Health effects of radon - Knowledge (XXG)

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Veterans Affairs, and the General Services Administration. The goal set forth by FRAP was to eliminate radon induced cancer that can be prevented by expanding radon testing, mitigating high levels of radon exposure, and developing radon resistant construction, and to meet Healthy People 2020 radon objectives. They identified the barriers to change as limited public knowledge of the dangers of radon exposure, the perceived high costs of mitigation, and the availability of radon testing. As a result, they also identified major ways to create change: demonstrate the importance of testing and the ease of mitigation, provide incentives for testing and mitigation, and build the radon services industry. To complete these goals, representatives from each organization and department established specific commitments and timelines to complete tasks and continued to meet periodically. However, FRAP was concluded in 2016 as The National Radon Action Plan took over. In the final report on commitments, it was found that FRAP completed 88% of their commitments. They reported achieving the highest rates of radon mitigation and new construction mitigation in the United States as of 2014. FRAP concluded that because of their efforts, at least 1.6 million homes, schools, and childcare facilities received direct and immediate positive effects.

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Children's Environmental Health Network, Citizens for Radioactive Radon Reduction, Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors, Environmental Law Institute, National Center for Healthy Housing, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The goals of NRAP are to continue efforts set forth by FRAP to eliminate radon induced cancer that can be prevented by expanding radon testing, mitigating high levels of radon exposure, and developing radon resistant construction. NRAP also aims to reduce radon risk in 5 million homes, and save 3,200 lives by 2020. To complete these goals, representatives from each organization have established the following action plans: embed radon risk reduction as a standard practice across housing sectors, provide incentives and support to test and mitigate radon, promote the use of certified radon services and build the industry, and increase public attention to radon risk and the importance of reduction. The NRAP is currently in action, implementing programs, identifying approaches, and collaborating across organizations to achieve these goals.

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radon prevention measures in homes under construction. Elevated lung cancer rates have been reported from a number of cohort and case-control studies of underground miners exposed to radon and its decay products but the main confounding factor in all miners' studies is smoking and dust. Up to the most of regulatory bodies there is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of radon and its decay products in humans for such exposures. However, the discussion about the opposite results is still going on, especially a recent retrospective case-control study of lung cancer risk showed substantial cancer rate reduction between 50 and 123 Bq per cubic meter relative to a group at zero to 25 Bq per cubic meter. Additionally, the meta-analysis of many radon studies, which independently show radon risk increase, gives no confirmation of that conclusion: the joined data show log-normal distribution with the maximal value in zero risk of lung cancer below 800 Bq per cubic meter.

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National Radon Safety Board administer voluntary National Radon Proficiency Programs for radon professionals consisting of individuals and companies wanting to take training courses and examinations to demonstrate their competency. Without the proper equipment or technical knowledge, radon levels can actually increase or create other potential hazards and additional costs. A list of certified mitigation service providers is available through state radon offices, which are listed on the EPA website. Indoor radon can be mitigated by sealing basement foundations, water drainage, or by sub-slab, or sub-membrane depressurization. In many cases, mitigators can use PVC piping and specialized radon suction fans to exhaust sub-slab, or sub-membrane radon and other soil gases to the outside atmosphere. Most of these solutions for radon mitigation require maintenance, and it is important to continually replace any fans or filters as needed to continue proper functioning.

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dying of lung cancer are 10 times that of a nonsmoker's, the relative risks for a given radon exposure will be the same according to that model, meaning that the absolute risk of a radon-generated cancer for a smoker is (implicitly) tenfold that of a nonsmoker. The risk estimates correspond to a unit risk of approximately 3–6 × 10 per Bq/m, assuming a lifetime risk of lung cancer of 3%. This means that a person living in an average European dwelling with 50 Bq/m has a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 1.5–3 × 10. Similarly, a person living in a dwelling with a high radon concentration of 1000 Bq/m has a lifetime excess lung cancer risk of 3–6%, implying a doubling of background lung cancer risk.

1418:(EPA) recommends homes be fixed if an occupant's long-term exposure will average 4 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) that is 148 Bq/m. EPA estimates that one in 15 homes in the United States has radon levels above the recommended guideline of 4 pCi/L. EPA radon risk level tables including comparisons to other risks encountered in life are available in their citizen's guide. The EPA estimates that nationally, 8% to 12% of all dwellings are above their maximum "safe levels" (four picocuries per liter—the equivalent to roughly 200 chest x-rays). The United States Surgeon General and the EPA both recommend that all homes be tested for radon. 1298:

miners experienced exposures comparable to long-term residence in high-radon dwellings, the mean cumulative exposure among miners is approximately 30-fold higher than that associated with long-term residency in a typical home. Moreover, the smoking is a significant confounding factor in all miners' studies. It can be concluded from miner studies that when the radon exposure in dwellings compares to that in mines (above 1000 Bq/m), radon is a proven health hazard; but in the 1980s very little was known on the dose-effect relationship, both theoretically and statistical.

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Study (SHPPS), conducted by the CDC in 2012, found that of schools located in counties with high predicted indoor radon levels, only 42.4% had radon testing policies, and a mere 37.5% had policy for radon-resistant new construction practices. Only about 20% of all schools nationwide have done testing, even though the EPA recommends that every school be tested. These numbers are arguably not high enough to ensure protection of the majority of children from elevated radon exposures. For exposure standards to be effective, they should be set for those most susceptible.

1236:. Radon has been used in implantable seeds, made of gold or glass, primarily used to treat cancers. The gold seeds were produced by filling a long tube with radon pumped from a radium source, the tube being then divided into short sections by crimping and cutting. The gold layer keeps the radon within, and filters out the alpha and beta radiation, while allowing the gamma rays to escape (which kill the diseased tissue). The activities might range from 2 to 200 MBq/seed. The gamma rays are produced by radon and the first short-lived elements of its 1559:

radon released from water used during showers and other household activities, a point-of-entry solution may be more reliable. Point-of-entry systems usually involve a granular activated carbon filter, or an aeration system; both methods can help to remove radon before it enters the home's water distribution system. Aeration systems and granular activation carbon filters both have advantages and disadvantages, so it is recommended to contact state radon departments or a water treatment professional for specific recommendations.

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is inhaled that already carries radon decay products, the deposition pattern of the decay products in the respiratory tract depends on the behaviour of the particles in the lungs. Smaller diameter particles diffuse further into the respiratory system, whereas the larger—tens to hundreds of micron-sized—particles often deposit higher in the airways and are cleared by the body's mucociliary staircase. Deposited radioactive atoms or dust or aerosol particles continue to decay, causing continued exposure by emitting energetic

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the radon level is above average, because this leads to a significant decrease of radon exposure on a significant fraction of the population; but this effect is predicted in the 0–200 Bq/m range, where the linear model has its maximum uncertainty. From the statistical evidence available, a threshold exposure cannot be excluded; if such a threshold exists, the real radon health effect would in fact be limited to those homes where the radon concentrations reaches that observed in mines—at most a few percent. If a

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largely varied. Many ecological studies show a positive association between radon exposure and childhood leukemia; however, most case control studies have produced a weak correlation. Genotoxicity has been noted in children exposed to high levels of radon, specifically a significant increase of frequency of aberrant cells was noted, as well as an "increase in the frequencies of single and double fragments, chromosome interchanges, number of aberrations chromatid and chromosome type".

1031:(the environment factors of a "case" population is individually determined, and compared to that of a "control″ population, to see what the difference might have been, and which factors may be significant), like the ones that have been used to demonstrate the link between lung cancer and smoking. Such studies can identify key factors when the signal/noise ratio is strong enough, but are very sensitive to selection bias, and prone to the existence of confounding factors. 477: 841: 131: 625: 1442: 1460:(EPA) Map. The kit includes a collector that the user hangs in the lowest livable floor of the dwelling for 2 to 7 days. Charcoal canisters are another type of short-term radon test, and are designed to be used for 2 to 4 days. The user then sends the collector to a laboratory for analysis. Both devices are passive, meaning that they do not need power to function. 250:) in 1 liter of air that releases 1.3 × 10 MeV of potential alpha energy; one WL is equivalent to 2.08 × 10 joules per cubic meter of air (J/m). The SI unit of cumulative exposure is expressed in joule-hours per cubic meter (J·h/m). One WLM is equivalent to 3.6 × 10 J·h/m. An exposure to 1 WL for 1 working month (170 hours) equals 1 WLM cumulative exposure. 745:

miners in the studies are smokers and all inhale dust and other pollutants in mines. Because radon and cigarette smoke both cause lung-cancer, and since the effect of smoking is far above that of radon, it is complicated to disentangle the effects of the two kinds of exposure; misinterpreting the smoking habit by a few percent can blur out the radon effect.

1383:(EPA) says that radon is the number one cause of lung cancer among non-smokers. The general population is exposed to small amounts of polonium as a radon daughter in indoor air; the isotopes Po and Po are thought to cause the majority of the estimated 15,000–22,000 lung cancer deaths in the US every year that have been attributed to indoor radon. The 1314:

one. Biologically based models have also been proposed that could project substantially reduced carcinogenicity at low doses. In the epidemiological field, no definite conclusion has been reached. However, from the evidence now available, a threshold exposure, that is, a level of exposure below which there is no effect of radon, cannot be excluded.

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occupationally induced cancer from radon, although it still remains an issue both for those who are currently employed in affected mines and for those who have been employed in the past. The power to detect any excess risks in miners nowadays is likely to be small, exposures being much smaller than in the early years of mining.

87:. It is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose, and is the most variable from location to location. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as attics and basements. It can also be found in some spring waters and hot springs. 1476:

Measurements between 4 and 10 pCi/L warrant a long-term radon test. Measurements over 10 pCi/L warrant only another short-term test so that abatement measures are not unduly delayed. Purchasers of real estate are advised to delay or decline a purchase if the seller has not successfully abated radon to 4 pCi/L or less.

1024:(predetermined populations with known exposures and exhaustive follow-up), such as those on miners, or on Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors. Such studies are efficient, but very costly when the population needs to be a large one. Such studies can only be used when the effect is strong enough, hence, for high exposures. 535:/L) in the basement of his home. He was told that living in the home was the equivalent of smoking 135 packs of cigarettes a day, and he and his family had increased their risk of developing lung cancer by 13 or 14 percent. The incident dramatized the fact that radon levels in particular dwellings can occasionally be 1554:

Since radon gas is found in most soil and rocks, it is not only able to move into the air, but also into underground water sources. Radon may be present in well water and can be released into the air in homes when water is used for showering and other household uses. If it is suspected that a private

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EPA recommends that all homes should be monitored for radon. If testing shows levels less than 4 picocuries radon per liter of air (160 Bq/m), then no action is necessary. For levels of 20 picocuries radon per liter of air (800 Bq/m) or higher, the home owner should consider some type of procedure to

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The National Radon Action Plan, also known as NRAP, was created in 2014 and launched in 2015. It is led by The American Lung Association with collaborative efforts from the American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists, American Society of Home Inspectors, Cancer Survivors Against Radon,

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According to the UNSCEAR modeling, based on these miner's studies, the excess relative risk from long-term residential exposure to radon at 100 Bq/m is considered to be about 0.16 (after correction for uncertainties in exposure assessment), with about a threefold factor of uncertainty higher or lower

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from exposure to radon that was equivalent to 1.8% per megabecquerel hours per cubic meter (MBq·h/m) (95% confidence interval: 0.3, 35) for miners with cumulative exposures below 30 MBq·h/m. Estimates of risk per unit exposure are 5.38×10 per WLM; 9.68×10/WLM for ever smokers; and 1.67×10 per WLM for

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Many states have active radon testing and mitigation programs in place, which require testing in buildings such as public schools. However, these are not standardized nationwide, and the rules and regulations on reducing high radon levels are even less common. The School Health Policies and Practices

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The risk of lung cancer caused by smoking is much higher than the risk of lung cancer caused by indoor radon. Radiation from radon has been attributed to increase of lung cancer among smokers too. It is generally believed that exposure to radon and cigarette smoking are synergistic; that is, that the

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well or drinking water may be affected by radon, the National Radon Program Services Hotline at 1-800-SOS-RADON can be contacted for information regarding state radon office phone numbers. State radon offices can provide additional resources, such as local laboratories that can test water for radon.

