2499:
4603:
2403:
the simplest systems or bodies, their intensive properties are homogeneous, and their pressures are perpendicular to their boundaries. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials, or driving forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and given its constitutive walls, to calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.
2360:, also known as statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and
2949:, that increases as the constraints are removed, eventually reaching a maximum value at thermodynamic equilibrium, when the inhomogeneities practically vanish. For systems that are initially far from thermodynamic equilibrium, though several have been proposed, there is known no general physical principle that determines the rates of approach to thermodynamic equilibrium, and thermodynamics does not deal with such rates. The many versions of the second law all express the general
2418:. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.
46:
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boundaries are fixed. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.
3290:
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3357:. Typically, each thermodynamic process is distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed; Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a
3564:
are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are used to measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example,
3082:
Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head
3042:
Matter or energy that pass across the boundary so as to effect a change in the internal energy of the system need to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume contained by the walls can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it
2979:
of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions include "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently
2402:
is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems or bodies that, by agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another. The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic flows are zero; in the case of
2485:
The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance
2344:
reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided
3313:
Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made
2447:
Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent
2808:
With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the
3476:
A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For
3565:
the
Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively. Thermodynamic potentials cannot be measured in laboratories, but can be computed using molecular thermodynamics .
3477:
example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. The ocean can act as temperature reservoir when used to cool power plants.
1760:
was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854 which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency." German physicist and mathematician
1974:
2945:, that are due to internal 'constraints', or impermeable rigid walls, within it, or to externally imposed forces. The law observes that, when the system is isolated from the outside world and from those forces, there is a definite thermodynamic quantity, its
3706:
2919:, while heat and work are modes of energy transfer by which a process may change this state. A change of internal energy of a system may be achieved by any combination of heat added or removed and work performed on or by the system. As a
2482:, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in time. The law provides an empirical definition of temperature, and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.
3503:, the total energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In
1335:
2326:
The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.
2335:
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the
2956:
In macroscopic thermodynamics, the second law is a basic observation applicable to any actual thermodynamic process; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is postulated to be a consequence of molecular chaos.
7921:
2177:
Clausius, who first stated the basic ideas of the second law in his paper "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, and is called "one of the founding fathers of thermodynamics", introduced the concept of
4751:
1848:, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.
3301:
As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a
3314:
that each intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be
3465:, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a
2983:
Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to achieve, is −273.15 °C (degrees
Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or 0° R (degrees
3346:
which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.
5058:
The
Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
1981:
of the original eight founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting influence on the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly
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Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a
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4190:
2478:) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same
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Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through
6145:
5934:
5174:
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771:
639:
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4027:
1005:
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3517:, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement", and the product of the two equaling the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:
6527:
2191:
2003:
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1886:
With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in
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796:
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Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An
Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam."
6616:
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3450:
states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by
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1851:
In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic
1324:
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7843:
4497:
are derived from quantities that are more directly measurable. Theories that came after, differed in the sense that they made assumptions regarding
2941:
The second law refers to a system of matter and radiation, initially with inhomogeneities in temperature, pressure, chemical potential, and other
2123:
1863:. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through
1357:
6495:
4602:
3353:
may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. It can be described by
7716:
6189:
6162:
6121:
6098:
6074:
6036:
5989:
5951:
5821:
5451:
5197:
5138:
5113:
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showing the hot body (boiler), working body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the letters labeled according to the stopping points in
7876:
7838:
3510:
3486:
3358:
1638:
1225:
461:
339:
2923:, the internal energy does not depend on the manner, or on the path through intermediate steps, by which the system arrived at its state.
894:
2510:). The sudden drop of pressure causes a huge drop of temperature. The moisture in the air freezes, creating a smoke of tiny ice crystals.
3315:
277:
7699:
6055:
2971:
As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.
2942:
2090:
in 1712. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.
2082:
and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer
1409:
1383:
904:
358:
5368:
5286:
2486:
of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other laws, it was named the
2314:
in 1858 to designate the science of relations between heat and power, however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term
7741:
7454:
6990:
6719:
6290:
5740:
5591:
4851:
2151:
1757:
310:
3059:. When a looser viewpoint is adopted, and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium is dropped, the system can be the body of a
1462:
2146:. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine,
2109:
was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the
6810:
5012:
4648:
4643:
3446:. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the
3086:
Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries:
933:
332:
1965:
is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.
