; Sui, Tongbo (2016-11-22).
3461:. University of Toronto Press. p.
3434:
3377:Devices to lift water for land drainage
3253:{\displaystyle P=100\cdot A\cdot v^{3}}
3184:{\displaystyle {\frac {21}{\sqrt {D}}}}
3074:{\displaystyle v=k\cdot {\frac {d}{t}}}
978:) as follows (in Wade-Giles spelling):
199:. Waterwheels saw continued use in the
125:into useful forms of power, often in a
5721:Roman and Islamic Water-Lifting Wheels
4995:
4991:
4427:
4415:
4378:
4366:
4330:
4282:
4270:
4242:
4222:
4210:
4198:
4183:
4122:References to water-wheels in ancient
4103:
4076:
4064:
4047:
4035:
4023:
3952:
3840:
1874:The early history of the watermill in
183:in ancient civilizations spanning the
106:The sound of the Otley waterwheel, at
4856:"Dethridge, John Stewart (1865–1926)"
4735:"Adelong Falls Gold Workings/Reserve"
4659:. Tameside Metropolitan Borough with
3308:Hydraulic wheel part reaction turbine
3294:{\displaystyle {\frac {9\cdot v}{D}}}
2093:between the 11th and 13th centuries.
1707:very efficient undershot wheel design
968:. Du Shi is mentioned briefly in the
314:Horizontal wheel with a vertical axis
7:
5793:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
5685:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
5540:Morton, W.S. and Lewis, C.M. (2005)
5253:Michaud, Joy P.; Wierenga, Marlies.
5195:Gies, Frances; Gies, Joseph (1994).
5169:"Comment fonctionne une Aqualienne?"
5000:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4387:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4355:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4327:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4315:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4299:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4239:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
4098:(11.10−11) about Egypt as a country
2533:, the difference in water levels (m)
1402:is from 6th-century Killoteran near
767:One of Finch Foundry's water wheels.
709:Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station
634:the top, typically the middle half.
5891:painting with explanatory text, at
4788:Australasian Historical Archaeology
4693:Australasian Historical Archaeology
4585:Les manuscrits de Leonardo da Vinci
3902:from the original on 14 April 2022.
3442:Dictionary definition of "tailrace"
3029:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}=A\cdot v}
2783:There are many ways to measure the
1713:, followed later. At the same time
1142:Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines
478:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle
446:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle
424:Water – large volume, moderate head
415:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle
384:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle
353:Vertical wheel with horizontal axle
4860:Australian Dictionary of Biography
4115:As for a Mesopotamian connection:
4094:An isolated passage in the Hebrew
1665:National Slate Museum in Llanberis
362:Water – very large volume, no head
311:also known as tub or Norse mills.
25:
6002:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
5889:Persian Wheel in India, 1814–1815
5827:, vol. 92, , pp. 1–32,
5362:. British Hydropower Association.
4583:Leonardo da Vinci, MS F, 44r, in
3559:"Stream wheel term and specifics"
2261:of Rome made about one-half of a
1890:suggested that the machine was a
1398:The earliest vertical-wheel in a
1376:List of early medieval watermills
1091:(chap. 61) of the Greek engineer
6010:
5786:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
5775:, London : Batsford, 176 p.
4757:
2470:(9.81 m/s = 9.81 N/kg)
2127:, where large shipmills made of
2076:in watermills and water-raising
1992:in the 10th century described a
1461:, a Cistercian monastery in the
495:
463:
432:
401:
370:
334:
5982:Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
5816:, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
5645:, University of Toronto Press,
3771:Müller, G.; Wolter, C. (2004).
3213:Power (assuming 20% efficiency)
3107:Power (assuming 70% efficiency)
1846:Compact water wheels, known as
1562:Applications of the water wheel
1516:, commonly referred to as the "
1489:, the technology spread to the
1299:, powered by a breastshot wheel
1026:
1010:, by use of a water wheel. The
77:
5585:, Cambridge University Press,
5542:China: Its History and Culture
5234:. United States Forest Service
5075:Donald Routledge Hill (1996),
4905:"Young Australian Water Wheel"
3973:How Water Influences Our Lives
3858:. Springer. 22 November 2016.
3855:How Water Influences Our Lives
3655:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
1932:Muslim Agricultural Revolution
1778:Portland Basin Canal Warehouse
1758:water wheel at McCoy, Colorado
1751:Portland Basin Canal Warehouse
1331:, the earliest known to date.
743:A backshot wheel (also called
487:Water – low volume, large head
455:Water – low volume, large head
393:Water – large volume, low head
291:gravitational potential energy
141:, grinding wood into pulp for
1:
5862:Glossary of water wheel terms
5667:, Energy, Elsevier: 315–325,
5079:, Routledge, pp. 145–6,
4933:Otago Daily Times Online News
4655:Nevell, Mike; Walker (2001).
4570:(London, 1539, reprinted in
3802:– via Semantic Scholar.
2921:{\displaystyle h=h_{p}+h_{v}}
1986:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
1604:17th- and 18th-century Europe
1262:
1183:reverse overshot water-wheels
1096:
699:the largest water wheel, the
285:There is often an associated
5824:The Journal of Roman Studies
5814:Journal of Roman Archaeology
5673:10.1016/j.energy.2015.04.079
5599:, Detmold : Schäfer,
5530:, University of Hull Press,
5392:General and cited references
5284:The Renewable Energy Website
5280:"Calculation of Hydro Power"
3734:Collins English Dictionary.
3624:. Johns Hopkins University.
3327:low head hydroelectric power
3198:Traditional undershot wheels
1905:Around 1150, the astronomer
1767:Two early improvements were
1191:reverse overshot water-wheel
1122:(221−205 BC). Several Greek
5723:, Odense University Press,
5719:Schioler, Thorkild (1973),
5613:, Detmold : Schäfer,
5473:The Economic History Review
5171:(in French). Archived from
4169:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
4152:Adriana de Miranda (2007),
3792:10.1680/ensu.2004.157.4.203
2787:. Two of the simplest are:
2648:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}=}
2171:) and noria. The engineers
1791:out of the flow of rivers.
637:They are characterized by:
32:Waterwheel (disambiguation)
6127:
4715:www.goldfieldsguide.com.au
3605:Collins English Dictionary
3419:{\displaystyle {\dot {q}}}
1929:
1774:William Armstrong Fairburn
1373:
1317:Barbegal watermill complex
1044:List of ancient watermills
1041:
816:
484:Driving surfaces – buckets
475:(also known as pitchback)
452:Driving surfaces – buckets
43:
36:
29:
6008:
5739:"Water Wheel Engineering"
5494:(5:May), pp. 100–105
4806:"Walhalla's Water Wheels"
4779:Pearson, Warwick (1997).