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In the US, approximately 14 states have a state radon programs which train and license radon mitigation contractors and radon measurement professionals. To determine if your state licenses radon professionals contact your state health department. The National Environmental Health Association and the

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Since radon concentrations vary substantially from day to day, single grab-type measurements are generally not very useful, except as a means of identifying a potential problem area, and indicating a need for more sophisticated testing. The EPA recommends that an initial short-term test be performed

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The limits retained do not correspond to a known threshold in the biological effect, but are determined by a cost-efficiency analysis. EPA believes that a 150 Bq/m level (4 pCi/L) is achievable in the majority of homes for a reasonable cost, the average cost per life saved by using this action level

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Until the uncertainties on low-dose response are resolved, the Committee believes that is consistent with developing knowledge and that it remains, accordingly, the most scientifically defensible approximation of low-dose response. However, a strictly linear dose response should not be expected in

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effect exists after all, the situation would be even worse: under that hypothesis, suppressing the natural low exposure to radon (in the 0–200 Bq/m range) would actually lead to an increase of cancer incidence, due to the suppression of this (hypothetical) protecting effect. As the low-dose response

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With the BEIR VI model, the main health effect (nearly 75% of the death toll) is to be found at low radon concentration exposures, because most of the population (about 90%) lives in the 0–200 Bq/m range. Under this modeling, the best policy is obviously to reduce the radon levels of all homes where

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levels of smoking, occupational exposure to carcinogens and education attainment. However, unlike the majority of the residential radon studies, the study was not population-based. Errors in retrospective exposure assessment could not be ruled out in the finding at low levels. Other studies into the

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Epidemiologic radon studies have found trends to increased lung cancer risk from radon with a no evidence of a threshold, and evidence against a threshold above high as 150 Bq/m (almost exactly the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/L). Another study similarly found that there is no evidence of a threshold

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The studies have not produced a definitive answer, primarily because the risk is likely to be very small at the low exposure encountered from most homes and because it is difficult to estimate radon exposures that people have received over their lifetimes. In addition, it is clear that far more lung

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The effects of radon, if found in food or drinking water, are unknown. Following ingestion of radon dissolved in water, the biological half-life for removal of radon from the body ranges from 30 to 70 minutes. More than 90% of the absorbed radon is eliminated by exhalation within 100 minutes, By 600

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to humans. In September 2009, the World Health Organization released a comprehensive global initiative on radon that recommended a reference level of 100 Bq/m for radon, urging establishment or strengthening of radon measurement and mitigation programs as well as development building codes requiring

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A confounding factor with mines is that both radon concentration and carcinogenic dust (such as quartz dust) depend on the amount of ventilation. This makes it very difficult to state that radon causes cancer in miners; the lung cancers could be partially or wholly caused by high dust concentrations

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Since that time, ventilation and other measures have been used to reduce radon levels in most affected mines that continue to operate. In recent years, the average annual exposure of uranium miners has fallen to levels similar to the concentrations inhaled in some homes. This has reduced the risk of

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to consider, including exposure to other agents, ethnicity, smoking history, and work experience. The cases reported in these miners cannot be attributed solely to radon or radon daughters but may be due to exposure to silica, to other mine pollutants, to smoking, or to other causes. The majority of

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If it is determined that radon is present in a private well, installing either a point-of-use or point-of-entry solution may be necessary. Point-of-use treatments are installed at the tap, and are only helpful in removing radon from drinking water. To address the more common problem of breathing in

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There are relatively simple tests for radon gas. Radon test kits are commercially available. The short-term radon test kits used for screening purposes are inexpensive, in many cases free. In the United States, discounted test kits can be purchased online through The National Radon Program Services

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and colleagues identified a 50% increased lung cancer risk with prolonged radon exposure at the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/L. Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in the United States and a very stable population which added to the strength of the study. For that study, the odds ratio

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cancer risk vs. radon domestic exposure (5 pCi/L ≈ 200 Bq/m). This study lacks individual level controls for smoking and radon exposure, and therefore lacks statistical power to draw definitive conclusions. Because of this, the error bars (which simply reflect the raw data variability) are probably

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radioactive nuclides. Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a significant radiologic hazard. If the gas is inhaled, the radon atoms decay in the airways or the lungs, resulting in radioactive polonium and ultimately lead atoms attaching to the nearest tissue. If dust or aerosol

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In studies of uranium miners, workers exposed to radon levels of 50 to 150 picocuries of radon per liter of air (2000–6000 Bq/m) for about 10 years have shown an increased frequency of lung cancer. Statistically significant excesses in lung cancer deaths were present after cumulative exposures

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Bq/m indoors, but specifics of construction and ventilation strongly affect levels of accumulation; a further complication for risk assessment is that concentrations in a single location may differ by a factor of two over an hour, and concentrations can vary greatly even between two adjoining rooms

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industry often contain radium and its daughters. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contains radon. The radon decays to form solid radioisotopes which form coatings on the inside of pipework. In an oil processing plant, the area of

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Radon is also found in some petroleum. Because radon has a similar pressure and temperature curve to propane, and oil refineries separate petrochemicals based on their boiling points, the piping carrying freshly separated propane in oil refineries can become partially radioactive due to radon decay

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Fornalski, K. W.; Adams, R.; Allison, W.; Corrice, L. E.; Cuttler, J. M.; Davey, Ch.; Dobrzyński, L.; Esposito, V. J.; Feinendegen, L. E.; Gomez, L. S.; Lewis, P.; Mahn, J.; Miller, M. L.; Pennington, Ch. W.; Sacks, B.; Sutou, S.; Welsh, J. S. (2015). "The assumption of radon-induced cancer risk".

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doctors claim beneficial long-term effects, although proper clinical trials have not been performed. The claim of the study is of concern as the authors excluded results from patients requiring cortisone injections as a result of exacerbation of their arthritis during the course of treatment. This

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have been performed to assess possible relationships between selected cancers and estimated radon levels within particular geographic regions where environmental radon levels appear to be higher than other geographic regions. Results of such ecological studies are mixed; both positive and negative

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Radon (at concentrations encountered in mines) was recognized as carcinogenic in the 1980s, in view of the lung cancer statistics for miners' cohorts. Although radon may present significant risks, thousands of persons annually go to radon-contaminated mines for deliberate exposure to help with the

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The resulting health effects in children are similar to those of adults, predominantly including lung cancer and respiratory illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, and pneumonia. While there have been numerous studies assessing the link between radon exposure and childhood leukemia, the results are

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studies, progress has been made in understanding the first steps of cancer development, but not to the point of validating a reference dose-effect model. The only certainty gained is that the process is very complex, the resulting dose-effect response being complex, and most probably not a linear

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The Federal Radon Action Plan, also known as FRAP, was created in 2010 and launched in 2011. It was piloted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in conjunction with the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services, Agriculture, Defense, Energy, Housing and Urban Development, the Interior,

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When exposure to a carcinogenic substance is suspected, the cause/effect relationship on any given case can never be ascertained. Lung cancer occurs spontaneously, and there is no difference between a "natural" cancer and another one caused by radon (or smoking). Furthermore, it takes years for a

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of the USA is more complex. It is a multiplicative model that estimates an excess risk per exposure unit. It takes into account age, elapsed time since exposure, and duration and length of exposure, and its parameters allow for taking smoking habits into account. In the absence of other causes of

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Because radon is generally associated with diseases that are not detected until many years after elevated exposure, the public may not consider the amount of radon that children are currently being exposed to. Aside from the exposure in the home, one of the major contributors to radon exposure in

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While radon presents the aforementioned risks in adults, exposure in children leads to a unique set of health hazards that are still being researched. The physical composition of children leads to faster rates of exposure through inhalation given that their respiratory rate is higher than that of

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The primary route of exposure to radon and its progeny is inhalation. Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. The health hazard from radon does not come primarily from radon itself, but rather from the radioactive products formed in the decay of radon. The general effects of radon to the human

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is one type of long-term device. A Lucas cell is also an active device, or one that requires power to function. Active devices provide continuous monitoring, and some can report on the variation of radon and interference within the testing period. These tests usually require operation by trained

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In discussing these figures, it should be kept in mind that both the radon distribution in dwelling and its effect at low exposures are not precisely known, and the radon health effect has to be computed (deaths caused by radon domestic exposure cannot be observed as such). These estimations are

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The ICPR 65 model follows the same approach, and estimates the relative lifelong risk probability of radon-induced cancer death to 1.23 × 10 per Bq/(m·year). This relative risk is a global indicator; the risk estimation is independent of sex, age, or smoking habit. Thus, if a smoker's chances of

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On a global scale, it is estimated that 2,400 million curies (91 TBq) of radon are released from soil annually. Not all granitic regions are prone to high emissions of radon. Being an unreactive noble gas, it usually migrates freely through faults and fragmented soils, and may accumulate in

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Transport of radon in indoor air is almost entirely controlled by the ventilation rate in the enclosure. Since air pressure is usually lower inside houses than it is outside, the home acts like a vacuum, drawing radon gas in through cracks in the foundation or other openings such as ventilation

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Radon levels fluctuate naturally. An initial test might not be an accurate assessment of a home's average radon level. Transient weather can affect short term measurements. Therefore, a high result (over 4 pCi/L) justifies repeating the test before undertaking more expensive abatement projects.

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The only dose-effect relationship available are those of miners cohorts (for much higher exposures), exposed to radon. Studies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors are less informative (the exposure to radon is chronic, localized, and the ionizing radiations are alpha rays). Although low-exposed

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10 atoms of radon for each molecule in the air, or about 150 atoms in each mL of air. The entire radon activity of the Earth's atmosphere at any one time is due to some tens of grams of radon, constantly being replaced by decay of larger amounts of radium and uranium. Its concentration can vary

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Furthermore, theory and observation must confirm each other for a relationship to be accepted as fully proven. Even when a statistical link between factor and effect appears significant, it must be backed by a theoretical explanation; and a theory is not accepted as factual unless confirmed by

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may be used (where the global environment variables and their global effect on two different populations are compared). Such studies are "cheap and dirty": they can be easily conducted on very large populations (the whole USA, in Dr Cohen's study), but are prone to the existence of confounding

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Relative risk of lung cancer mortality by cumulative exposure to radon decay products (in WLM) from the combined data from 11 cohorts of underground hard rock miners. Though high exposures (>50 WLM) cause statistically significant excess cancers, the evidence on small exposures (10 WLM) is

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No conclusive statistics being available for the levels of exposure usually found in homes, the risks posed by domestic exposures is usually estimated on the basis of observed lung-cancer deaths caused by higher exposures in mines, under the assumption that the risk of developing lung-cancer

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children are the schools in which they attend almost every day. A survey was conducted in schools across the United States to detect radon levels, and it was estimated that about one in five schools has at least one room (more than 70,000 schoolrooms) with short-term levels above 4pCi/L.