7891:
7705:
7085:
5762:
1631:
3007:, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the
2432:
2127:(1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the
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5570:
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1962:
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94:
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a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, first stated the
922:
125:
115:
6254:
3039:, between the system and the surroundings, take place through the walls, according to their respective permeabilities.
7757:
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7005:
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6835:
6699:
6580:
3500:
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according to how they change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be described by an
2966:
2912:, which states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.
2515:
2039:'s long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist
1829:
130:
120:
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1805:
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90:
2462:
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
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7782:
7584:
7214:
7169:
7097:
6949:
6892:
6219:
4536:
4521:
4516:
4300:
3507:, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the resulting displacement.
3439:
3307:
3189:
3076:
2720:
2415:
2016:
1958:
1796:
and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field. Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged.
1207:
955:
401:
214:
204:
2075:, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.
8006:
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7524:
7124:
6903:
6794:
6779:
6517:
6264:
4531:
3014:
2257:
By a surface-level analysis, the word consists of two parts that can be traced back to
Ancient Greek. Firstly,
1741:
4793:
The
Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies
2975:
This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching
5365:
2474:
under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g.
2391:. The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is determining the spontaneity of a given transformation.
2283:
8037:
8001:
7926:
7848:
7777:
7721:
7653:
7549:
7464:
7374:
7339:
6815:
4658:
4526:
4485:, a notion that was introduced by Carathéodory himself. In this formulation, thermodynamic concepts such as
4482:
4455:
4443:
4372:
3561:
3525:
3408:
2763:
decrease or be consumed, so that the amount of internal energy lost by that work must be resupplied as heat
2372:
2212:
2196:
2056:
2008:
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1244:
947:
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422:
411:
77:
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6463:
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4463:
3056:
2909:
2507:
2427:
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1943:
1935:
1825:
1785:
1730:
1694:
1552:
1472:
1269:
353:
107:
82:
3019:
which may be a physical or notional, but serve to confine the system to a finite volume. Segments of the
2231:
in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics. During the early 20th century, chemists such as
8011:
7689:
7648:
7364:
7035:
6855:
6606:
6575:
6438:
6359:
6249:
5688:
4498:
3758:
3496:
3350:
3303:
3103:
3028:
3008:
2667:(for which heat or work through the system boundary are possible, but matter transfer is not possible),
2357:
2143:
2032:
1990:
1931:
1927:
1837:
1706:
1670:
1487:
1064:
377:
223:
72:
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4740:. Vol. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
4232:
4108:
3701:{\displaystyle \int \left(T\,\mathrm {d} S-p\,\mathrm {d} V+\sum _{i}\mu _{i}\mathrm {d} N_{i}\right)}
7813:
7803:
7747:
7684:
7579:
7159:
7108:
6674:
6565:
6389:
6349:
5771:
5472:
4913:
3514:
3443:
3442:, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a
3152:
3115:
3004:
2664:
2550:
2471:
2467:
2224:
2186:
2171:
1923:
1726:
1567:
1492:
1482:
282:
156:
144:
6029:
Molecular
Driving Forces: Statistical Thermodynamics in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, and Nanoscience
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7000:
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6870:
6840:
6734:
6694:
6540:
6399:
6394:
6379:
6354:
6331:
6307:
6259:
4194:
4033:
3920:
3816:
3712:
3451:
3377:
3327:
2916:
2384:
2155:
1907:
1880:
1876:
1512:
1507:
1274:
296:
262:
257:
170:
5840:
Kazakov, Andrei; Muzny, Chris D.; Chirico, Robert D.; Diky, Vladimir V.; Frenkel, Michael (2008).
2604:
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7886:
7823:
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7479:
7474:
7264:
7075:
7060:
6642:
6596:
6473:
6468:
6421:
6139:
6007:
5928:
5713:
5424:
5416:
5168:
4951:
4767:
4541:
4396:
4167:
3545:
3414:
3386:
3339:
3335:
2437:
2380:
2064:
1718:
1601:
1264:
1212:
1125:
1070:
1015:
444:
428:
315:
267:
252:
242:
51:
45:
4711:
On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat
3326:
When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite
2980:"it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".