4609:Torricelli, Evangelista,
3884:Hansen, Roger D. (2005).
3453:Musson; Robinson (1969).
3318:University of Southampton
1592:was also used for making
1512:The assembly convened by
1305:Antipater of Thessalonica
1054:Antipater of Thessalonica
904:In the text known as the
596:design to stream wheels.
323:Water – low volume, high
320:Driving surfaces – blades
5609:Nuernbergk, D.M. (2007)
5595:Nuernbergk, D.M. (2005)
4622:Torricella, Evangelica,
4539:A Culture of Improvement
4526:A Culture of Improvement
4469:A Culture of Improvement
4400:BAR International Series
3677:Power in the landscape.
3264:Optimal rotational speed
3160:Optimal rotational speed
2175:in the 13th century and
1962:some of its large wheels
1837:water wheel at Jindabyne
854:of 1637, written by the
727:, which can be lengthy.
514:Vertical axis water mill
5765:10.1163/156852086X00036
5555:Murphy, Donald (2005),
5481:10.1111/1468-0289.00151
5418:Allan. April 18, 2008.
3713:"Noria al-Muhammadiyya"
3679:"Types of water wheels"
2220:The development of the
2123:rivers in 10th-century
185:Hellenistic Greek world
6045:Gorlov helical turbine
5700:Reynolds, T.S. (1983)
5512:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
5500:Technology and Culture
5153:Flywheel Effect for a
5130:Mechanical Engineering
4973:
4711:"Garfield Water Wheel"
4552:Culture of Improvement
4142:
4136:
4085:
3960:
3594:Power in the Landscape
3489:Thomson, Ross (2009).
3420:
3295:
3254:
3185:
3150:
3075:
3040:Water velocity (speed)
3030:
2983:
2922:
2870:
2773:
2753:
2726:
2702:
2677:
2649:
2612:
2587:
2559:
2558:{\displaystyle h_{v}=}
2524:
2523:{\displaystyle h_{p}=}
2489:
2461:
2433:
2405:
2377:
2349:
2317:
2316:{\displaystyle \rho =}
2290:
2289:{\displaystyle \eta =}
2016:
1948:
1807:
1783:Somewhat related were
1753:
1692:Manx National Heritage
1642:
1620:Evangelista Torricelli
1581:
1448:
1423:Nendrum Monastery mill
1349:
1300:
1278:Mithradates VI Eupator
1242:
1143:
1069:
993:
942:
866:
796:
768:
740:
687:
626:
592:
546:
545:Stream shot waterwheel
515:
490:Efficiency – 80 to 90%
458:Efficiency – 80 to 90%
427:Efficiency – 50 to 60%
257:
256:A vertical water wheel
110:
95:
78:reversible water wheel
69:
5784:History of Technology
5526:Lewis, M.J.T. (1997)
5420:Undershot Water Wheel
5260:. State of Washington
4884:www.windmillworld.com
4140:saqiya was invented."
3421:
3296:
3255:
3186:
3151:
3076:
3031:
2984:
2923:
2871:
2774:
2754:
2752:{\displaystyle h_{v}}
2727:
2725:{\displaystyle h_{p}}
2700:
2678:
2650:
2613:
2588:
2560:
2525:
2490:
2462:
2434:
2406:
2378:
2350:
2318:
2291:
2006:
1939:
1802:
1748:
1699:Industrial Revolution
1637:
1569:
1475:Industrial Revolution
1439:
1370:Early Medieval Europe
1342:
1290:
1237:
1141:
1067:
980:
934:
875:Warring States period
839:
786:
766:
759:Overshot and backshot
738:
685:
624:
590:
544:
513:
255:
217:Industrial Revolution
105:
75:
63:
5337:. September 27, 2012
5309:"Hydraulic Turbines"
5047:Lucas, Adam (2006),
4998:, pp. 217–302;
3616:Denny, Mark (2007).
3525:ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu
3401:
3270:
3219:
3208:Approximate formula
3166:
3113:
3102:Approximate formula
3046:
2999:
2938:
2886:
2821:
2763:
2736:
2709:
2664:
2627:
2599:
2574:
2539:
2504:
2476:
2448:
2420:
2392:
2364:
2356:cross sectional area
2336:
2304:
2277:
2269:Quantities and units
2228:The power of a wheel
1884:arahatta-ghati-yanta
1817:Garfield water wheel
1804:Garfield water wheel
1703:Jean-Victor Poncelet
1682:) in the village of
1291:Scheme of the Roman
1157:Museum of Alexandria
1132:Alexander's conquest
6096:Egyptian inventions
5773:British Water-mills
5581:Needham, J. (1965)
5488:Scientific American
5456:Glick, T.F. (1970)
4994:, pp. 325ff.;
4903:COMB (2014-09-03).
4810:www.walhalla.org.au
4564:Anthony Fitzherbert
4520:Terry S, Reynolds,
4273:, pp. 234, 269
4201:, pp. 234, 270
4119:, p. 165−167:
3092:Breast and overshot
2468:strength of gravity
2191:Modern developments
2089:complexes built in
1639:Lady Isabella Wheel
1514:William of Normandy
1247:Apollonius of Perge
1166:Around 300 AD, the
1118:under the reign of
1023:Emperor Ming of Wei
1012:mechanical engineer
887:Eastern Han Dynasty
809:and dates to 1556.
6101:Iranian inventions
6091:Ancient inventions
6060:Cross-flow turbine
5904:2009-08-10 at the
5882:2009-08-10 at the
5736:Shannon, R. 1997.
5639:Oleson, John Peter
5135:2000-12-12 at the
5006:, pp. 371−400
5002:, pp. 10−15;
4854:McNicoll, Ronald,
4600:51 (1759); 124–125
4574:Reprinted pg. 92.