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The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock, which comprises approximately 55% of the annual background dose. Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks.

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while leaving work over several days—even though the plant had not yet been fueled, and despite Watras being decontaminated and sent home "clean" each evening. This pointed to a source of contamination outside the power plant, which turned out to be radon levels of 100,000

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In the United Kingdom, residential radon would be, after cigarette smoking, the second most frequent cause of lung cancer deaths: according to models, 83.9% of deaths are attributed to smoking only, 1.0% to radon only, and 5.5% to a combination of radon and smoking.

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of less than 50 WLM. There is, however, unexplained heterogeneity in these results (whose confidence interval do not always overlap). The size of the radon-related increase in lung cancer risk varied by more than an order of magnitude between the different studies.

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The accuracy of the residential radon test depends upon the lack of ventilation in the house when the sample is being obtained. Thus, the occupants will be instructed not to open windows, etc., for ventilation during the pendency of test, usually two days or more.

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higher than typical. Radon soon became a standard homeowner concern, though typical domestic exposures are two to three orders of magnitude lower (100 Bq/m, or 2.5 pCi/L), making individual testing essential to assessment of radon risk in any particular dwelling.

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Positive-pressure ventilation systems can be combined with a heat exchanger to recover energy in the process of exchanging air with the outside, and simply exhausting basement air to the outside is not necessarily a viable solution as this can draw radon gas

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Radon levels in indoor air can be lowered in several ways, from sealing cracks in floors and walls to increasing the ventilation rate of the building. Listed here are some of the accepted ways of reducing the amount of radon accumulating in a dwelling:

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The BEIR VI committee adopted the linear no-threshold assumption based on its understanding of the mechanisms of radon-induced lung cancer, but recognized that this understanding is incomplete and that therefore the evidence for this assumption is not

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death, the absolute risks of lung cancer by age 75 at usual radon concentrations of 0, 100, and 400 Bq/m would be about 0.4%, 0.5%, and 0.7%, respectively, for lifelong nonsmokers, and about 25 times greater (10%, 12%, and 16%) for cigarette smokers.

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breaks or damage, perhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.

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and high concentrations of radon, with 21,000 radon-induced U.S. lung cancer deaths per year—second only to cigarette smoking. Thus in geographic areas where radon is present in heightened concentrations, radon is considered a significant

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Cohort studies are impractical for the study of domestic radon exposure. With the expected effect of small exposures being very small, the direct observation of this effect would require huge cohorts: the populations of whole countries.

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greatly from place to place. In the open air, it ranges from 1 to 100 Bq/m, even less (0.1 Bq/m) above the ocean. In caves, aerated mines, or poorly ventilated dwellings, its concentration can climb to 20–2,000 Bq/m.

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has a very long half-life (4.5 billion years), which is the time required for one-half of uranium to break down. Thus, uranium and radon will continue to occur for millions of years at about the same concentrations as they do now.

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systems. Generally, the indoor radon concentrations increase as ventilation rates decrease. In a well ventilated place, the radon concentration tends to align with outdoor values (typically 10 Bq/m, ranging from 1 to 100 Bq/m).

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in a closed building. An initial short-term test of 2 to 90 days allows residents to be informed quickly in case a home contains high levels of radon. Long-term tests provide a better estimate of the average annual radon level.

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study also assumes 60 patients represents all patients. This study also did not record if any patients taken any NSAIDS. The study also claims that the therapeutic benefit comes from the "integration of radon into the skin".

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have high enough natural radiation levels that nuclear licensed sites cannot be built there—the sites would already exceed legal limits before they opened, and the natural topsoil and rock would all have to be disposed of as

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content in uncovered dumps and tailing ponds can be easily released into the atmosphere. Modern mining techniques, including better ventilation for underground mines, routine radiation monitoring as well as technologies like

778:. Lung cancer is the only observed consequence of high concentration radon exposures; both human and animal studies indicate that the lung and respiratory system are the primary targets of radon daughter-induced toxicity. 1398:

recommends that action should be taken starting from concentrations of 400 Bq/m (11 pCi/L) for older dwellings and 200 Bq/m (5 pCi/L) for newer ones. After publication of the North American and European Pooling Studies,

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Heterogeneities are possibly due to systematic errors in exposure ascertainment, unaccounted for differences in the study populations (genetic, lifestyle, etc.), or confounding mine exposures. There are a number of

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has the highest average radon concentration in the United States; studies performed there have demonstrated a 50% increased lung cancer risk with prolonged radon exposure above the EPA's action level of 4 pCi/L.

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Given the radon distribution observed in dwellings, and the dose-effect relationship proposed by a given model, a theoretical number of victims can be calculated, and serve as a basis for public health policies.

422:

present in rocks. Likewise, the saturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than the unsaturated zone because of diffusional losses to the atmosphere. As a below-ground source of water, some

1247:

being very short-lived, the seed is left in place. After 11 half-lives (42 days), radon radioactivity is at 1/2 000 of its original level. At this stage, the predominant residual activity is due to the radon

1129:

effects of domestic radon exposure have not reported a hormetic effect; including for example the respected "Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study" of Field et al. (2000), which also used sophisticated radon exposure

1005:

cancer to develop, so that determining the past exposure of a case is usually very approximative. The health effect of radon can only be demonstrated through theory and statistical observation.

803:

combined effect exceeds the sum of their independent effects. This is because the daughters of radon often become attached to smoke and dust particles, and are then able to lodge in the lungs.

3117:

Thompson, Richard E.; Nelson, Donald F.; Popkin, Joel H.; Popkin, Zenaida (2008). "Case-Control Study of Lung Cancer Risk from Residential Radon Exposure in Worcester County, Massachusetts".

1575:. They further argued that the results of mitigation are inconsistent with lowered cancer risk, especially when indoor radon levels are in the lower range of the actionable exposure level. 945:

There is great uncertainty in applying risk estimates derived from studies in miners to the effects of residential radon, and direct estimates of the risks of residential radon are needed.

3821:

Falkenbach A, Kovacs J, Franke A, Jörgens K, Ammer K, et al. (2005). "Radon therapy for the treatment of rheumatic diseases--review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials".

684:

studies of uranium miners and other hard-rock miners employed in the 1940s and 1950s. Residues from processing of uranium ore can also be a source of radon. Radon resulting from the high

1120:

in lung cancer risk amongst people exposed to low levels (0–150 Bq/m) of radon gas; levels typically encountered in 90% of American homes—an apparent support for the idea of radiation

321:

In mining contexts, radon concentrations can be much higher. Ventilation regulations try to maintain concentrations in uranium mines under the "working level", and under 3 WL (546 pCi

309:

Radon concentrations found in natural environments are much too low to be detected by chemical means: for example, a 1000 Bq/m (relatively high) concentration corresponds to 0.17

2530:

Roscoe, R. J.; Steenland, K.; Halperin, W. E.; Beaumont, J. J.; Waxweiler, R. J. (August 4, 1989). "Lung cancer mortality among nonsmoking uranium miners exposed to radon daughters".

1807: 5481: 1411:

decrease indoor radon levels. For instance, as radon has a half-life of four days, opening the windows once a day can cut the mean radon concentration to one fourth of its level.

1101:

that, "The dose-response relation seems to be linear without evidence of a threshold, meaning that the lung cancer risk increases proportionally with increasing radon exposure."

732:

miners, because those groups normally have low rates of lung cancer. Safety standards requiring expensive ventilation were not widely implemented or policed during this period.

3491:"Assessing the level of chromosome aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes in long-term resident children under conditions of high exposure to radon and its decay products" 1467:

Long-term kits, taking collections for 3 months up to one year, are also available. An open-land test kit can test radon emissions from the land before construction begins. A

1823: 4225:

Thompson, R.E.; Nelson, D.F.; Popkin, J.H.; Popkin, Z. (2008). "Case-control study of lung cancer risk from residential radon exposure in Worcester County, Massachusetts".

1161:

through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and radon. The practice is controversial because of the well-documented ill effects of high-dose radiation on the body.

178:. As a frame of reference, typical domestic exposures are about 100 Bq/m indoors and 10–20 Bq/m outdoors. In the US, radon concentrations are often measured in 5525: 2424: 1541:

may benefit from a radon collector installed under a "radon barrier, or membrane" (a sheet of plastic or laminated polyethylene film that covers the crawl space floor).

1429:

issued as guidelines (1988) that remedial action should be considered when the radon activity exceeded 100 kBq/m in a building, and remedial action should be considered

3312:

Smith, B. J.; Zhang, L.; Field, W. R. (2007). "Iowa radon leukaemia study: a hierarchical population risk model for spatially correlated exposure measured with error".

851: 5085: 3415: 1994: 1668: 1529:

The half-life for radon is 3.8 days, indicating that once the source is removed, the hazard will be greatly reduced within approximately one month (seven half-lives).

40:, radon is one of the densest substances that remains a gas under normal conditions, and is considered to be a health hazard due to its radioactivity. Its most stable 3646:

Principes, construction et présentation des coefficients de risque proposés par la CIPR 65 et le BEIR VI, précisions sur les incertitudes associées. Philippe PIRARD.

1145:

via inhalation or ingestion. Nevertheless, epidemiological evidence shows a clear link between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence of lung cancer.

2948: 980:

is of particular concern because, although overall very rare, where it does occur it often does so in high concentrations. Some of these areas, including parts of

910:

recommends a reference value of 9 nSv (Bq·h/m). For example, a person living (7000 h/year) in a concentration of 40 Bq/m receives an effective dose of 1 mSv/year.

543:

Radon exists in every U.S. state, and about 6% of American houses have elevated levels. The highest average radon concentrations in the United States are found in

2615: 1516:

Installing sub-membrane depressurization radon mitigation systems, which vacuum radon from under a membrane that covers the ground used in crawlspace foundations;

1456:

at Kansas State University or through state radon offices. Information about local radon zones and specific state contact information can be accessed through the

724:

and other pathologies as a result of high levels of exposure to radon in the mid-1950s. The increased incidence of lung cancer was particularly pronounced among

5442: 5178: 5106: 5000: 4931: 4905: 4633: 4460: 4440: 4407: 4025:. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 78. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2001. 3537: 3256: 1457: 1415: 1404: 1380: 1472:

testers and are often more expensive than passive testing. The National Radon Proficiency Program (NRPP) provides a list of radon measurement professionals.

806:

It is unknown whether radon causes other types of cancer, but recent studies suggest a need for further studies to assess the relationship between radon and

1407:(EPA) strongly recommends action for any dwelling with a concentration higher than 148 Bq/m (4 pCi/L), and encourages action starting at 74 Bq/m (2 pCi/L). 381:

Its atmospheric concentration varies greatly depending on the season and conditions. For instance, it has been shown to accumulate in the air if there is a

1070: 762: 673:

and that region was the most important German speaking mining area at the time, it is likely the radon induced lung cancers were associated with uranium.

6821: 1368: 1116:

The results of a methodical ten-year-long, case-controlled study of residential radon exposure in Worcester County, Massachusetts, found an apparent 60%

938: 1335:

has since been kept in a conservative approach by the UNSCEAR report and the BEIR VI and BEIR VII publications, essentially for lack of a better choice:

1097:

but lacked the statistical power to clearly identify the threshold at this low level. Notably, the latter deviance from zero at low level convinced the

960:

Average radiation doses received in Germany. Radon accounts for half of the background dose; and medical doses reach the same levels as background dose.