2154:(Lord Kelvin). The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as
1259:
849:
802:
717:
670:
582:
535:
5912:
The
Principles of Chemical Equilibrium: With Applications in Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
5645:"Topology of thermodynamic potentials using physical models: Helmholtz, Gibbs, Grand, and Null"
5345:
2270:
7514:
7469:
7224:
7219:
7149:
7045:
6881:
6684:
6611:
6560:
6505:
6485:
6371:
6230:
6195:
6185:
6168:
6158:
6127:
6117:
6094:
6070:
6051:
6032:
5995:
5985:
5947:
5879:
5861:
5827:
5817:
5787:
5736:
5705:
5664:
5625:
5587:
5566:
5447:
5408:
5203:
5193:
5134:
5109:
5086:
5076:
5041:
4992:
4982:
4939:
4929:
4890:
4880:
4857:
4847:
4741:
4714:
4587:
3966:
3404:
3368:
3343:
2643:
2528:
2361:
2200:
2110:
2020:
1957:
This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in
1947:
1903:
1864:
1793:
1698:
1596:
1557:
1547:
1119:
917:
753:
745:
618:
247:
237:
179:
6627:
4088:
3994:
2783:
by an external energy source or as work by an external machine acting on the system (so that
2303:
is used by
Thomson and William Rankine to represent the science of generalized heat engines.
7981:
7736:
7731:
7314:
7020:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6825:
6550:
6490:
6416:
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5853:
5779:
5697:
5656:
5617:
5400:
5034:
5029:
4921:
4501:
with arbitrary initial and final states, as opposed to considering only neighboring states.
3513:
are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some
3395:
3354:
3334:
that do not depend on the process by which the system arrived at its state. They are called
3060:
2240:
2232:
2159:
2142:, originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the
1994:
1978:
1899:
1804:
predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909,
1517:
1502:
1442:
1437:
1254:
1249:
975:
899:
367:
232:
5606:"Eight physical systems of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and computer simulations"
4136:
8032:
7976:
7948:
7590:
7504:
7499:
7444:
7434:
7424:
7354:
7294:
7209:
7194:
7015:
7010:
6985:
6980:
6850:
6774:
6570:
6480:
6426:
6326:
6019:
5372:
5160:
5016:
4963:
4686:
4582:
4378:
4079:
3890:
3786:
3588:
3549:
3427:
3263:
2950:
2521:
2475:
2167:
2147:
2101:, which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor
2087:
1982:
1868:
1762:
1753:
1467:
1315:
969:
610:
433:
194:
161:
6269:
5775:
5476:
5282:
4917:
4791:
3469:
may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A
486:
7726:
7623:
7399:
7379:
7344:
7279:
7199:
7040:
7030:
6939:
6759:
6714:
6709:
6500:
6455:
6321:
6110:
5874:
5841:
5810:
5537:
5338:
4608:
4566:
4422:
4402:
4354:
4330:
4306:
4282:
3973:
3869:
3765:
3595:
3331:
3098:
2920:
2786:
2766:
2746:
2726:
2694:
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2579:
2557:
2503:
2072:
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2043:
had learned of
Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist
1973:
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1522:
1292:
828:
781:
696:
649:
561:
514:
392:
272:
209:
199:
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5009:
1752:(1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the
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7055:
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6995:
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6744:
6724:
6635:
5717:
5235:
4840:
3459:
3072:
3064:
2984:
2976:
2236:
2128:
2094:
2083:
1998:
1591:
909:
478:
439:
151:
5428:
2278:
2047:, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between
7986:
7664:
7564:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7459:
7394:
7274:
7244:
7184:
7179:
7154:
7065:
6944:
6860:
6784:
6769:
6754:
6535:
3423:
3044:
2441:
2228:
2132:
2114:
2102:
2044:
2040:
1939:
1766:
1745:
1722:
1542:
1527:
1477:
960:
5757:
2259:
5154:
3473:
is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.
2243:
applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.
2227:
in such a manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously. Also
7996:
7638:
7595:
7569:
7509:
7489:
7484:
7359:
7319:
7304:
7249:
7174:
7144:
7139:
6955:
6820:
6739:
4494:
3535:
3470:
3455:
3418:
2479:
2311:
2265:
2216:
2098:
2068:
2052:
2024:
1891:
1788:
was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions.
1734:
1714:
1702:
1674:
1497:
305:
5605:
4462:, for example by finding a mathematically rigorous way to express the familiar
2743:
done by a system on its surrounding requires that the system's internal energy
2135:, and motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.