4550:Robert, Friedel, A
4444:, pp. 155–157
4381:, pp. 507f.;
4285:, pp. 269−271
3416:
3291:
3250:
3181:
3146:
3071:
3026:
2979:
2918:
2866:
2769:
2749:
2722:
2705:The pressure head
2703:
2676:{\displaystyle t=}
2673:
2645:
2611:{\displaystyle v=}
2608:
2586:{\displaystyle k=}
2583:
2555:
2520:
2488:{\displaystyle h=}
2485:
2460:{\displaystyle g=}
2457:
2432:{\displaystyle d=}
2429:
2404:{\displaystyle P=}
2401:
2376:{\displaystyle D=}
2373:
2358:of the channel (m)
2348:{\displaystyle A=}
2345:
2313:
2286:
2143:every day for the
2017:
1949:
1808:
1754:
1661:Dinorwic workshops
1643:
1582:
1549:, put Europe on a
1536:Economic influence
1449:
1350:
1325:Roman North Africa
1301:
1293:Hierapolis sawmill
1243:
1144:
1093:Philo of Byzantium
1070:
1050:Hellenistic period
1017:(c. 200–265) from
867:
797:
769:
741:
688:
627:
593:
547:
521:Commonly called a
516:
258:
242:hydroelectric dams
209:Islamic Golden Age
201:post-classical age
111:
96:
70:
6073:
6072:
5914:
5802:978-90-04-11123-3
5771:Syson, l. (1965)
5730:978-87-7492-090-8
5694:978-90-04-11123-3
5652:978-90-277-1693-4
5623:Pacey, A. (1991)
5427:Anatolian Studies
5307:Nagpurwala, Q.H.
5086:978-0-415-15291-4
5062:978-90-04-14649-5
4670:978-1-871324-25-9
4537:Robert, Friedel,
4467:Robert, Friedel,
4414:, p. 372f.;
4402:63, part 2, p. 34
4297:, p. 373f.;
4237:, p. 396f.;
3983:978-981-10-1938-8
3756:Merriam Webster.
3506:978-0-8018-9141-0
3413:
3389:Explanatory notes
3305:
3304:
3289:
3195:
3194:
3179:
3178:
3137:
3084:
3083:
3069:
3011:
2977:
2863:
2772:{\displaystyle v}
2639:
2222:hydraulic turbine
2135:could produce 10
1813:stamper batteries
1769:suspension wheels
1723:Benoît Fourneyron
1647:Richard Arkwright
1630:Industrial Europe
1611:Leonardo da Vinci
1503:Spanish expansion
1363:De Rebus Bellicis
1346:De Rebus Bellicis
1195:Archimedean screw
1128:Ancient Near East
1038:Greco-Roman world
971:Book of Later Han
807:Georgius Agricola
503:
502:
329:Efficiency – poor
225:Benoît Fourneyron
103:
92:Georgius Agricola
64:A water wheel in
61:
16:(Redirected from
6118:
6021:Hydroelectricity
6014:
5963:Hydroelectricity
5948:
5941:
5934:
5925:
5912:
5867:Essay/audio clip
5851:
5817:
5805:
5787:
5768:
5746:
5741:. Archived from
5733:
5697:
5675:
5655:
5578:
5577:
5576:
5570:
5563:
5523:
5483:
5453:
5386:
5381:
5375:
5370:
5364:
5363:
5356:
5347:
5346:
5344:
5342:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5304:
5295:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5276:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5259:
5250:
5244:
5243:
5241:
5239:
5228:
5213:
5212:
5192:
5186:
5183:
5177:
5176:
5165:
5159:
5146:
5140:
5126:
5120:
5117:
5111:
5107:Ahmad Y Hassan,
5105:
5099:
5096:
5090:
5089:
5072:
5066:
5065:
5053:Brill Publishers
5044:
5038:
5031:
5025:
5022:
5016:
5013:
5007:
4989:
4983:
4980:
4974:
4959:
4953:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4941:
4940:
4925:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4890:
4876:
4870:
4869:
4868:
4867:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4841:
4826:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4802:
4796:
4795:
4785:
4776:
4770:
4761:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4690:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4651:
4645:
4644:
4639:. Archived from
4633:
4627:
4620:
4614:
4607:
4601:
4594:
4588:
4581:
4575:
4561:
4555:
4548:
4542:
4535:
4529:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4481:
4472:
4465:
4454:
4451:
4445:
4439:
4430:
4425:
4419:
4409:
4403:
4396:
4390:
4376:
4370:
4364:
4358:
4352:
4346:
4340:
4334:
4324:
4318:
4308:
4302:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4252:
4246:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4213:, pp. 271f.
4208:
4202:
4196:
4187:
4181:
4172:
4166:
4149:
4143:
4113:
4107:
4106:, pp. 234).
4092:
4086:
4079:, pp. 235:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4051:
4045:
4039:
4038:, pp. 231f.
4033:
4027:
4021:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
3994:
3988:
3987:
3967:
3961:
3946:
3940:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3922:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3893:waterhistory.org
3890:
3881:
3870:
3869:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3777:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3753:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3742:
3731:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3708:
3699:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3674:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3623:
3613:
3607:
3602:
3596:
3591:
3585:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3561:. Archived from
3555:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3486:
3477:
3476:
3460:
3450:
3444:
3439:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3406:
3396:
3339:Hydroelectricity
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3290:
3285:
3274:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3202:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3180:
3174:
3170:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3130:
3096:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3070:
3062:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3013:
3012:
3004:
2993:Volume flow rate
2988:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2965:
2964:
2955:
2950:
2949:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2904:
2903:
2875:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2856:
2804:
2785:volume flow rate
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2731:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2656:volume flow rate
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2632:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2592:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2564:
2562:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2515:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2466:
2464:
2463:
2458:
2438:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2410:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2346:
2330:(1000 kg/m)
2322:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2287:
2243:Potential energy
2141:flour from grain
1960:still preserves
1911:perpetual motion
1907:Bhaskara Achārya
1848:Dethridge wheels
1721:, and his pupil
1654:Quarry Bank Mill
1427:Northern Ireland
1271:
1267:
1264:
1189:, including the
1105:
1101:
1098:
1028:
1008:armillary sphere
1001:Chinese inventor
995:Water wheels in
617:Breastshot wheel
499:
467:
436:
405:
374:
338:
305:
301:Summary of types
104:
62:
21:
6126:
6125:
6121:
6120:
6119:
6117:
6116:
6115:
6076:
6075:
6074:
6069:
6030:Francis turbine
6015:
6006:
5957:
5952:
5906:Wayback Machine
5893:British Library
5884:Wayback Machine
5858:
5833:10.2307/3184857
5820:
5808:
5803:
5790:
5780:Wikander, Örjan
5778:
5750:
5737:
5731:
5718:
5695:
5681:Wikander, Örjan
5678:
5658:
5653:
5637:
5574:
5572:
5568:
5561:
5554:
5497:
5470:
5435:10.2307/3643076
5424:
5394:
5389:
5382:
5378:
5371:
5367:
5358:
5357:
5350:
5340:
5338:
5331:"Velocity Head"
5329:
5328:
5324:
5314:
5312:
5306:
5305:
5298:
5288:
5286:
5278:
5277:
5273:
5263:
5261:
5257:
5252:
5251:
5247:
5237:
5235:
5230:
5229:
5216:
5209:
5194:
5193:
5189:
5184:
5180:
5167:
5166:
5162:
5147:
5143:
5137:Wayback Machine
5128:Hill; see also
5127:
5123:
5118:
5114:
5106:
5102:
5097:
5093:
5087:
5074:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5046:
5045:
5041:
5032:
5028:
5023:
5019:
5014:
5010:
4990:
4986:
4981:
4977:
4964:, p. 400:
4960:
4956:
4952:Reynolds, p. 14
4951:
4947:
4938:
4936:
4927:
4926:
4922:
4913:
4911:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4888:
4886:
4878:
4877:
4873:
4865:
4863:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4839:
4837:
4834:Daily Telegraph
4828:
4827:
4823:
4814:
4812:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4783:
4778:
4777:
4773:
4750:
4748:
4733:
4732:
4728:
4719:
4717:
4709:
4708:
4704:
4688:
4683:
4682:
4678:
4671:
4654:
4652:
4648:
4635:
4634:
4630:
4621:
4617:
4608:
4604:
4595:
4591:
4582:
4578:
4562:
4558:
4549:
4545:
4536:
4532:
4519:
4515:
4500:10.2307/1493973
4483:
4482:
4475:
4466:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4422:
4410:
4406:
4397:
4393:
4385:, p. 377;
4377:
4373:
4365:
4361:
4357:, pp. 12f.