36:, which has been studied by a number of scientific and medical bodies for its effects on health. A naturally-occurring gas formed as a decay product of 5452: 2638: 1113:

was found to be increased slightly above the confidence interval (95% CI) for cumulative radon exposures above 17 WLM (6.2 pC/L=230 Bq/m and above).

2844:

Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to Radon, Board on Radiation Effects Research, Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council (1999).

913:

Studies of miners exposed to radon and its decay products provide a direct basis for assessing their lung cancer risk. The BEIR VI report, entitled

5471: 996:

This led to a health policy problem: what is the health impact of exposure to radon concentrations (100 Bq/m) typically found in some buildings?

3553:"December 13). Association of school district policies for radon testing and radon-resistant new construction practices with indoor radon zones" 1210:", where people sit for minutes or hours in a high-radon atmosphere in the belief that low doses of radiation will invigorate or energize them. 1661: 2883:. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation UNSCEAR 2006 Report to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes. 5518: 5293: 4971: 4768: 4617: 3628: 2857: 2734: 2565: 2446: 2310:

Harrison, Kathryn; Hoberg, George (1991). "Setting the Environmental Agenda in Canada and the United States: The Cases of Dioxin and Radon".

2149: 725: 4850: 4317: 2478:"Pb-210 Kontamination von Goldschmuck – Enstehung, Dosis, Effekte (Pb-210 contaminated golden Jewelries – Origin, Doses, Effects)" 4803: 1672: 1384: 253:

A cumulative exposure of 1 WLM is roughly equivalent to living one year in an atmosphere with a radon concentration of 230 Bq/m.

5143: 2978: 1804: 649:

Though at the time radon itself was not understood to be the cause—indeed, neither it nor radiation had even been discovered—mineralogist

4799: 4086: 1604: 120: 1978: 339:

Radon emanates naturally from the ground and from some building materials all over the world, wherever there are traces of uranium or

2798:

Lubin JH, Boice JD, Edling C, et al. (1995). "Lung cancer in radon-exposed miners and estimation of risk from indoor exposure".

1693: 6831: 6826: 5476: 2279: 1859: 881: 332:

per liter of air; 20.2 kBq/m measured from 1976 to 1985) 95 percent of the time. The concentration in the air at the (unventilated)

2608:

Lung Cancer Risk Associated with Low Chronic Radon Exposure: Results from the French Uranium Miners Cohort and the European Project

1834: 5098: 3769: 3650: 2517: 5511: 4710:

Darby, S. C.; Council, National Research (1989). "Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters-BEIR IV".

1124:. In that study, a significant result (95% CI) was obtained for the 75–150 Bq/m category. The study paid close attention to the 496:: the larger concentrations have a disproportionately greater weight. Indoor radon concentration is usually assumed to follow a 3666: 95: 1507:

Improving the ventilation of the dwelling and avoiding the transport of radon from the basement, or ground, into living areas;

5403: 4399: 2204: 2200: 2065: 1966: 2501: 1547:

E-2121 is a standard for reducing radon in homes as far as practicable below 4 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) in indoor air.

515:) that the radon concentration is expected to be more than a hundred times the mean concentration for 2 to 3% of the cases. 3215: 2117: 3618: 4488: 3692:"Radon in homes and risk of lung cancer: collaborative analysis of individual data from 13 European case-control studies" 2371: 2175: 3739: 2956: 863: 508: 2217: 1513:

Installing sub-slab depressurization radon mitigation systems, which vacuum radon from under slab-on-grade foundations;

518:

The so-called "Watras incident" in 1984 is named for American construction engineer Stanley Watras, an employee at the

6836: 2398: 1584: 519: 4637: 1331:

increases linearly as the exposure increases. This was the basis for the model proposed by BEIR IV in the 1980s. The

5200:"ASTM E2121-03 Standard Practice for Installing Radon Mitigation Systems in Existing Low-Rise Residential Buildings" 507:

The mean concentration ranges from less than 10 Bq/m to over 100 Bq/m in some European countries. Typical

3871:"Long-term efficacy of radon spa therapy in rheumatoid arthritis-a randomized, sham-controlled study and follow-up" 1886:

Sperrin, Malcolm; Gillmore, Gavin; Denman, Tony (2001). "Radon concentration variations in a Mendip cave cluster".

705: 657:). In 1879, the "wasting" was identified as lung cancer by Herting and Hesse in their investigation of miners from 388:

Because atmospheric radon concentrations are very low, radon-rich water exposed to air continually loses radon by

6816: 5156: 4836: 4667: 4347: 4161: 3770:"Lung cancer attributable to indoor radon exposure in france: effect of the risk models and uncertainty analysis" 2982: 2901:"Quantitative relationship between silica exposure and lung cancer mortality in German uranium miners, 1946–2003" 1426: 1332: 1098: 1066: 2477: 2243: 1359:

According to these models, radon exposure is thought to be the second major cause of lung cancer after smoking.

611:

Wearing such a contaminated ring could lead to a skin exposure of 10 to 100 millirad/day (0.004 to 0.04 mSv/h).

574:

have been used for landfills and were subsequently built on, resulting in possible increased exposure to radon.

468:

is processed is often one of the more contaminated areas, because radon has a similar boiling point to propane.

4752: 775: 512: 301: 4268: 2899:

Sogl, M; Taeger, D; Pallapies, D; Brüning, T; Dufey, F; Schnelzer, M; Straif, K; Walsh, L; Kreuzer, M (2012).

2091: 4995: 4455: 5456: 5269: 4955:

Evaluation of Guidelines for Exposures to Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials

4516:

Elkind, Mm (1994). "Radon-induced cancer: a cell-based model of tumorigenesis due to protracted exposures".

2952: 1572: 1013: 990: 790:

with some associated gamma radiation too, that can damage vital molecules in lung cells, by either creating

662: 382: 2654: 1394:

The World Health Organization has recommended a radon reference concentration of 100 Bq/m (2.7 pCi/L). The

5380: 5371: 5355: 5346: 5330: 5321: 3438:

Tong, J; Qin, L; Jianxiang, Y; et al. (2012). "Environmental Radon Exposure and Childhood Leukemia".

2292: 918: 497: 5424: 5088:, U.S. Public Health Service, In collaboration with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1990. 4106:"Residential radon and risk of lung cancer: A combined analysis of 7 North American case-control studies" 2009: 1567:

The high cost of radon remediation in the 1980s led to detractors arguing that the issue is a financial

716:

of uranium, underground uranium mines may have high concentrations of radon. Many uranium miners in the

548: 5245:"Radon". United States Environmental Protection Agency. www.epa.gov/radon. Accessed on 10 October 2017. 2153: 523: 336:

Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq/m (about 1.2 nCi/L) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m (about 4.3 nCi/L).

5489: 696:

The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium mining, first in the

5554: 5081: 4105: 4038:"Test of the linear-no threshold theory of radiation carcinogenesis for inhaled radon decay products" 3944: 3447: 1676: 1229: 977: 555:, Ireland. Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in the United States due to significant 424: 3357:"Incidence of leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma in Czech uranium miners: a case-cohort study" 4829: 3070:"Health Effects of High Radon Environments in Central Europe: Another Test for the LNT Hypothesis?" 2355: 1125: 552: 76: 2583: 2454: 1403:

proposed a new guideline that lowers their action level from 800 to 200 Bq/m (22 to 5 pCi/L). The

563:

and deposited it as soils making up the rich Iowa farmland. Many cities within the state, such as

378:), its concentration decreases very quickly when the distance from the production area increases. 4727: 4325: 4250: 4165: 4136: 4068: 3846: 3471: 3337: 3142: 3050: 2335: 2327: 2029: 1988: 1544: 1323: 1214: 1191: 1105: 1089:

The most direct way to assess the risks posed by radon in homes is through case-control studies.

1082: 1040: 1035: 1028: 823:

adults, resulting in more gas exchange and more potential opportunities for radon to be inhaled.

741: 658: 630: 536: 108: 84: 53: 5465: 5160: 4745:

National Research Council (US) Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to Radon (BEIR VI) (1999).

2269: 5412:: BEIR VI. Committee on Health Risks of Exposure to Radon (BEIR VI), National Research Council 4807: 3279: 2986: 948:

As with the miner data, the same confounding factor of other carcinogens such as dust applies.

476: 6405: 4977: 4967: 4953: 4774: 4764: 4613: 4568: 4533: 4242: 4207: 4128: 4090: 4060: 3999: 3960: 3892: 3838: 3799: 3721: 3624: 3584: 3512: 3463: 3386: 3329: 3193: 3134: 3099: 3042: 2930: 2853: 2815: 2780: 2730: 2707: 2575: 2547: 2275: 2047: 1974: 1947: 1757: 1225: 713: 608:, were melted down and made into a small number of jewelry pieces, such as rings, in the U.S. 567:, have passed requirements for radon-resistant construction in new homes. In a few locations, 29: 5418: 4875: 4373: 3617:

a report of a Task Group of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. (1994).

2880: 6469: 6174: 6003: 5832: 5751: 5670: 5643: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5406:, Draft for Public Comment, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 2008 4959: 4756: 4719: 4605: 4560: 4525: 4234: 4197: 4120: 4052: 4017: 3991: 3952: 3882: 3830: 3789: 3781: 3711: 3703: 3574: 3564: 3502: 3455: 3376: 3368: 3321: 3287: 3183: 3173: 3126: 3089: 3081: 3034: 2920: 2912: 2807: 2770: 2697: 2689: 2646: 2539: 2319: 2037: 2021: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1895: 1749: 1594: 1489: 1203: 1109: 690: 432: 4663: 4551:

Moolgavkar SH, Knudson AG (1981). "Mutation and cancer: a model for human carcinogenesis".

4435: 3980:"Residential radon exposure and lung cancer risk: commentary on Cohen's county-based study" 1056: 52:

of 3.8 days. Due to its high radioactivity, it has been less well studied by chemists, but

5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5493: 3916:. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. February 6, 2008 3162:"Meta-analysis of thirty-two case–control and two ecological radon studies of lung cancer" 2505: 1830: 1811: 1697: 1376: 1252:

Pb, whose half-life (22.3 years) is 2 000 times that of radon, and its descendants Bi and

1233: 1207: 1187: 787: 637:

The health effects of high exposure to radon in mines, where exposures reaching 1,000,000

560: 436: 175: 99: 4928:"A Citizen's Guide to Radon: The Guide to Protecting Yourself and Your Family from Radon" 3935:

Cohen BL (1990). "A test of the linear-no threshold theory of radiation carcinogenesis".

3620:

ICRP Publication 65: Protection Against Radon-222 at Home and at work, Annals of the ICRP

3489:

Druzhinin, V; Sinitsky, MY; Larionov, AV; Volobaev, VP; Minina, VI; Golovina, TA (2015).

2401:. Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa. Archived from 2123:. Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa. Archived from 1863: 1153:

In the late 20th century and early 21st century, some "health mines" were established in

693:

have helped decrease the incidence of radon exposure among miners in subsequent decades.

3948: 3647: 3451: 3252: 3008: 993:. People in affected localities can receive up to 10 mSv per year background radiation. 6841: 5534: 4587:

Numéro thématique – Impact sanitaire du radon domestique: de la connaissance à l'action

4202: 4185: 4124: 3807: 3794: 3579: 3552: 3381: 3356: 3188: 3161: 3094: 3069: 2925: 2900: 2702: 2677: 2042: 1942: 1917: 1740:

Yamamoto, M.; Sakaguchi, A; Sasaki, K; Hirose, K; Igarashi, Y; Kim, C (2006). "Radon".