17:
7752:
7674:
7605:
7574:
7449:
7419:
7349:
7299:
7269:
7254:
7229:
7134:
6934:
6830:
6749:
6689:
6555:
6545:
5683:
5621:
4598:
2995:
2953:
of the transitions involved in systems approaching thermodynamic equilibrium.
2806:
For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed:
2163:
2106:
1911:
1801:
1586:
1532:
5865:
5791:
5709:
5668:
5629:
5412:
5309:
5131:
From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age
5090:
7711:
7389:
7384:
7334:
7309:
7164:
6960:
6406:
6275:
6199:
6172:
6131:
5831:
5207:
5045:
4996:
4943:
4894:
3529:
3504:
3466:
2036:
1951:
1919:
1809:
1690:
184:
5999:
5883:
4861:
6214:
3454:
in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized
2908:
Adapted for thermodynamics, this law is an expression of the principle of
1777:. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the
7694:
7628:
7129:
6929:
6729:
6704:
6679:
5857:
5846:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
5836:
A nontechnical introduction, good on historical and interpretive matters.
4348:
3862:
3521:
3399:
3381:
3047:, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824. The system could also be just one
2220:
2048:
1300:
1217:
1009:
417:
189:
5842:"Web Thermo Tables – an On-Line Version of the TRC Thermodynamic Tables"
5552:, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2010, ISBN 978-3527327522, S. 47
5420:
5388:
4925:
3027:; they have respective defined 'permeabilities'. Transfers of energy as
2067:. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named
7204:
6876:
5701:
5644:
5404:
4689:. The opposite sign convention is customary in chemical thermodynamics.
4490:
4324:
3539:
3390:
3048:
2946:
2208:
2179:
1915:
1887:
1845:
1740:
Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the
1710:
1697:, which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic
1682:
1662:
406:
5783:
5660:
2414:
is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in
7881:
7633:
7439:
7189:
6510:
6229:
5190:
The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics
4545:
3492:
3036:
2937:
Heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
2376:
2204:
2079:
2028:
1895:
1832:
specifies that energy can be transferred between physical systems as
1686:
1678:
4819:
Clausius, RJE (1870). "On a Mechanical Theorem Applicable to Heat".
7896:
7329:
5962:
Bawendi Moungi G., Alberty Robert A. and Silbey Robert J. (2004).
5320:
the fundamental subject of Natural Philosophy is Dynamics, or the
4459:
3052:
2994:
2497:
2431:
1914:. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of
5265:
Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists
2904:
denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.
7404:
7324:
6048:
Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics: An Integrated Approach
4486:
3372:
3108:
3032:
3013:. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a
1833:
1666:
382:
6631:
6279:
5389:"William Thomson and the Creation of Thermodynamics: 1840-1855"
5267:, 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
4469:
The first attempt at an axiomatic theory of thermodynamics was
5643:
Nitzke, Isabel; Stephan, Simon; Vrabec, Jadran (3 June 2024).
5469:
Thermodynamics of Complex Systems: Principles and applications
5446:. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 4.
4634:
List of textbooks on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
2185:
During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist
5984:. Vol. 48. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–458.
5324:.... Every phenomenon in nature is a manifestation of force.
5156:
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences
2035:. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove
1792:
studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of
5363:
Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2.
4713:. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint).
3458:
is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the
1824:
A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four
1693:. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four
4458:
that aims to describe thermodynamics in terms of rigorous
3330:. The state of the system can be described by a number of
2189:
published a series of three papers, the most famous being
2063:
was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are
5565:, American Institute of Physics, AIP Press, Woodbury NY,
5510:. Chemistry Europe (chemistryviews.org). 17 December 2010
5237:
Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances
4809:
Contains English translations of many of his other works.
6067:
Biomolecular Thermodynamics: From Theory to Applications
5530:
Sekt, Champagner & Co. So prickelnd kann Chemie sein
2138:
The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by
1709:. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in
6245:
Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites
5982:
Biochemical Thermodynamics: Applications of Mathematica
5919:
Stull, D.R., Westrum Jr., E.F. and Sinke, G.C. (1969).
3389:: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant
2882:
denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and
2520:
In a process without transfer of matter, the change in
5893:
The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs Thermodynamics
5684:"Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik"
5584:
Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics
3364:
Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:
2466:
This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an
5946:. St. Petersburg: Lan publishing house. p. 384.