4353:
4349:
4341:
4337:
4325:
4321:
4313:, p. 375;
4309:
4305:
4293:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4269:
4265:
4257:, p. 160;
4253:
4249:
4233:
4229:
4221:
4217:
4209:
4205:
4197:
4190:
4182:
4175:
4164:
4151:
4150:
4146:
4114:
4110:
4093:
4089:
4075:
4071:
4063:
4054:
4046:
4042:
4034:
4030:
4022:
4015:
4006:
4004:
4002:www.attalus.org
3996:
3995:
3991:
3984:
3969:
3968:
3964:
3951:, p. 395;
3947:
3943:
3939:Needham, p. 158
3938:
3934:
3929:
3925:
3921:Needham, p. 370
3920:
3916:
3912:Needham, p. 392
3911:
3907:
3899:
3888:
3883:
3882:
3873:
3866:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3839:
3832:
3823:
3821:
3812:
3811:
3807:
3775:
3770:
3769:
3765:
3755:
3754:
3750:
3740:
3738:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3702:
3697:
3693:
3683:
3681:
3676:
3675:
3668:
3658:
3656:
3651:
3650:
3646:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3588:
3583:Merriam Webster
3581:
3577:
3568:
3566:
3557:
3556:
3549:
3542:
3538:
3529:
3527:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3488:
3487:
3480:
3473:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3391:
3335:
3310:
3275:
3268:
3267:
3240:
3217:
3216:
3200:
3164:
3163:
3111:
3110:
3094:
3089:
3044:
3043:
2997:
2996:
2966:
2956:
2941:
2936:
2935:
2908:
2895:
2884:
2883:
2819:
2818:
2802:
2761:
2760:
2739:
2734:
2733:
2712:
2707:
2706:
2695:
2662:
2661:
2625:
2624:
2597:
2596:
2572:
2571:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2507:
2502:
2501:
2474:
2473:
2446:
2445:
2418:
2417:
2390:
2389:
2362:
2361:
2334:
2333:
2302:
2301:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2230:
2207:
2198:
2196:Hydraulic wheel
2193:
2007:Water wheel in
1964:, on the river
1934:
1928:
1872:
1856:
1797:
1743:
1728:Development of
1678:(also known as
1632:
1606:
1577:De re metallica
1564:
1538:
1526:
1510:
1378:
1372:
1337:
1269:
1265:
1232:
1161:Alexandrian War
1148:Ptolemaic Egypt
1103:
1099:
1062:
1046:
1040:
1035:
834:
825:
815:
781:
761:
756:
733:
680:
655:(movement) and
619:
585:
583:Undershot wheel
539:
508:
346:(also known as
303:
250:
223:, developed by
205:medieval Europe
98:
87:De re metallica
51:
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6124:
6122:
6114:
6113:
6108:
6106:Water turbines
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6078:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6035:Kaplan turbine
6032:
6026:
6024:
6017:
6016:
6009:
6007:
6005:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5968:
5966:
5959:
5958:
5953:
5951:
5950:
5943:
5936:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5916:
5908:
5896:
5886:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5857:
5856:External links
5854:
5853:
5852:
5818:
5810:Wilson, Andrew
5806:
5801:
5788:
5776:
5769:
5748:
5745:on 2017-09-20.
5734:
5729:
5716:
5698:
5693:
5676:
5656:
5651:
5635:
5621:
5607:
5593:
5579:
5552:
5538:
5524:
5495:
5484:
5468:
5454:
5422:
5416:
5402:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5384:Low Head Hydro
5376:
5365:
5348:
5322:
5296:
5271:
5245:
5214:
5207:
5187:
5178:
5175:on 2017-07-11.
5160:
5149:Ahmad Y Hassan
5141:
5121:
5112:
5100:
5091:
5085:
5067:
5061:
5055:, p. 26,
5039:
5026:
5017:
5008:
4984:
4975:
4954:
4945:
4920:
4895:
4871:
4846:
4821:
4797:
4771:
4726:
4702:
4676:
4669:
4646:
4643:on 2019-11-15.
4628:
4615:
4602:
4589:
4576:
4556:
4543:
4530:
4513:
4473:
4455:
4446:
4431:
4420:
4404:
4391:
4371:
4359:
4347:
4335:
4329:, p. 11;
4319:
4303:
4287:
4275:
4263:
4247:
4245:, pp. 7f.
4241:, p. 11;
4227:
4215:
4203:
4188:
4186:, pp. 235
4173:
4163:978-8882654337
4162:
4144:
4108:
4087:
4069:
4067:, pp. 234
4052:
4040:
4028:
4013:
3989:
3982:
3962:
3941:
3932:
3923:
3914:
3905:
3886:"Water Wheels"
3871:
3864:
3845:
3830:
3805:
3786:(4): 203–211.