1395: 1310: 1154: 677: 650: 551:

areas in southeastern Pennsylvania. Some of the highest readings have been recorded in

501: 389: 60: 4238: 3995: 3956: 3913: 3716: 3691: 3130: 3013:. Vol. 43. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1988. p. 173. 6810: 6628: 5224:. The National Environmental Health Association -- National Radon Proficiency Program 4056: 2637:

Schläger, Martin; K. Murtazaev; B. Rakhmatuloev; P. Zoriy; B. Heuel-Fabianek (2016).

2543: 2339: 1599: 1493: 1450: 1400: 1249: 1244: 1162: 985: 670: 448: 440: 408: 187: 166:

as observed in Japan as a function of time, due to variations in radon concentration.

4586: 4254: 4072: 3887: 3870: 3850: 3670: 3475: 3341: 3146: 3054: 1794:. Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, US Environmental Protection Agency. June 2003. 1387:

has reported that over 20,000 Americans die each year of radon-related lung cancer.

6682: 6511: 6216: 5616: 5549: 4585:Évaluation de l'impact sanitaire de l'exposition domestique au radon en France, in 4400:"Protecting People and Families from Radon: a Federal Action Plan for Saving Lives" 4140: 2370:

Price, Phillip N.; Nero, A.; Revzan, K.; Apte, M.; Gelman, A.; Boscardin, W. John.

2069: 1306: 1302: 1301:

Studies have been made since the 1980s, both on epidemiological studies and in the

1253: 1198:, Germany. Inhalation therapy is carried out in Gasteiner-Heilstollen, Austria, in 1195: 1021: 1009: 791: 766: 717: 681: 594: 532: 393: 290: 179: 130: 4186:"Residential radon gas exposure and lung cancer: the Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study" 4089:. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. September 2008. Archived from 3407: 2979:"UI professor contributes to WHO's first comprehensive global initiative on radon" 1753: 4037: 3459: 2846: 2606: 2498: 1788: 6736: 6700: 6691: 6601: 6583: 6574: 5611: 5413: 4601:

Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2

3707: 3687: 3222: 2201:

Analysis And Modelling Of Indoor Radon Distributions Using Extreme Values Theory

2124: 1719: 1538: 1379:, and accounts for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone. The 1372: 1237: 1179: 1175: 956: 782: 721: 697: 666: 460: 333: 313:

per cubic meter. The average concentration of radon in the atmosphere is about 6

103: 68: 64: 21: 3602:

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2000).

781:

Radon has a short half-life (3.8 days) and decays into other solid particulate

6745: 6673: 6646: 6619: 6279: 6261: 6234: 6065: 6056: 5795: 5255: 4927: 4529: 3834: 3085: 3038: 2775: 2758: 2650: 2375: 2323: 2221: 1899: 1589: 1568: 1468: 926:

than that value. In other words, the absence of ill effects (or even positive

642: 624: 556: 428: 5421:, with scientific annexes: Annex B: Exposures from natural radiation sources. 5174: 5146:. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed on 10 October 2017. 4564: 3743: 3604:

Report to the General Assembly, with scientific annexes – Annex B, § 153

2811: 2579: 2402: 6754: 6727: 6718: 6565: 6547: 6538: 6529: 6315: 6225: 6198: 6146: 6092: 6074: 6038: 6018: 5957: 5894: 5838: 5777: 5766: 5685: 5636: 5626: 5621: 5054: 4688: 4294: 3507: 3490: 1609: 1441: 1158: 1130: 970: 638: 564: 528: 504:

is generally used to estimate the "average" radon concentration in an area.

456: 364: 171: 49: 45: 33: 5438: 4981: 4778: 4246: 4211: 4132: 4003: 3896: 3842: 3803: 3725: 3588: 3569: 3516: 3467: 3390: 3355:

Rericha, V.; Kulich, M.; Rericha, R.; Shore, D. L.; Sandler, D. P. (2007).

3333: 3197: 3138: 3103: 3046: 2934: 2784: 1951: 1761: 1525:

Installing a positive pressurization or positive supply ventilation system.

1086:

associations, as well as no significant associations, have been suggested.

5464:

An article by the International Association of Certified Home Inspectors (

5199: 4641: 4599: 4572: 4537: 4064: 3964: 3533: 2819: 2711: 2693: 2551: 2051: 1206:, United States. In the United States and Europe there are several "radon 6709: 6610: 6493: 6475: 6450: 6441: 6414: 6387: 6351: 6342: 6324: 6252: 6243: 6137: 6009: 5975: 5885: 5876: 5867: 5858: 5813: 5732: 5714: 5649: 3178: 2916: 1121: 981: 927: 807: 709: 571: 493: 356: 310: 72: 411:, because the radon is continuously replenished by radioactive decay of 6791: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6664: 6655: 6637: 6592: 6520: 6502: 6432: 6378: 6360: 6333: 6306: 6288: 6270: 6180: 6110: 6083: 6047: 6029: 5993: 5984: 5966: 5948: 5847: 5786: 5676: 5631: 4731: 3654: 2331: 2033: 701: 568: 465: 344: 340: 41: 4351: 1371:

in the United States, radon would thus be the second leading cause of

6556: 6484: 6369: 6297: 6207: 6189: 6155: 6119: 6101: 5930: 5921: 5912: 5804: 5757: 5723: 5705: 5660: 5375: 5350: 5325: 3785: 3372: 3325: 1199: 1182:, Austria. Radium-rich springs are also used in traditional Japanese 1157:, which attracted people seeking relief from health problems such as 729: 685: 444: 37: 4723: 3979: 2353:

Blaugrund, Andrea (April 9, 1988). "Confusion mounting over radon".

2025: 1178:, Czech Republic, but even before radon discovery they were used in 4856:. European Environment and Health Information System. December 2009 4746: 4609: 4019:

Ionizing Radiation, Part 2: Some Internally Deposited Radionuclides

1228:, but for the most part has been replaced by radionuclides made in 6459: 6164: 5822: 5696: 5498: 4963: 4760: 3291: 2676:

Roscoe, R. J.; Deddens, J. A.; Salvan, A.; Schnorr, T. M. (1995).

2639:"Radon exhalation of the uranium tailings dump Digmai, Tajikistan" 1440: 1183: 1142: 1055: 653:

recommended ventilation of mines to avoid this mountain sickness (

623: 475: 348: 300: 25: 5503: 5461: 3557:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

2244:"Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces" 2092:"Radon-222 as a tracer in groundwater-surface water interactions" 6423: 6396: 5939: 5903: 5741: 4958:. National Research Council, Commission on Life Sciences. 1999. 3869:

Franke, A; Reiner, L; Pratzel, Hg; Franke, T; Resch, Kl (2000).

1971:

Handbook Of Radon In Buildings: Detection, Safety, & Control

1360: 680:; significant excess lung cancer deaths have been identified in 629:

inconclusive and appears slightly beneficial in this study (see

544: 352: 5507: 5314: 5175:"Recommended Residential Radon Mitigation Standard of Practice" 5033: 2425:"Poster Issued by the New York Department of Health (ca. 1981)" 2150:"The Clinical Principles Of Balneology & Physical Medicine" 2008:

Steck, Daniel J.; Field, R. William; Lynch, Charles F. (1999).

676:

Beyond mining in general, radon is a particular problem in the

75:. Uranium has been present since the Earth was formed, and its 6128: 834: 795: 185:

The mining industry traditionally measures exposure using the

4456:"The National Radon Action Plan: A Strategy for Saving Lives" 814:

minutes, only 1% of the absorbed amount remains in the body.

170:

Radon concentration in the atmosphere is usually measured in

5434: 4901: 4800:"Surgeon General Releases National Health Advisory On Radon" 1060:

A controversial epidemiological study, unexpectedly showing

774:

body are caused by its radioactivity and consequent risk of

83:

Radon is responsible for the majority of public exposure to

5486: 5221: 4087:"Toxicological Profile for Radon, Draft for Public Comment" 511:

found in studies range between 2 and 3, meaning (given the

5447: 5294:

New Jersey Opinion; bad advice about the problems of radon

1522:

Sealing floors and walls (not a stand-alone solution); and

5543: 4489:"National Radon Action Plan: A Strategy for Saving Lives" 3280:"Attachment of radon progeny to cigarette-smoke aerosols" 2520:, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2000. 1327:

is unclear, the choice of a model is very controversial.

930:

effects) at 100 Bq/m are compatible with the known data.

5472:

Radon and Lung Health from the American Lung Association

5425:

Should you measure the radon concentration in your home?

5326:"Skeptoid #539: Radiation Hormesis: Is It Good for You?" 4273:

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)

3160:

Dobrzyński, L.; Fornalski, K.W.; Reszczyńska J. (2018).

1916:

Zdrojewicz, Zygmunt; Strzelczyk, Jadwiga (Jodi) (2006).

1174:

Radioactive water baths have been applied since 1906 in

1093:

cancers are caused by smoking than are caused by radon.

2374:. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Archived from 2293:"Nuclear reaction: why do citizens fear nuclear power?" 1720:"Report: EPA's Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes" 859: 645:' 1530 description of a wasting disease of miners, the 5448:

Radon Information from the UK Health Protection Agency

4902:"United States Environmental Protection Agency: Radon" 3768:

Catelinois O, Rogel A, Laurier D, et al. (2006).

2605:

Tirmarche, M.; Laurier, D.; Mitton, N.; Gellas, J. M.

1510:

Installing crawlspace or basement ventilation systems;

593:-contaminated gold, from gold seeds that were used in 4996:"EPA Map of Radon Zones and Supplemental Information" 4184:

Field, RW; Steck, DJ; Smith, BJ; et al. (2000).