5903:
Modern thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs
5586:, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken NY,
4425:
4405:
4381:
4357:
4333:
4309:
4285:
4235:
4197:
4170:
4139:
4111:
4091:
4036:
3997:
3976:
3923:
3893:
3872:
3819:
3789:
3768:
3715:
3619:
3598:
2819:
2789:
2769:
2749:
2729:
2697:
2673:
2646:
2607:
2582:
2560:
2531:
2282:("science of force ") can be traced back to the root
1128:
1073:
1018:
978:
852:
831:
805:
784:
756:
720:
699:
673:
652:
621:
585:
564:
538:
517:
489:
2803:
is recovered) to make the system work continuously.
1748:, particularly through the work of French physicist
7969:
7935:
7862:
7766:
7614:
7117:
6803:
6665:
6589:
6526:
6454:
6370:
6342:
6314:
6155:
Concise Thermodynamics: Principles and Applications
5314:. Vol. 1. MacMillan and Co., Limited. p.
4910:
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics
4475:
Investigations on the Foundations of Thermodynamics
2023:who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first
6109:
6108:Cengel, Yunus A., & Boles, Michael A. (2002).
5809:
5344:(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.
5337:
5311:The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs
5252:Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs
5033:
4908:Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005).
4839:
4431:
4411:
4387:
4363:
4339:
4315:
4291:
4266:
4220:
4184:
4157:
4124:
4097:
4067:
4021:
3982:
3954:
3908:
3878:
3850:
3804:
3774:
3746:
3700:
3604:
2858:
2795:
2775:
2755:
2735:
2719:its surroundings. An equivalent statement is that
2703:
2679:
2655:
2628:
2588:
2566:
2540:
1875:, which are useful for determining conditions for
1164:
1109:
1054:
999:
861:
837:
814:
790:
765:
729:
705:
682:
658:
633:
594:
570:
547:
523:
498:
6265:Engineering Thermodynamics – A Graphical Approach
6240:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 808–814.
5444:Chemical Thermodynamics: Basic Theory and Methods
3491:The central concept of thermodynamics is that of
2203:, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the
2117:efficiency. Drawing on all the previous work led
2019:as a scientific discipline generally begins with
1800:, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with
5921:The Chemical Thermodynamics of Organic Compounds
5222:Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications
4785:
4783:
4629:List of important publications in thermodynamics
1997:, and the Gibbsian school at Yale University of
1812:formulation, a description often referred to as
6180:Kroemer, Herbert & Kittel, Charles (1980).
5735:(second ed.). Cambridge University Press.
5604:Graben, H.W.; Ray, John R. (10 December 1993).
5536:8. Dezember 2009: Vol. 43, Issue 6, S. 418-432
5489:Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008.
4439:is the count of particles types in the system.
2915:Internal energy is a principal property of the
2663:denotes the change in the internal energy of a
1808:presented a purely mathematical approach in an
4734:William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882).
3003:An important concept in thermodynamics is the
2711:denotes the amount of thermodynamic work done
2192:On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
2004:On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
6643:
6291:
5504:"Sparkling Wine, Champagne & Co - Part 2"
5357:
5355:
4562:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
2436:Annotated color version of the original 1824
2121:, the "father of thermodynamics", to publish
1784:The initial application of thermodynamics to
1639:
8:
6144:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5933:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5173:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5104:Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005).
4912:. Vol. 27 (7th ed.). p. 584.
4772:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4261:
4248:
4062:
4049:
3949:
3936:
3845:
3832:
3741:
3728:
2318:in reference to Thomson's 1849 phraseology.
4419:the number of particles in the system, and
3371:: occurs without loss or gain of energy by
2999:A diagram of a generic thermodynamic system
1844:defines the existence of a quantity called
1733:, but also in other complex fields such as
7410:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
6659:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
6650:
6636:
6628:
6298:
6284:
6276:
5491:Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics
5382:
5380:
5234:Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923).
1646:
1632:
1195:
347:
166:
44:
33:
6084:The following titles are more technical:
5873:
5066:
5064:
4424:
4404:
4380:
4356:
4332:
4308:
4284:
4255:
4234:
4212:
4202:
4196:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4138:
4116:
4110:
4090:
4056:
4035:
3996:
3975:
3943:
3922:
3892:
3871:
3839:
3818:
3788:
3767:
3735:
3714:
3687:
3678:
3672:
3662:
3647:
3646:
3632:
3631:
3618:
3597:
3568:The five most well known potentials are:
2850:
2837:
2824:
2818:
2788:
2768:
2748:
2728:
2696:
2672:
2645:
2606:
2597:, done by the system on its surroundings.