3763:
3758:"stream wheel"
3748:
3726:
3700:
3691:
3666:
3644:
3630:
3608:
3597:
3586:
3575:
3547:
3536:
3512:
3505:
3478:
3471:
3445:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3412:
3409:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3334:
3331:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3214:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3177:
3173:
3161:
3157:
3156:
3145:
3142:
3136:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3118:
3108:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3087:Rules of thumb
3085:
3082:
3081:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3057:
3054:
3051:
3041:
3037:
3036:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3010:
3007:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2963:
2959:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2881:
2880:Effective head
2877:
2876:
2862:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2768:
2746:
2742:
2719:
2715:
2694:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2672:
2669:
2659:
2644:
2638:
2635:
2622:
2607:
2604:
2594:
2582:
2579:
2569:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2534:
2519:
2514:
2510:
2499:
2484:
2481:
2471:
2456:
2453:
2443:
2428:
2425:
2415:
2400:
2397:
2387:
2372:
2369:
2359:
2344:
2341:
2331:
2312:
2309:
2299:
2285:
2282:
2270:
2267:
2247:
2246:
2240:
2237:Kinetic energy
2229:
2226:
2206:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2159:1038–1075) of
2070:water turbines
1980:system during
1942:Norias of Hama
1927:
1924:
1888:Joseph Needham
1871:
1868:
1855:
1852:
1796:
1793:
1762:Colorado River
1742:
1739:
1730:water turbines
1711:Sagebien wheel
1631:
1628:
1605:
1602:
1572:Georg Agricola
1563:
1560:
1537:
1534:
1530:overshot wheel
1525:
1522:
1509:
1506:
1473:well into the
1371:
1368:
1336:
1333:
1329:water turbines
1231:
1228:
1108:Parasceuastica
1061:
1058:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
851:Tiangong Kaiwu
833:
830:
814:
811:
780:
777:
760:
757:
755:
752:
732:
731:Backshot wheel
729:
679:
678:Overshot wheel
676:
649:
648:
645:
642:
618:
615:
611:
610:
607:
604:
584:
581:
538:
535:
507:
504:
501:
500:
493:
492:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
469:
468:
461:
460:
459:
456:
453:
450:
447:
438:
437:
430:
429:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
407:
406:
399:
398:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
376:
375:
368:
367:
366:
363:
360:
357:
354:
340:
339:
332:
331:
330:
327:
321:
318:
315:
302:
299:
269:
268:
265:
249:
246:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6123:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6083:
6081:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6055:Turgo turbine
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6040:Tyson turbine
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6018:
6013:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5949:
5944:
5942:
5937:
5935:
5930:
5929:
5926:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5909:
5907:
5903:
5900:
5897:
5894:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5881:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5859:
5855:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5825:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5804:
5798:
5794:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5740:
5735:
5732:
5726:
5722:
5717:
5715:
5714:0-8018-2554-7
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5696:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5677:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5657:
5654:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5634:
5633:0-262-66072-5
5630:
5626:
5622:
5620:
5619:3-87696-122-X
5616:
5612:
5608:
5606:
5605:3-87696-121-1
5602:
5598:
5594:
5592:
5591:0-521-05803-1
5588:
5584:
5580:
5571:on 2007-11-18
5567:
5560:
5559:
5553:
5551:
5550:0-07-141279-4
5547:
5543:
5539:
5537:
5536:0-85958-657-X
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5496:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5469:
5467:
5466:0-674-46675-6
5463:
5459:
5455:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5421:
5417:
5415:
5414:0-9552426-0-6
5411:
5407:
5403:
5400:
5396:
5395:
5391:
5385:
5380:
5377:
5374:
5369:
5366:
5361:
5360:"Waterwheels"
5355:
5353:
5349:
5336:
5332:
5326:
5323:
5310:
5303:
5301:
5297:
5285:
5281:
5275:
5272:
5256:
5249:
5246:
5233:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5215:
5210:
5204:
5200:
5199:
5191:
5188:
5182:
5179:
5174:
5170:
5164:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5150:
5145:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5131:
5125:
5122:
5116:
5113:
5110:
5104:
5101:
5095:
5092:
5088:
5082:
5078:
5071:
5068:
5064:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5043:
5040:
5036:
5030:
5027:
5021:
5018:
5012:
5009:
5005:
5004:Wikander 2000
5001:
4997:
4993:
4988:
4985:
4979:
4976:
4972:
4970:
4963:
4962:Wikander 2000
4958:
4955:
4949:
4946:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4921:
4910:
4906:
4899:
4896:
4885:
4881:
4875:
4872:
4861:
4857:
4850:
4847:
4835:
4831:
4825:
4822:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4798:
4793:
4789:
4782:
4775:
4772:
4768:
4765:
4760:
4746:
4742:
4741:
4736:
4730:
4727:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4703:
4698:
4694:
4687:
4680:
4677:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4650:
4647:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4625:
4619:
4616:
4612:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4593:
4590:
4586:
4580:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4544:
4540:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4488:
4480:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4453:Glick, p. 178
4450:
4447:
4443:
4442:Wikander 1985
4438:
4436:
4432:
4429:
4424:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4412:Wikander 2000
4408:
4405:
4401:
4395:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4383:Wikander 2000
4380:
4375:
4372:
4368:
4363:
4360:
4356:
4351:
4348:
4345:, p. 375
4344:
4343:Wikander 2000
4339:
4336:
4333:, p. 236
4332:
4328:
4323:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4311:Wikander 2000
4307:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4295:Wikander 2000
4291:
4288:
4284:
4279:
4276:
4272:
4267:
4264:
4261:, p. 396
4260:
4259:Wikander 2000
4256:
4255:Wikander 1985
4251:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4235:Wikander 2000
4231:
4228:
4225:, p. 271
4224:
4219:
4216:
4212:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4195:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4155:
4148:
4145:
4141:
4135:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4118:
4117:Schioler 1973
4112:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4073:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4050:, p. 233
4049:
4044:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4029:
4026:, p. 230
4025:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4003:
3999:
3993:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3975:
3974:
3966:
3963:
3959:
3955:, p. 229
3954:
3950:
3949:Wikander 2000
3945:
3942:
3936:
3933:
3930:Morton, p. 70
3927:
3924:
3918:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3898:
3894:
3887:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3867:
3865:9789811019388
3861:
3857:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3843:, p. 229
3842:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3819:
3815:
3809:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3774:
3767:
3764:
3759:
3752:
3749:
3737:
3730:
3727:
3714:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3680:
3673:
3671:
3667:
3654:
3648:
3645:
3633:
3631:9780801885860
3627:
3622:
3621:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3579:
3576:
3565:on 2011-10-07
3564:
3560:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3545:
3540:
3537:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3513:
3508:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3474:
3472:9780802016379
3468:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3435:
3429:
3427:
3410:
3407:
3395:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3349:Water turbine
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3314:
3307:
3286:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3197:
3175:
3171:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3143:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3091:
3086:
3066:
3063:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3042:
3039:
3038:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3014:
3008:
3005:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2934:
2932:Velocity head
2931:
2930:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2860:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2781:
2766:
2744:
2740:
2717:
2713:
2699:
2692:
2690:
2685:
2670:
2667:
2660:
2657:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2623:
2620:
2605:
2602:
2595:
2580:
2577:
2570:
2567:
2566:velocity head
2552:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2532:
2531:pressure head
2517:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2497:
2482:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2454:
2451:
2444:
2441:
2426:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2398:
2395:
2388:
2385:
2370:
2367:
2360:
2357:
2342:
2339:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2310:
2307:
2300:
2298:
2283:
2280:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2227:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2202:
2195:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2032:, shipmills,
2031:
2027:
2023:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1990:Kitab al-Hawi
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1946:Orontes River
1943:
1938:
1933:
1926:Islamic world
1925:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1900:ancient India
1895:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:Adelong Falls
1822:
1818:
1814:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1752:
1747:
1741:North America
1740:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1715:Claude Burdin
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:Lady Isabella
1677:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1616:laws of force
1612:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1552:
1551:hydraulically
1548:
1542:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1499:South America
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1413:
1412:Little Island
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1347:
1341:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104: 220 BC
1094:
1090:
1085:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1066:
1060:Water-lifting
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1037:
1033:Western world
1032:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:
998:
992:
990:
986:
979:
977:
973:
972:
967:
963:
962:blast furnace
959:
955:
951:
947:
941:
939:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
864:
863:Song Yingxing
860:
859:encyclopedist
857:
853:
852:
847:
843:
840:Two types of
838:
831:
829:
824:
820:
812:
810:
808:
803:
794:
790:
789:Anderson Mill
785:
778:
776:
774:
773:Finch Foundry
765:
758:
753:
751:
748:
746:
737:
730:
728:
726:
722:
716:
714:
710:
706:
702:
696:
692:
684:
677:
675:
673:
667:
665:
660:
658:
654:
646:
643:
640:
639:
638:
635:
632:
623:
616:
614:
608:
605:
602:
601:
600:
597:
589:
582:
580:
577:
575:
571:
566:
563:
561:
555:
553:
543:
536:
534:
532:
528:
524:
519:
512:
506:Vertical axis
505:
498:
494:
489:
486:
483:
480:
477:
476:
474:
471:
470:
466:
462:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
444:
443:
440:
439:
435:
431:
426:
423:
420:
417:
414:
413:
412:
409:
408:
404:
400:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
382:
381:
378:
377:
373:
369:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
351:
349:
345:
342:
341:
337:
333:
328:
326:
322:
319:
316:
313:
312:
310:
309:Vertical axis
307:
306:
300:
298:
294:
292:
288:
283:
281:
276:
274:
266:
263:
262:
261:
254:
247:
245:
243:
238:
236:
232:
231:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
154:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
109:
93:
89:
88:
83:
79:
74:
67:
47:
40:
33:
19:
6086:Water wheels
6064:
6050:Pelton wheel
5822:
5813:
5792:
5783:
5772:
5759:(1): 52–77.
5756:
5752:
5743:the original
5720:
5705:
5701:
5684:
5664:
5660:
5642:
5624:
5610:
5596:
5582:
5573:, retrieved
5566:the original
5557:
5541:
5527:
5503:
5499:
5491:
5487:
5472:
5457:
5426:
5405:
5398:
5379:
5368:
5339:. Retrieved
5334:
5325:
5313:. Retrieved
5287:. Retrieved
5283:
5274:
5262:. Retrieved
5248:
5236:. Retrieved
5197:
5190:
5181:
5173:the original
5163:
5154:
5144:
5124:
5119:Lucas, p. 11
5115:
5103:
5098:Lucas, p. 10
5094:
5076:
5070:
5048:
5042:
5034:
5029:
5020:
5015:Pacey, p. 36
5011:
4987:
4982:Pacey, p. 10
4978:
4966:
4957:
4948:
4937:. Retrieved
4935:. 2015-09-19
4932:
4923:
4912:. Retrieved
4908:
4898:
4887:. Retrieved
4883:
4874:
4864:, retrieved
4859:
4849:
4838:. Retrieved
4836:. 1918-06-10
4833:
4824:
4813:. Retrieved
4809:
4800:
4791:
4787:
4774:
4749:. Retrieved
4738:
4729:
4718:. Retrieved
4714:
4705:
4696:
4692:
4679:
4656:
4649:
4641:the original
4631:
4623:
4618:
4610:
4605:
4597:
4592:
4584:
4579:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4551:
4546:
4538:
4533:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4494:(3): 26–33.
4491:
4485:
4468:
4449:
4423:
4407:
4399:
4394:
4389:, p. 13
4374:
4369:, p. 39
4362:
4350:
4338:
4322:
4317:, p. 13
4306:
4301:, p. 12
4290:
4278:
4266:
4250:
4230:
4218:
4206:
4153:
4147:
4138:
4131:
4121:
4111:
4099:
4090:
4081:
4072:
4043:
4031:
4005:. Retrieved
4001:
3992:
3976:. Springer.
3972:
3965:
3957:
3944:
3935:
3926:
3917:
3908:
3892:
3854:
3848:
3822:. Retrieved
3820:. 2021-04-12
3817:
3808:
3783:
3779:
3766:
3751:
3739:. Retrieved
3729:
3717:. Retrieved
3694:
3682:. Retrieved
3657:. Retrieved
3653:"Waterwheel"
3647:
3635:. Retrieved
3619:
3611:
3600:
3589:
3578:
3567:. Retrieved
3563:the original
3539:
3528:. Retrieved
3524:
3515:
3491:
3456:
3448:
3437:
3394:
3392:
3344:Pelton wheel
3329:generation.
3323:
3315:
3311:
2782:
2704:
2693:Measurements
2689:
2386:of wheel (m)
2252:
2248:
2231:
2219:
2208:
2199:
2181:water clocks
2095:
2062:Central Asia
2054:North Africa
2018:
1989:
1950:
1904:
1896:
1883:
1880:cakkavattaka
1879:
1873:
1857:
1845:
1809:
1806:(built 1887)
1782:
1766:
1755:
1727:
1718:
1696:
1679:
1673:
1658:
1651:
1644:
1607:
1594:wrought iron
1586:fulling mill
1583:
1575:
1556:feudal state
1543:
1539:
1527:
1511:
1478:
1471:steam engine
1450:
1416:
1397:
1379:
1361:
1351:
1344:
1322:
1313:central Gaul
1302:
1282:
1270: AD 24
1266: 64 BC
1244:
1230:Watermilling
1223:carbon dated
1181:. They were
1172:
1165:
1145:
1107:
1088:
1086:
1076:
1071:
1047:
994:
988:
984:
981:
975:
969:
943:
937:
935:
905:
903:
873:in the late
868:
865:(1587–1666).