2499:

Le radon, aspects historiques et perception du risque

2427:. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. October 12, 2021 5317:. Kansas State University. Accessed 17 October 2017. 3667:"WHO air quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edition" 3010:

Summaries & Evaluations – RADON – (Group 1)

2176:"Potential for Elevated Radiation Levels In Propane" 1671:, U.S. Public Health Service, In collaboration with 431:—contain significant amounts of radon. The towns of 343:, and particularly in regions with soils containing 2894: 2892: 2890: 492:The distribution of radon concentrations is highly 2845: 195:(WLM): 1 WL equals any combination of short-lived 2727:A Century of X-rays and Radioactivity in Medicine 2068:. United States Geological Survey. Archived from 480:Typical Lognormal radon distribution in dwellings 5477:Radon's impact on your health – Lung Association 5086:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 4295:"Radon Health Mines: Boulder and Basin, Montana" 3978:Heath CW, Bond PD, Hoel DG, Meinhold CB (2004). 3742:. American Nuclear Society. 2007. Archived from 3416:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 1669:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 1425:For radon concentration in drinkable water, the 1256:, totalling 0.03% of the initial seed activity. 1224:Radon has been produced commercially for use in 1073:concluded that these analyses "can be rejected." 289:can be measured. The rate of deposition of this 182:per liter (pCi/L), with 1 pCi/L = 37 Bq/m. 20:are harmful, and include an increased chance of 1519:Installing a radon sump system in the basement; 447:and 4,000 Bq/L in the village of Lurisia ( 3440:Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 2267:LaFavore, Michael. "Radon: The Quiet Killer." 2218:"Data Collection and Statistical Computations" 1141:"Radon therapy" is an intentional exposure to 5519: 5443:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5179:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5107:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5001:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4932:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4906:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4461:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4441:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4408:United States Environmental Protection Agency 4324:. National Geographic Society. Archived from 3763: 3761: 3538:United States Environmental Protection Agency 3257:United States Environmental Protection Agency 2759:"Radon: a likely carcinogen at all exposures" 2205:Indoor Radon in Hungary (Lognormal Mysticism) 1789:"EPA Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes" 1416:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1405:United States Environmental Protection Agency 1381:United States Environmental Protection Agency 848:The examples and perspective in this section 92:EPA's Assessment of Risks from Radon in Homes 8: 3278:Biermann, A.H.; Sawyer, S.R. (May 1, 1995). 3247: 3245: 3243: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2848:Health Effects of Exposure to Radon: BEIR VI 1993:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1918:"Radon Treatment Controversy, Dose Response" 484:Typical domestic exposures are of around 100 5419:UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly 5289: 5287: 4851:"Radon Levels in Dwellings: Fact Sheet 4.6" 3682: 3680: 3209: 3207: 2532:Journal of the American Medical Association 2274:New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Inc., 1986. 1288:Policies and scientific modelling worldwide 1071:International Agency for Research on Cancer 903:Effective dose and cancer risks estimations 763:International Agency for Research on Cancer 359:is the major source of radon in buildings. 191:(WL) index, and the cumulative exposure in 5526: 5512: 5504: 4518:International Journal of Radiation Biology 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1356:strongly dependent on the model retained. 1065:too small. Among other expert panels, the 1052:Epidemiology studies of domestic exposures 1020:The best proofs come from observations of 866:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 305:Radon concentration next to a uranium mine 4718:(4). National Research Council: 1341–42. 4664:"Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers" 4201: 3886: 3864: 3862: 3860: 3793: 3715: 3690:, Hill D, Auvinen A, et al. (2005). 3642: 3640: 3578: 3568: 3506: 3380: 3187: 3177: 3093: 2924: 2774: 2701: 2480:. PhD Thesis (University Medicine Berlin) 2041: 1941: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1632: 1630: 882:Learn how and when to remove this message 5487:EPA Federal Radon Mitigation Action Plan 5462:Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon 5077: 5075: 4179: 4177: 4175: 1965:Mueller Associates, SYSCON Corporation, 955: 559:that ground the granitic rocks from the 129: 6626: 5351:"Skeptoid #696: Radon in Your Basement" 3908: 3906: 2678:"Mortality among Navajo uranium miners" 2372:"Predicted County Median Concentration" 1934:10.2203/dose-response.05-025.Zdrojewicz 1783: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1626: 1108:epidemiologic radon study performed by 396:generally has higher concentrations of 278:and other radioisotopes. The levels of 155:. Here is a typical deposition rate of 6680: 6509: 6214: 5453:Frequently Asked Questions About Radon 5427:, Phillip N. Price, Andrew Gelman, in 5241: 5239: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5125: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5019: 4316:Salak, Kara; Nordeman, Landon (2004). 2199:Numerous references, see for instance 1986: 1911: 1909: 1742:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 641:/m can be found, can be recognized in 363:caves or water. Due to its very small 6734: 6698: 6689: 6599: 6581: 6572: 5144:"Consumer's Guide to Radon Reduction" 4483: 4481: 4479: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4394: 4392: 4390: 3528: 3526: 3402: 3400: 2312:Canadian Journal of Political Science 1860:"Le Radon. Un gaz radioactif naturel" 7: 6743: 6671: 6644: 6617: 6277: 6259: 6232: 6063: 6054: 5300:, Leonard A. Cole, October 18, 1987. 5222:"National Radon Proficiency Program" 4804:Surgeon General of the United States 2985:. September 21, 2009. Archived from 2453:. September 13, 1968. Archived from 1673:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1385:Surgeon General of the United States 1367:Based on studies carried out by the 973:without any serious health effects. 712:. Because radon is a product of the 522:in the United States, who triggered 174:per cubic meter (Bq/m), which is an 102:evidence shows a clear link between 6752: 6725: 6716: 6563: 6545: 6536: 6527: 6313: 6223: 6196: 6144: 6090: 6072: 6036: 6016: 5955: 5892: 5793: 5775: 5764: 5683: 5410:Health Effects of Exposure to Radon 4748:Health Effects Of Exposure To Radon 2757:Darby, S; Hill, D; Doll, R (2005). 2181:. National Energy Board. April 1994 1888:Environmental Management and Health 1605:Radiation Exposure Compensation Act 915:Health Effects of Exposure to Radon 121:Radium and radon in the environment 59:Radon-222 is formed as part of the 6770: 6707: 6608: 6491: 6473: 6448: 6439: 6412: 6385: 6340: 6322: 6250: 6241: 6135: 6007: 5973: 5883: 5865: 5856: 5836: 5811: 5429:Statistics: A Guide to the Unknown 5161:"Radon and cancer, fact sheet 291" 4806:. January 13, 2005. Archived from 4604:. National Academies Press. 2006. 4436:"Federal Radon Action Plan (FRAP)" 4203:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010153 4166:"Radon and cancer, fact sheet 291" 4125:10.1097/01.ede.0000152522.80261.e3 3216:"Radon Occurrence and Health Risk" 2399:"The Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study" 2118:"Radon Occurrence and Health Risk" 937:The BEIR VI model proposed by the 267:) released into the air decays to 14: 6822:Chemistry of construction methods 6662: 6653: 6635: 6590: 6500: 6430: 6403: 6376: 6358: 6349: 6331: 6304: 6286: 6268: 6178: 6108: 6081: 6045: 5991: 5982: 5964: 5946: 5874: 5845: 5784: 5730: 5712: 5674: 5647: 5055:"Member Search « AARST-NRPP" 5034:"National radon program services" 4239:10.1097/01.HP.0000288561.53790.5f 4196:(11). Oxford Journals: 1091–102. 4104:Krewski, D.; et al. (2005). 3996:10.1097/01.HP.0000138588.59022.40 3551:Foster, S.; Jones, S. E. (2016). 3408:"Toxicological Profile for Radon" 3361:Environmental Health Perspectives 3131:10.1097/01.HP.0000288561.53790.5f 2682:American Journal of Public Health 2014:Environmental Health Perspectives 1194:. Drinking therapy is applied in 976:Radon as a terrestrial source of 761:Radon-222 has been classified by 32:, colorless, odorless, tasteless 6554: 6518: 6482: 6367: 6295: 6205: 6187: 6117: 6099: 6027: 5928: 5919: 5910: 5755: 5658: 4190:American Journal of Epidemiology 4057:10.1097/00004032-199502000-00002 2949:"Known and Probable Carcinogens" 2852:. National Academy of Sciences. 2544:10.1001/jama.1989.03430050045024 839: 500:on a given territory. Thus, the 6457: 6162: 6153: 5820: 5802: 5721: 5703: 5404:Toxicological Profile for Radon 5315:National radon program services 2725:Mould, Richard Francis (1993). 2518:Radon Toxicity: Who is at Risk? 2010:"Exposure to Atmospheric Radon" 1675:. December 1990. Archived from 1662:"Toxological profile for radon" 1458:Environmental Protection Agency 96:Environmental Protection Agency 6421: 6394: 5937: 5901: 5739: 5694: 5376:"Skeptoid #811: Radon Therapy" 5272:. American Cancer Society, Inc 4830:"WHO handbook on indoor radon" 4638:"Iowa Radon Lung Cancer Study" 1967:Brookhaven National Laboratory 1351:Death toll attributed to radon 1: 6126: 5082:Toxological profile for radon 4233:(3). Health Physics: 228–41. 3957:10.1016/S0013-9351(05)80119-7 3888:10.1093/rheumatology/39.8.894 3253:"Radiation Protection: Radon" 3166:Journal of Radiation Research 3074:Nonlinearity Biol Toxicol Med 1973:. CRC Press. pp. 28–32. 1754:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2005.08.001 1696:. Facts about. Archived from 1537:a dwelling. Homes built on a 665:of the important uranium ore 509:geometric standard deviations 455:particles. Residues from the 293:is dependent on the weather. 5499:Radon Measurement and Safety 5482:A Physician's Guide to Radon 5099:"A citizen's guide to radon" 4318:"59631: Mining for Miracles" 4227:The Radiation Safety Journal 3623:. Vol. 23/2. Elsevier. 3460:10.1080/10937404.2012.689555 2881:"UNSCEAR 2006 Report Vol. I" 2645:. RAD Association: 222–228. 2359:. p. section A, page 1. 1369:National Academy of Sciences 1039:factors, and exposed to the 952:Studies on domestic exposure 939:National Academy of Sciences 520:Limerick nuclear power plant 144:is formed from the decay of 63:i.e. the normal radioactive 3708:10.1136/bmj.38308.477650.63 3027:Cancer Causes & Control 1585:International Radon Project 862:, discuss the issue on the 582:In the early 20th century, 90:According to a 2003 report 6860: 6025: 5854: 5773: 5692: 5656: 5558: 4882:. Health Canada. June 2007 3823:Rheumatology International 3214:Field, R. William (1999). 2643:Radiation and Applications 1810:December 22, 2007, at the 1487: 1448: 1293:Dose-effect model retained 1279:National Radon Action Plan 1212: 706:Southwestern United States 661:, Germany. Given that the 118: 6768: 6468: 6173: 6002: 5831: 5750: 5669: 5642: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5553: 5548: 5541: 5157:World Health Organization 5032:Kansas State University. 4837:World Health Organization 4668:National Cancer Institute 4530:10.1080/09553009414551771 4496:American Lung Association 4162:World Health Organization 3835:10.1007/s00296-003-0419-8 3086:10.1080/15401420390844447 3039:10.1007/s10552-015-0638-9 2983:World Health Organization 2651:10.21175/RadJ.2016.03.041 2324:10.1017/S0008423900013391 1900:10.1108/09566160110404881 1427:World Health Organization 1333:linear no-threshold model 1270:Federal Radon Action Plan 1099:World Health Organization 472:Accumulation in dwellings 6832:Radiation health effects 6827:Environmental toxicology 4753:National Academies Press 4350:. Petros. Archived from 3774:Environ. Health Perspect 2504:October 9, 2007, at the 1805:French CEA note on Radon 1433:if exceeding 400 kBq/m. 818:Health risks in children 776:radiation-induced cancer 383:meteorological inversion 5492:April 12, 2013, at the 5457:National Safety Council 2953:American Cancer Society 2776:10.1023/A:1012518223463 2476:Giehl, Michael (1989). 