2581:
2559:
2530:
1765:restated Carnot's principle known as the
1127:
1072:
1017:
977:
851:
830:
804:
783:
755:
719:
698:
672:
651:
620:
584:
563:
537:
516:
488:
7844:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
6270:Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
6260:Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
6112:Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach
5808:Goldstein, Martin & Inge F. (1993).
5733:The Geometry of Physics: An Introduction
5106:Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach
4677:The sign convention (Q is heat supplied
3570:
3088:
2687:denotes the quantity of energy supplied
1972:
1867:. Properties can be combined to express
5973:Thermodynamics of Biochemical Reactions
5277:
5275:
5273:
4701:
4670:
2723:of the first kind are impossible; work
2124:Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
1392:
1369:
1323:
1283:
1233:
1198:
391:
366:
295:
222:
169:
36:
6496:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
6137:
6015:
6005:
5926:
5166:
4959:
4949:
4765:
3090:Interactions of thermodynamic systems
2553:is equal to the energy gained as heat,
2113:which resulted in a large increase in
29:Physics of heat, work, and temperature
7717:Programmable communicating thermostat
6027:Dill Ken A., Bromberg Sarina (2011).
5914:. London: Cambridge University Press.
5758:"Classical Thermodynamics Simplified"
5393:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
5159:. Vol. III. New Haven. pp.
3411:(also called isometric/isovolumetric)
2375:is the study of the interrelation of
2276:, meaning "heat". Secondly, the word
7:
7839:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
5966:. J. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
5289:from the original on 29 October 2023
2105:at the University of Glasgow, where
2086:built the first engine, followed by
6250:Thermodynamics Educational Websites
6228:Callendar, Hugh Longbourne (1911).
6091:Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics
5923:. London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
5895:. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.
3043:can be a body of steam or air in a
2306:Pierre Perrot claims that the term
1701:, but may be explained in terms of
7700:Minimum efficiency reporting value
5508:Sparkling Wine, Champagne & Co
4754:from the original on 18 April 2021
4113:
4092:
3679:
3648:
3633:
3067:theorized in 1986 in the field of
2647:
2608:
2532:
2263:("of heat"; used in words such as
853:
806:
721:
674:
586:
539:
359:Intensive and extensive properties
25:
7742:Standard temperature and pressure
7455:Packaged terminal air conditioner
6991:Passive daytime radiative cooling
6720:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
5812:The Refrigerator and the Universe
5756:Rastall, Peter (1 October 1970).
3426:: occurs without a change in the
2859:{\displaystyle U_{0}=U_{1}+U_{2}}
2269:) can be traced back to the root
1685:, and the physical properties of
6811:Absorption-compression heat pump
6213:
5905:. London: Methuen & co. ltd.
5153:Gibbs, Willard, J. (1874–1878).
4877:Entropy and its Physical Meaning
4737:Mathematical and Physical Papers
4649:Table of thermodynamic equations
4644:List of thermodynamic properties
4601:
4267:{\displaystyle T,V,\{\mu _{i}\}}
4125:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\text{G}}}
3288:
3278:
3268:
3251:
3241:
3231:
3214:
3204:
3194:
3177:
3167:
3157:
3140:
3130:
3120:
2448:formulations are the following.
1615:
1614:
934:Table of thermodynamic equations
7706:Normal temperature and pressure
7086:Vapor-compression refrigeration
6617:Timeline of physics discoveries
6153:Dunning-Davies, Jeremy (1997).
5763:Journal of Mathematical Physics
5649:The Journal of Chemical Physics
5471:. IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK.
1840:, and with transfer of matter.
1410:Maxwell's thermodynamic surface
6050:. Cambridge University Press.
5263:Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967).
4981:. Cambridge University Press.
4681:the system as, W is work done
4639:List of thermal conductivities
4557:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
4552:Maximum entropy thermodynamics
4454:Axiomatic thermodynamics is a
2575:, less the thermodynamic work,
2412:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
2407:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
1989:, the Vienna school, with the
1963:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
1828:that form an axiomatic basis.