856:Ming Dynasty
849:
826:
798:
788:
770:
749:
744:
742:
717:
697:
693:
689:
668:
661:
650:
636:
630:
628:
612:
598:
594:
578:
567:
564:
560:John Smeaton
556:
552:free surface
548:
530:
526:
522:
520:
517:
472:
441:
410:
379:
348:free surface
343:
308:
295:
284:
277:
272:
270:
259:
239:
228:
213:John Smeaton
174:
169:
165:
155:
147:wrought iron
145:, hammering
114:
112:
85:
6065:Water wheel
5992:Micro hydro
5987:Small hydro
5506:(1): 1–30.
5399:Water Wheel
5397:Soto Gary,
5341:25 February
5315:25 February
5289:25 February
5264:24 February
5238:24 February
5033:al-Hassani
4996:Oleson 2000
4992:Oleson 1984
4428:Murphy 2005
4418:, p. 3
4416:Wilson 2002
4379:Wilson 1995
4367:Greene 2000
4331:Oleson 2000
4283:Oleson 2000
4271:Oleson 2000
4243:Wilson 2002
4223:Oleson 2000
4211:Oleson 2000
4199:Oleson 2000
4184:Oleson 2000
4124:Mesopotamia
4104:Oleson 2000
4096:Deuteronomy
4077:Oleson 2000
4065:Oleson 2000
4048:Oleson 2000
4036:Oleson 2000
4024:Oleson 2000
3953:Oleson 2000
3841:Oleson 2000
3818:faq-ans.com
3741:12 February
3736:"undershot"
3684:12 February
3383:Scoop wheel
2177:Taqi al-Din
2066:crankshafts
2058:Middle East
2042:sugar mills
2038:steel mills
2034:stamp mills
1860:Carricktown
1854:New Zealand
1841:Snowy River
1833:Port Albert
1785:fish wheels
1705:invented a
1697:During the
1688:Isle of Man
1676:Laxey Wheel
1598:papermaking
1590:trip hammer
1455:monasteries
1419:tidal power
1393:hagiography
1391:, but also
1382:legal codes
976:Hou Han Shu
932:spelling):
922:trip hammer
908:written by
893:in forging
846:chain pumps
713:Switzerland
705:Isle of Man
701:Laxey Wheel
177:agriculture
143:papermaking
115:water wheel
80:powering a
6111:Watermills
6080:Categories
5997:Pico hydro
5965:generation
5955:Hydropower
5575:2010-03-17
5208:0060165901
4939:2022-09-11
4914:2022-09-11
4889:2022-09-11
4866:2022-02-06
4840:2022-09-04
4830:"THE SOIL"
4815:2022-09-10
4720:2022-02-06
4007:2024-09-12
3824:2021-11-23
3659:19 January
3637:19 January
3569:2009-04-07
3544:pitch-back
3530:2017-07-10
2297:efficiency
2263:horsepower
2205:Efficiency
2169:chain pump
2161:Al-Andalus
2106:water mill
2091:al-Andalus
2050:al-Andalus
2046:tide mills
2022:gristmills
1982:al-Andalus
1930:See also:
1501:following
1465:region of
1452:Cistercian
1431:Tide mills
1374:See also:
1354:automatons
1335:Navigation
1297:Asia Minor
1268: – c.
1255:Alexandria
1213:, a Roman
1211:Dolaucothi
1120:Ptolemy IV
1116:Alexandria
1106:). In his
1102: – c.
1100: 280
1089:Pneumatica
1042:See also:
1029:226–239).
1004:Zhang Heng
964:to create
930:Wade-Giles
817:See also:
779:Reversible
664:trash rack
631:breastshot
531:Greek mill
527:Norse mill
411:Breastshot
235:elevations
203:, like in
181:metallurgy
139:gristmills
82:mine hoist
6023:equipment
5913:1893 June
5849:154629776
5520:109564224
5451:163811541
4909:DigitalNZ
4764:CC-BY 4.0
4568:Surveying
3800:1478-4629
3430:Citations
3411:˙
3354:Watermill
3280:⋅
3238:⋅
3232:⋅
3141:⋅
3135:˙
3126:⋅
3059:⋅
3021:⋅
3009:˙
2971:⋅
2861:˙
2852:⋅
2846:⋅
2840:⋅
2837:ρ
2834:⋅
2831:η
2637:˙
2308:ρ
2281:η
2173:Al-Jazari
2121:Euphrates
2015:, c. 1918
1998:East Asia
1795:Australia
1524:Locations
1491:New World
1487:Spaniards
1404:Waterford
1400:tide mill
1309:Lucretius
1251:Byzantium
1239:Vitruvius
1217:in south
1215:gold mine
1203:Rio Tinto
1201:mines at
1187:Vitruvius
1112:dry docks
985:shui phai
966:cast iron
914:Wang Mang
899:cast iron
879:Confucius
848:from the
844:-powered
842:hydraulic
819:Watermill
745:pitchback
672:Fall Line
657:potential
629:The word
570:ship mill
523:tub wheel
380:Undershot
273:undershot
162:mill race
127:watermill
68:, Germany
39:Head race
5902:Archived
5895:website.
5880:Archived
5641:(1984),
5335:Neutrium
5133:Archived
5037:, p. 115
5024:Siddiqui
4969:Cedrenus
4794:: 66–78.
4747:. H00072
4699:: 25–32.
4128:Akkadian
3897:Archived
3333:See also
3205:Quantity
3099:Quantity
2810:Formula
2807:Quantity
2800:Formulae
2619:velocity
2440:distance
2384:diameter
2215:turbines
2185:automata
2153:flywheel
2078:machines
2030:sawmills
1829:Walhalla
1667:, North
1518:Domesday
1421:was the
1389:charters
1386:monastic
1358:odometer
1193:and the
1077:tympanum
989:chi shui
910:Huan Tan
895:iron ore
871:Zhuangzi
725:penstock
473:Backshot
442:Overshot
287:millpond
207:and the
170:tailrace
166:headrace
66:Erlangen
18:Headrace
5841:3184857
5683:(ed.),
5443:3643076
5373:Oewatec
4767:licence
4508:1493973
4132:nartabu
4083:before.