1573:swine flu scare of 1976 1016:may be of three kinds: 1014:epidemiological methods 991:low-level nuclear waste 753:from poor ventilation. 489:in the same structure. 94:from the United States 18:health effects of radon 4565:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1037 3740:"Radiation Dose Chart" 3669:. 2000. Archived from 3653:November 22, 2009, at 3570:10.3390/ijerph13121234 3314:Statistics in Medicine 2812:10.1093/jnci/87.11.817 2567:Uranium Miners' Cancer 2272:1987 Science Yearbook. 2097:. Lancaster University 2066:"The Geology of Radon" 1446: 1348: 1342: 1074: 961: 634: 498:lognormal distribution 481: 306: 167: 5374:(December 21, 2021). 4640:. EPA. Archived from 3508:10.1093/mutage/gev029 2694:10.2105/AJPH.85.4.535 2574:. December 26, 1960. 1444: 1343: 1337: 1230:particle accelerators 1059: 1027:Alternate proofs are 959: 627: 578:Jewelry contamination 479: 304: 133: 5349:(October 22, 2019). 5202:. ASTM International 5004:. September 17, 2014 4644:on December 25, 2008 4553:J. Natl. Cancer Inst 4269:"ToxFAQs™ for Radon" 3810:on January 20, 2009. 2959:on December 13, 2003 2917:10.1038/bjc.2012.374 2800:J. Natl. Cancer Inst 2378:on December 31, 2007 1824:"Health Hazard Data" 1422:is about $ 700,000. 1243:Radon and its first 1137:Intentional exposure 1029:case-control studies 978:background radiation 919:excess relative risk 860:improve this section 850:may not represent a 549:Appalachian Mountain 193:working level months 5324:(October 4, 2016). 4328:on January 24, 2008 4322:National Geographic 3949:1990ER.....53..193C 3452:2012JTEHB..15..332T 3228:on October 10, 2009 3068:Becker, K. (2003). 2586:on January 15, 2009 2397:Field, R. William. 2356:The Gainesville Sun 2270:Funk & Wagnalls 2130:on October 10, 2009 2116:Field, R. William. 1866:on January 13, 2011 1694:"Facts about Radon" 1571:reminiscent of the 1104:The most elaborate 742:confounding factors 553:Mallow, County Cork 537:orders of magnitude 126:Concentration units 77:most common isotope 71:that terminates in 6837:Soil contamination 5439:radon publications 5270:"Radon and Cancer" 4464:. November 3, 2015 4444:. August 26, 2014. 4354:on January 7, 2002 4297:. Roadside America 3673:on April 16, 2005. 3534:"Radon in Schools" 3284:Information Bridge 3179:10.1093/jrr/rrx061 2763:Annals of Oncology 2447:"Rings and Cancer" 1700:on October 9, 2008 1682:on April 15, 2016. 1447: 1431:without long delay 1340:all circumstances. 1324:radiation hormesis 1240:(Po, Pb, Bi, Po). 1215:Radiation hormesis 1192:Tottori Prefecture 1083:ecological studies 1075: 1041:ecological fallacy 1036:ecological studies 962: 831:Childhood exposure 720:region contracted 659:Schneeberg, Saxony 635: 631:radiation hormesis 524:radiation monitors 482: 307: 168: 85:ionizing radiation 6804: 6803: 6797: 6796: 6763: 6762: 5414:available on-line 4973:978-0-309-06297-8 4770:978-0-309-05645-8 4619:978-0-309-09156-5 4093:on July 18, 2001. 4036:Cohen BL (1995). 3630:978-0-08-042475-0 2859:978-0-309-05645-8 2736:978-0-7503-0224-1 2299:. April 22, 1997. 2207:for a discussion. 1884:See for instance 1226:radiation therapy 1000:Detection methods 892: 891: 884: 714:radioactive decay 708:during the early 678:mining of uranium 385:and little wind. 6849: 6817:Building biology 6773: 6772: 6759: 6757: 6750: 6748: 6741: 6739: 6732: 6730: 6723: 6721: 6714: 6712: 6705: 6703: 6696: 6694: 6687: 6685: 6678: 6676: 6669: 6667: 6660: 6658: 6651: 6649: 6642: 6640: 6633: 6631: 6624: 6622: 6615: 6613: 6606: 6604: 6597: 6595: 6588: 6586: 6579: 6577: 6570: 6568: 6561: 6559: 6552: 6550: 6543: 6541: 6534: 6532: 6525: 6523: 6516: 6514: 6507: 6505: 6498: 6496: 6489: 6487: 6480: 6478: 6464: 6462: 6455: 6453: 6446: 6444: 6437: 6435: 6428: 6426: 6419: 6417: 6410: 6408: 6401: 6399: 6392: 6390: 6383: 6381: 6374: 6372: 6365: 6363: 6356: 6354: 6347: 6345: 6338: 6336: 6329: 6327: 6320: 6318: 6311: 6309: 6302: 6300: 6293: 6291: 6284: 6282: 6275: 6273: 6266: 6264: 6257: 6255: 6248: 6246: 6239: 6237: 6230: 6228: 6221: 6219: 6212: 6210: 6203: 6201: 6194: 6192: 6185: 6183: 6169: 6167: 6160: 6158: 6151: 6149: 6142: 6140: 6133: 6131: 6124: 6122: 6115: 6113: 6106: 6104: 6097: 6095: 6088: 6086: 6079: 6077: 6070: 6068: 6061: 6059: 6052: 6050: 6043: 6041: 6034: 6032: 6023: 6021: 6014: 6012: 5998: 5996: 5989: 5987: 5980: 5978: 5971: 5969: 5962: 5960: 5953: 5951: 5944: 5942: 5935: 5933: 5926: 5924: 5917: 5915: 5908: 5906: 5899: 5897: 5890: 5888: 5881: 5879: 5872: 5870: 5863: 5861: 5852: 5850: 5843: 5841: 5827: 5825: 5818: 5816: 5809: 5807: 5800: 5798: 5791: 5789: 5782: 5780: 5771: 5769: 5762: 5760: 5746: 5744: 5737: 5735: 5728: 5726: 5719: 5717: 5710: 5708: 5701: 5699: 5690: 5688: 5681: 5679: 5665: 5663: 5654: 5652: 5544: 5528: 5521: 5514: 5505: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5301: 5291: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5252: 5246: 5243: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5207: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5103: 5095: 5089: 5079: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5040: 5029: 5014: 5013: 5011: 5009: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4939: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4908:. August 8, 2007 4898: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4880:It's Your Health 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4855: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4834: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4785: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4674: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4596: 4590: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4548: 4542: 4541: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4493: 4485: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4432: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4404: 4396: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4313: 4307: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4205: 4181: 4170: 4169: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4110: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4042: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4014: 4008: 4007: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3910: 3901: 3900: 3890: 3866: 3855: 3854: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3806:. Archived from 3797: 3786:10.1289/ehp.9070 3765: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3746:on July 15, 2018 3736: 3730: 3729: 3719: 3684: 3675: 3674: 3663: 3657: 3644: 3635: 3634: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3582: 3572: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3510: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3412: 3404: 3395: 3394: 3384: 3373:10.1289/ehp.8476 3352: 3346: 3345: 3326:10.1002/sim.2884 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3249: 3238: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3227: 3221:. Archived from 3220: 3211: 3202: 3201: 3191: 3181: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3097: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2989:on March 3, 2016 2975: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2955:. Archived from 2945: 2939: 2938: 2928: 2896: 2885: 2884: 2877: 2864: 2863: 2851: 2841: 2824: 2823: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2778: 2754: 2741: 2740: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2705: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2657:on June 20, 2006 2653:. Archived from 2634: 2628: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2613: 2602: 2596: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2582:. Archived from 2562: 2556: 2555: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2496: 2490: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2367: 2361: 2360: 2350: 2344: 2343: 2307: 2301: 2300: 2289: 2283: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2248: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2220:. Archived from 2214: 2208: 2197: 2191: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2180: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2152:. Archived from 2146: 2140: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2129: 2122: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2096: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2079: 2077: 2062: 2056: 2055: 2045: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1992: 1984: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1945: 1913: 1904: 1903: 1882: 1876: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1862:. Archived from 1856: 1850: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1840:on June 25, 2013 1839: 1833:. Archived from 1828: 1820: 1814: 1802: 1796: 1795: 1793: 1785: 1766: 1765: 1737: 1731: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1716: 1710: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1681: 1666: 1658: 1595:Radon mitigation 1490:Radon mitigation 1445:A radon test kit 1265:Policy in the US 1234:nuclear reactors 1204:Boulder, Montana 1202:, Poland and in 1163:Pseudoscientific 1110:R. William Field 887: 880: 876: 873: 867: 843: 842: 835: 704:and then in the 691:in-situ leaching 647:mala metallorum. 620:Cancer in miners 607: 605: 604: 592: 590: 589: 487: 464:the plant where 433:Boulder, Montana 421: 419: 418: 406: 404: 403: 377: 375: 374: 331: 329: 328: 316: 288: 286: 285: 277: 275: 274: 266: 264: 263: 249: 247: 246: 238: 236: 235: 227: 225: 224: 216: 214: 213: 205: 203: 202: 165: 163: 162: 154: 152: 151: 143: 141: 140: 6859: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6850: 6848: 6847: 6846: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6799: 6798: 6764: 6755: 6753: 6746: 6744: 6737: 6735: 6728: 6726: 6719: 6717: 6710: 6708: 6701: 6699: 6692: 6690: 6683: 6681: 6674: 6672: 6665: 6663: 6656: 6654: 6647: 6645: 6638: 6636: 6629: 6627: 6620: 6618: 6611: 6609: 6602: 6600: 6593: 6591: 6584: 6582: 6575: 6573: 6566: 6564: 6557: 6555: 6548: 6546: 6539: 6537: 6530: 6528: 6521: 6519: 6512: 6510: 6503: 6501: 6494: 6492: 6485: 6483: 6476: 6474: 6460: 6458: 6451: 6449: 6442: 6440: 6433: 6431: 6424: 6422: 6415: 6413: 6406: 6404: 6397: 6395: 6388: 6386: 6379: 6377: 6370: 6368: 6361: 6359: 6352: 6350: 6343: 6341: 6334: 6332: 6325: 6323: 6316: 6314: 6307: 6305: 6298: 6296: 6289: 6287: 6280: 6278: 6271: 6269: 6262: 6260: 6253: 6251: 6244: 6242: 6235: 6233: 6226: 6224: 6217: 6215: 6208: 6206: 6199: 6197: 6190: 6188: 6181: 6179: 6165: 6163: 6156: 6154: 6147: 6145: 6138: 6136: 6129: 6127: 6120: 6118: 6111: 6109: 6102: 6100: 6093: 6091: 6084: 6082: 6075: 6073: 6066: 6064: 6057: 6055: 6048: 6046: 6039: 6037: 6030: 6028: 6019: 6017: 6010: 6008: 5994: 5992: 5985: 5983: 5976: 5974: 5967: 5965: 5958: 5956: 5949: 5947: 5940: 5938: 5931: 5929: 5922: 5920: 5913: 5911: 5904: 5902: 5895: 5893: 5886: 5884: 5877: 5875: 5868: 5866: 5859: 5857: 5848: 5846: 5839: 5837: 5823: 5821: 5814: 5812: 5805: 5803: 5796: 5794: 5787: 5785: 5778: 5776: 5767: 5765: 5758: 5756: 5742: 5740: 5733: 5731: 5724: 5722: 5715: 5713: 5706: 5704: 5697: 5695: 5686: 5684: 5677: 5675: 5661: 5659: 5650: 5648: 5537: 5532: 5494:Wayback Machine 5431:, January 2004. 5400: 5395: 5386: 5384: 5370: 5361: 5359: 5345: 5336: 5334: 5320: 5310: 5305: 5304: 5292: 5285: 5275: 5273: 5268: 5267: 5263: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5237: 5227: 5225: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5205: 5203: 5198: 5197: 5193: 5183: 5181: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5155: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5123: 5113: 5111: 5101: 5097: 5096: 5092: 5080: 5073: 5063: 5061: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5017: 5007: 5005: 4994: 4993: 4989: 4974: 4952: 4951: 4947: 4937: 4935: 4934:. November 2007 4926: 4925: 4921: 4911: 4909: 4900: 4899: 4895: 4885: 4883: 4874: 4873: 4869: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4848: 4844: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4823: 4813: 4811: 4810:on May 16, 2008 4798: 4797: 4793: 4783: 4781: 4771: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4724:10.2307/2531797 4709: 4708: 4704: 4694: 4692: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4672: 4670: 4662: 4661: 4657: 4647: 4645: 4632: 4631: 4627: 4620: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4584: 4580: 4550: 4549: 4545: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4477: 4467: 4465: 4454: 4453: 4449: 4434: 4433: 4424: 4414: 4412: 4402: 4398: 4397: 4388: 4378: 4376: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4331: 4329: 4315: 4314: 4310: 4300: 4298: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4278: 4276: 4267: 4266: 4262: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4183: 4182: 4173: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4145: 4143: 4108: 4103: 4102: 4098: 4085: 4084: 4080: 4040: 4035: 4034: 4030: 4022: 4016: 4015: 4011: 3977: 3976: 3972: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3919: 3917: 3912: 3911: 3904: 3868: 3867: 3858: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3767: 3766: 3759: 3749: 3747: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3686: 3685: 3678: 3665: 3664: 3660: 3645: 3638: 3631: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3601: 3600: 3596: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3532: 3531: 3524: 3488: 3487: 3483: 3437: 3436: 3432: 3422: 3420: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3398: 3354: 3353: 3349: 3320:(25): 4619–42. 