1144:
1132:
1089:
1077:
1034:
1022:
994:
982:
1:
7854:Testing, adjusting, balancing
7798:Building information modeling
7793:Building services engineering
7370:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
6898:Demand controlled ventilation
6846:Building insulation materials
5493:. 6th ed. Wiley and Sons: 16.
5467:Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2020).
4221:{\displaystyle \mu _{i}N_{i}}
4068:{\displaystyle T,p,\{N_{i}\}}
3955:{\displaystyle S,p,\{N_{i}\}}
3851:{\displaystyle T,V,\{N_{i}\}}
3747:{\displaystyle S,V,\{N_{i}\}}
2931:A traditional version of the
2383:or with a physical change of
2316:perfect thermo-dynamic engine
1987:The Mechanical Theory of Heat
1311:Mechanical equivalent of heat
7415:High-pressure cut-off switch
6966:Ice storage air conditioning
6887:Dedicated outdoor air system
5816:. Harvard University Press.
5283:"Thermodynamics (etymology)"
5036:A Short History of Chemistry
4842:Understanding Thermodynamics
4579:, i.e. Statistical mechanics
2933:second law of thermodynamics
2629:{\displaystyle \Delta U=Q-W}
2458:zeroth law of thermodynamics
2296:is used by William Thomson.
2254:has an intricate etymology.
2093:The fundamental concepts of
1775:second law of thermodynamics
923:Onsager reciprocal relations
7758:Thermostatic radiator valve
7560:Thermostatic radiator valve
7071:Underfloor air distribution
7006:Radiant heating and cooling
6924:Energy recovery ventilation
6836:Automobile air conditioning
6700:Domestic energy consumption
6581:Quantum information science
6255:Biochemistry Thermodynamics
6065:Douglas E. Barrick (2018).
5308:Thompson, Silvanus (1910).
5240:. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
5075:. Oxford University Press.
4846:. Dover Publications, Inc.
4185:{\displaystyle \sum _{i}\,}
2967:third law of thermodynamics
2516:first law of thermodynamics
2387:within the confines of the
1415:Entropy as energy dispersal
1226:"Perpetual motion" machines
1165:{\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
1110:{\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
1055:{\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
8059:
7907:Institute of Refrigeration
7788:Architectural technologist
7260:Electrostatic precipitator
6412:Classical electromagnetism
5980:Alberty Robert A. (2006).
5971:Alberty Robert A. (2003).
5731:Frankel, Theodore (2004).
5563:A Survey of Thermodynamics
5538:doi:10.1002/ciuz.200900520
5387:Smith, Crosbie W. (1977).
4977:Haynie, Donald T. (2001).
4654:Timeline of thermodynamics
4617:Thermodynamic process path
4577:Statistical thermodynamics
4537:Equilibrium thermodynamics
4512:Atmospheric thermodynamics
3484:
3069:atmospheric thermodynamics
2425:
2400:Equilibrium thermodynamics
2395:Equilibrium thermodynamics
2364:at the microscopic level.
2322:Branches of thermodynamics
1814:geometrical thermodynamics
1798:Statistical thermodynamics
862:{\displaystyle \partial T}
815:{\displaystyle \partial V}
730:{\displaystyle \partial p}
683:{\displaystyle \partial V}
595:{\displaystyle \partial T}
548:{\displaystyle \partial S}
7960:Volatile organic compound
7819:Environmental engineering
7783:Architectural engineering
7585:Ultra-low particulate air
7170:Automatic balancing valve
7098:Variable refrigerant flow
6950:Heat recovery ventilation
6893:Deep water source cooling
5682:Carathéodory, C. (1909).
5622:10.1080/00268979300102971
5582:Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).
5340:Biological Thermodynamics
5336:Donald T. Haynie (2008).
5250:Guggenheim, E.A. (1933).
5129:Cardwell, D.S.L. (1971),
5010:Schools of thermodynamics
4979:Biological Thermodynamics
4796:. London: John van Voorst
4709:Clausius, Rudolf (1850).
4522:Black hole thermodynamics
4517:Biological thermodynamics
3440:thermodynamic instruments
3308:thermodynamic equilibrium
2721:perpetual motion machines
2416:thermodynamic equilibrium
2195:, in which he showed how
2017:history of thermodynamics
1959:thermodynamic equilibrium
1781:, which applied to heat.
1336:An Inquiry Concerning the
8007:Template:Home automation
7829:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
7525:Solar-assisted heat pump
7125:Air conditioner inverter
6904:Displacement ventilation
6795:Vapour pressure of water
6780:Thermal destratification
6518:Condensed matter physics
6184:. W.H. Freeman Company.