2324:density
2149:Baghdad
2145:granary
2102:bridges
2087:factory
2080:, and
2056:to the
2026:hullers
2013:Sumatra
1978:Moorish
1966:Orontes
1944:on the
1919:Persian
1821:Chewton
1719:turbine
1663:of the
1446:Ukraine
1408:Ireland
1274:Pontian
1259:Strabon
1130:before
1019:Cao Wei
960:of the
958:bellows
950:Nanyang
946:Prefect
906:Xin Lun
891:bellows
885:of the
883:Chinese
813:History
703:in the
653:kinetic
574:bridges
221:turbine
135:buckets
119:machine
94:, 1566)
5847:
5839:
5799:
5727:
5712:
5691:
5661:Energy
5649:
5631:
5617:
5603:
5589:
5548:
5534:
5518:
5464:
5449:
5441:
5412:
5205:
5155:Saqiya
5083:
5059:
5035:et al.
4751:1 June
4667:
4506:
4160:
3980:
3862:
3798:
3719:12 Feb
3628:
3503:
3469:
2792:wheel.
2165:saqiya
2151:. The
2117:Tigris
2113:moored
2044:, and
2009:Djambi
1970:Murcia
1915:Arabic
1864:Oamaru
1789:salmon
1580:(1556)
1547:canals
1495:Mexico
1483:Persia
1463:Aragon
1199:copper
1175:mining
1124:papyri
1084:lift.
1015:Ma Jun
954:Du Shi
802:mining
754:Hybrid
537:Stream
344:Stream
158:dammed
131:blades
5845:S2CID
5837:JSTOR
5569:(PDF)
5562:(PDF)
5516:S2CID
5447:S2CID
5439:JSTOR
5258:(PDF)
4784:(PDF)
4689:(PDF)
4624:Opere
4611:Opere
4504:JSTOR
3900:(PDF)
3889:(PDF)
3776:(PDF)
3371:Sakia
3366:Noria
2815:Power
2658:(m/s)
2621:(m/s)
2412:power
2328:water
2259:quern
2255:power
2211:steel
2110:ships
2098:piers
2074:gears
1994:noria
1974:Spain
1958:Syria
1892:noria
1876:India
1870:India
1819:near
1684:Laxey
1669:Wales
1467:Spain
1276:king
1219:Wales
1207:Spain
1179:Spain
1168:noria
1152:sakia
1081:sakia
1074:Latin
997:China
926:China
918:Fu Xi
897:into
832:China
823:Noria
793:Texas
721:flume
651:Both
248:Types
233:, or
230:heads
197:India
193:China
151:cloth
123:water
117:is a
46:Noria
5797:ISBN
5725:ISBN
5710:ISBN
5689:ISBN
5647:ISBN
5629:ISBN
5615:ISBN
5601:ISBN
5587:ISBN
5546:ISBN
5532:ISBN
5462:ISBN
5410:ISBN
5343:2017
5317:2017
5291:2017
5266:2017
5240:2017
5203:ISBN
5081:ISBN
5057:ISBN
4753:2018
4665:ISBN
4158:ISBN
3978:ISBN
3860:ISBN
3796:ISSN
3743:2017
3721:2017
3686:2017
3661:2018
3639:2018
3626:ISBN
3501:ISBN
3467:ISBN
3316:The
3301:rpm
3191:rpm
3123:7000
2684:time
2496:head
2253:The
2183:and
2137:tons
2133:iron
2131:and
2129:teak
2125:Iraq
2119:and
2082:dams
2068:and
2060:and
2052:and
1954:Hama
1940:The
1917:and
1734:head
1624:head
1497:and
1253:and
821:and
787:The
325:head
280:head
195:and
189:Rome
76:The
5972:Dam
5829:doi
5761:doi
5669:doi
5508:doi
5492:264
5477:doi
5431:doi
4496:doi
3788:doi
3784:157
3229:100
2686:(s)
2568:(m)
2498:(m)
2442:(m)
2414:(W)
2326:of
2157:fl.
2147:in
2139:of
2100:of
1988:'s
1972:in
1956:in
1686:,
1574:'s
1493:in
1425:in
1323:In
1205:in
1114:in
948:of
938:tui
791:of
723:or
711:in
529:or
179:to
133:or
84:in
6082::
5843:,
5835:,
5757:29
5755:.
5665:87
5663:,
5514:.
5504:46
5502:.
5490:,
5445:,
5437:,
5351:^
5333:.
5299:^
5282:.
5217:^
5151:,
5051:,
4931:.
4907:.
4882:.
4858:,
4832:.
4808:.
4792:15
4790:.
4786:.
4743:.
4737:.
4713:.
4697:31
4695:.
4691:.
4663:.
4566:,
4502:.
4492:15
4490:.
4476:^
4458:^
4434:^
4191:^
4176:^
4055:^
4016:^
4000:.
3895:.
3891:.
3874:^
3833:^
3816:.
3794:.
3782:.
3778:.
3703:^
3669:^
3550:^
3523:.
3499:.
3497:34
3481:^
3465:.
3463:69
3172:21
2187:.
2072:,
2040:,
2036:,
2028:,
2024:,
2011:,
1866:.
1843:.
1780:.
1764:.
1694:.
1671:.
1618:.
1558:.
1444:,
1406:,
1384:,
1295:,
1263:c.
1097:c.
1027:r.
952:,
901:.
861:,
525:,
191:,
187:,
172:.
153:.
113:A
5947:e
5940:t
5933:v
5831::
5767:.
5763::
5747:.
5706:7
5671::
5522:.
5510::
5479::
5433::
5345:.
5319:.
5293:.
5268:.
5242:.
5211:.
5158:.
5139:)
4942:.
4917:.
4892:.
4843:.
4818:.
4769:.
4755:.
4723:.
4673:.
4653:*
4510:.
4498::
4010:.
3986:.
3868:.
3827:.
3790::
3760:.
3745:.
3723:.
3688:.
3663:.
3641:.
3572:.
3533:.
3509:.
3475:.
3408:q
3287:D
3283:v
3277:9
3246:3
3242:v
3235:A
3226:=
3223:P
3176:D
3144:h
3132:q
3120:=
3117:P
3067:t
3064:d
3056:k
3053:=
3050:v
3024:v
3018:A
3015:=
3006:q
2974:g
2968:2
2962:2
2958:v
2952:=
2947:v
2943:h
2914:v
2910:h
2906:+
2901:p
2897:h
2893:=
2890:h
2858:q
2849:h
2843:g
2828:=
2825:P
2767:v
2745:v
2741:h
2718:p
2714:h
2671:=
2668:t
2643:=
2634:q
2606:=
2603:v
2581:=
2578:k
2553:=
2548:v
2544:h
2518:=
2513:p
2509:h
2483:=
2480:h
2455:=
2452:g
2427:=
2424:d
2399:=
2396:P
2371:=
2368:D
2343:=
2340:A
2311:=
2284:=
2167:(
1261:(
1095:(
1025:(
974:(
928:(
90:(
48:.
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.