3311: 3310: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3277: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3259:. November 2007 3251: 3250: 3241: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3218: 3213: 3212: 3205: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3116: 3115: 3111: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3033:(26): 1517–18. 3023: 3022: 3018: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2992: 2990: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2962: 2960: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2898: 2897: 2888: 2879: 2878: 2867: 2860: 2843: 2842: 2827: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2769:(10): 1341–51. 2756: 2755: 2744: 2737: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2660: 2658: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2621: 2619: 2611: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2589: 2587: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2529: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2508:, Roland Masse. 2506:Wayback Machine 2497: 2493: 2483: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2470: 2460: 2458: 2457:on May 22, 2009 2445: 2444: 2440: 2430: 2428: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2406: 2405:on May 19, 2016 2396: 2395: 2391: 2381: 2379: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2352: 2351: 2347: 2309: 2308: 2304: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2224:on May 19, 2016 2216: 2215: 2211: 2198: 2194: 2184: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2159: 2157: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2133: 2131: 2127: 2120: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2089: 2085: 2075: 2073: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2026:10.2307/3434368 2007: 2006: 2002: 1985: 1981: 1964: 1963: 1959: 1915: 1914: 1907: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1869: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1853: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1831:The Linde Group 1826: 1822: 1821: 1817: 1812:Wayback Machine 1803: 1799: 1791: 1787: 1786: 1769: 1739: 1738: 1734: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1717: 1713: 1703: 1701: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1679: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1581: 1565: 1496: 1486: 1453: 1439: 1353: 1295: 1290: 1281: 1272: 1267: 1262: 1260:Health policies 1222: 1217: 1172: 1151: 1139: 1054: 1002: 954: 922:never smokers. 905: 888: 877: 871: 868: 857: 844: 840: 833: 820: 788:alpha radiation 759: 726:Native American 682:epidemiological 622: 617: 603: 601: 600: 599: 598: 597:which had held 588: 586: 585: 584: 583: 580: 561:Canadian Shield 513:68–95–99.7 rule 485: 474: 417: 415: 414: 413: 412: 402: 400: 399: 398: 397: 373: 371: 370: 369: 368: 367:(four days for 355:used in making 327: 325: 324: 323: 322: 314: 299: 284: 282: 281: 280: 279: 273: 271: 270: 269: 268: 262: 260: 259: 258: 257: 245: 243: 242: 241: 240: 234: 232: 231: 230: 229: 223: 221: 220: 219: 218: 212: 210: 209: 208: 207: 201: 199: 198: 197: 196: 176:SI derived unit 161: 159: 158: 157: 156: 150: 148: 147: 146: 145: 139: 137: 136: 135: 134: 128: 123: 117: 100:epidemiological 54:a few compounds 12: 11: 5: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6809: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6795: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6761: 6760: 6751: 6742: 6733: 6724: 6715: 6706: 6697: 6688: 6679: 6670: 6661: 6652: 6643: 6634: 6625: 6616: 6607: 6598: 6589: 6580: 6571: 6562: 6553: 6544: 6535: 6526: 6517: 6508: 6499: 6490: 6481: 6472: 6466: 6465: 6456: 6447: 6438: 6429: 6420: 6411: 6402: 6393: 6384: 6375: 6366: 6357: 6348: 6339: 6330: 6321: 6312: 6303: 6294: 6285: 6276: 6267: 6258: 6249: 6240: 6231: 6222: 6213: 6204: 6195: 6186: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6161: 6152: 6143: 6134: 6125: 6116: 6107: 6098: 6089: 6080: 6071: 6062: 6053: 6044: 6035: 6026: 6024: 6015: 6006: 6000: 5999: 5990: 5981: 5972: 5963: 5954: 5945: 5936: 5927: 5918: 5909: 5900: 5891: 5882: 5873: 5864: 5855: 5853: 5844: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5819: 5810: 5801: 5792: 5783: 5774: 5772: 5763: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5738: 5729: 5720: 5711: 5702: 5693: 5691: 5682: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5657: 5655: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5535:Periodic table 5533: 5531: 5530: 5523: 5516: 5508: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5459: 5450: 5445: 5432: 5422: 5416: 5407: 5399: 5398:External links 5396: 5394: 5393: 5372:Dunning, Brian 5368: 5347:Dunning, Brian 5343: 5322:Dunning, Brian 5318: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5283: 5261: 5247: 5235: 5213: 5191: 5166: 5148: 5121: 5090: 5071: 5059:aarst-nrpp.com 5046: 5015: 4987: 4972: 4945: 4919: 4893: 4867: 4842: 4821: 4791: 4769: 4737: 4702: 4689:"Health Risks" 4680: 4655: 4625: 4618: 4610:10.17226/11340 4591: 4589:, 15 mai 2007. 4578: 4559:(6): 1037–52. 4543: 4508: 4475: 4447: 4422: 4386: 4365: 4339: 4308: 4286: 4260: 4217: 4171: 4153: 4096: 4078: 4028: 4009: 3970: 3943:(2): 193–220. 3927: 3914:"Publications" 3902: 3881:(8): 894–902. 3856: 3813: 3757: 3731: 3676: 3658: 3636: 3629: 3609: 3594: 3543: 3522: 3481: 3430: 3396: 3347: 3304: 3270: 3239: 3203: 3172:(59): 149–63. 3152: 3119:Health Physics 3109: 3060: 3016: 3000: 2970: 2940: 2911:(7): 1188–94. 2886: 2865: 2858: 2825: 2806:(11): 817–27. 2790: 2742: 2735: 2717: 2668: 2629: 2597: 2557: 2522: 2510: 2491: 2468: 2438: 2416: 2389: 2362: 2345: 2302: 2284: 2260: 2235: 2209: 2192: 2167: 2156:on May 8, 2008 2141: 2108: 2083: 2072:on May 9, 2008 2057: 2000: 1980:978-0891168232 1979: 1957: 1905: 1877: 1851: 1815: 1797: 1767: 1732: 1711: 1685: 1625: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1580: 1577: 1564: 1561: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1485: 1482: 1438: 1435: 1396:European Union 1352: 1349: 1311:carcinogenesis 1305:field. In the 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1245:decay products 1221: 1218: 1213:Main article: 1171: 1168: 1155:Basin, Montana 1150: 1147: 1138: 1135: 1053: 1050: 1048:observations. 1045: 1044: 1032: 1025: 1001: 998: 953: 950: 917:, reported an 904: 901: 890: 889: 854:of the subject 852:worldwide view 847: 845: 838: 832: 829: 819: 816: 758: 755: 651:Georg Agricola 621: 618: 616: 615:Health effects 613: 602: 587: 579: 576: 502:geometric mean 473: 470: 416: 401: 390:volatilization 372: 326: 298: 295: 283: 272: 261: 244: 233: 222: 211: 200: 160: 149: 138: 127: 124: 116: 113: 61:uranium series 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6855: 6854: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6814: 6812: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6767: 6758: 6749: 6740: 6731: 6722: 6713: 6704: 6695: 6686: 6677: 6668: 6659: 6650: 6641: 6632: 6623: 6614: 6605: 6596: 6587: 6578: 6569: 6560: 6551: 6542: 6533: 6524: 6515: 6506: 6497: 6488: 6479: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6454: 6445: 6436: 6427: 6418: 6409: 6400: 6391: 6382: 6373: 6364: 6355: 6346: 6337: 6328: 6319: 6310: 6301: 6292: 6283: 6274: 6265: 6256: 6247: 6238: 6229: 6220: 6211: 6202: 6193: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6159: 6150: 6141: 6132: 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6078: 6069: 6060: 6051: 6042: 6033: 6022: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5988: 5979: 5970: 5961: 5952: 5943: 5934: 5925: 5916: 5907: 5898: 5889: 5880: 5871: 5862: 5851: 5842: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5817: 5808: 5799: 5790: 5781: 5770: 5761: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5736: 5727: 5718: 5709: 5700: 5689: 5680: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5545: 5540: 5536: 5529: 5524: 5522: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5467: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5426: 5423: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5405: 5402: 5401: 5397: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5288: 5284: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5257: 5256:"EPA website" 5251: 5248: 5242: 5240: 5236: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5201: 5195: 5192: 5180: 5176: 5170: 5167: 5162: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5132: 5130: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5109: 5108: 5100: 5094: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5035: 5028: 5026: 5024: 5022: 5020: 5016: 5008:September 10, 5003: 5002: 4997: 4991: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4969: 4965: 4964:10.17226/6360 4961: 4957: 4956: 4949: 4946: 4933: 4929: 4923: 4920: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4894: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4868: 4852: 4846: 4843: 4838: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4795: 4792: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4762: 4761:10.17226/5499 4758: 4754: 4750: 4749: 4741: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4706: 4703: 4690: 4684: 4681: 4669: 4665: 4659: 4656: 4643: 4639: 4636:(June 2000). 4635: 4629: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4602: 4595: 4592: 4588: 4582: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4544: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4524:(5): 649–53. 4523: 4519: 4512: 4509: 4497: 4490: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4476: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4451: 4448: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4410: 4409: 4401: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4375: 4374:"Radon seeds" 4369: 4366: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4340: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4312: 4309: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4157: 4154: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4119:(2): 137–45. 4118: 4114: 4107: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4082: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4051:(2): 157–74. 4050: 4046: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4021: 4020: 4013: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3990:(6): 647–58. 3989: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3928: 3915: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3829:(3): 205–10. 3828: 3824: 3817: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3780:(9): 1361–6. 3779: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3762: 3758: 3745: 3741: 3735: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3702:(7485): 223. 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3643: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3613: 3610: 3605: 3598: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3501:(5): 677–83. 3500: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3446:(5): 332–47. 3445: 3441: 3434: 3431: 3423:September 19, 3418: 3417: 3409: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3367:(6): 818–22. 3366: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3305: 3293: 3292:10.2172/78555 3289: 3285: 3281: 3274: 3271: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3246: 3244: 3240: 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J. Cancer 2902: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2855: 2850: 2849: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2794: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2732: 2729:. 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