5944:Thermodynamics: Textbook
5901:Guggenheim E.A. (1933).
5897:Vol. 1, pp. 55–349.
5550:Chemische Köstlichkeiten
5073:A to Z of Thermodynamics
4838:Van Ness, H.C. (1983) .
4532:Classical thermodynamics
4450:Axiomatic thermodynamics
3562:Thermodynamic potentials
2691:the system as heat, and
2656:{\displaystyle \Delta U}
2541:{\displaystyle \Delta U}
2331:Classical thermodynamics
1873:thermodynamic potentials
1756:. Scots-Irish physicist
1677:, and their relation to
1349:Heterogeneous Substances
766:{\displaystyle \alpha =}
634:{\displaystyle \beta =-}
8002:World Refrigeration Day
7849:Refrigerant reclamation
7778:Architectural acoustics
7722:Programmable thermostat
7654:Clean air delivery rate
7550:Thermal expansion valve
7465:Pressurisation ductwork
7375:Ground source heat pump
6816:Absorption refrigerator
6237:Encyclopædia Britannica
6046:M. Scott Shell (2015).
5188:Gibbs, Willard (1993).
5071:Perrot, Pierre (1998).
5015:7 December 2017 at the
4685:the system) is that of
4659:Thermodynamic equations
4527:Chemical thermodynamics
4499:thermodynamic processes
4483:adiabatic accessibility
4471:Constantin Carathéodory
4456:mathematical discipline
4444:Legendre transformation
4098:{\displaystyle \Omega }
4022:{\displaystyle U+pV-TS}
3438:There are two types of
3417:: occurs at a constant
3380:: occurs at a constant
3023:are often described as
2373:Chemical thermodynamics
2368:Chemical thermodynamics
2292:In 1849, the adjective
2197:thermodynamic processes
2009:chemical thermodynamics
1806:Constantin Carathéodory
1790:Chemical thermodynamics
1786:mechanical heat engines
7992:Glossary of HVAC terms
7954:Sick building syndrome
7834:Mechanical engineering
7545:Smoke exhaust ductwork
6976:Mixed-mode ventilation
6602:Nobel Prize in Physics
6464:Relativistic mechanics
6272:by Richard Fitzpatrick
6231:"Thermodynamics"
6157:. Horwood Publishing.
6089:Bejan, Adrian (2016).
5442:Klotz, Irving (2008).
5220:Duhem, P.M.M. (1886).
4879:. Taylor and Francis.
4875:Dugdale, J.S. (1998).
4821:Philosophical Magazine
4806:editions:PwR_Sbkwa8IC.
4572:Quantum thermodynamics
4464:laws of thermodynamics
4433:
4413:
4389:
4365:
4341:
4317:
4293:
4268:
4222:
4186:
4159:
4126:
4099:
4069:
4023:
3984:
3956:
3910:
3880:
3852:
3806:
3776:
3748:
3702:
3606:
3552:(material parameters).
3057:quantum thermodynamics
3000:
2910:conservation of energy
2860:
2797:
2777:
2757:
2737:
2705:
2681:
2657:
2630:
2590:
2568:
2542:
2511:
2508:high-speed photography
2444:
2428:Laws of thermodynamics
2422:Laws of thermodynamics
2389:laws of thermodynamics
2345:by the development of
2338:laws of thermodynamics
2277:
2258:
2065:inversely proportional
2012:
1944:biomedical engineering
1936:mechanical engineering
1826:laws of thermodynamics
1731:mechanical engineering
1695:laws of thermodynamics
1166:
1111:
1056:
1001:
1000:{\displaystyle U(S,V)}
863:
839:
816:
792:
767:
731:
707:
684:
660:
635:
596:
572:
549:
525:
500:
479:Specific heat capacity
83:Quantum thermodynamics
8012:Template:Solar energy
7690:Intelligent buildings
7649:Carbon dioxide sensor
7036:Room air distribution
6856:Central solar heating
6607:Philosophy of physics
6093:(4 ed.). Wiley.
5975:. Wiley-Interscience.
5942:Bazarov I.P. (2010).
5689:Mathematische Annalen
5133:, London: Heinemann,
4790:Clausius, R. (1867).
4434:
4414:
4390:
4366:
4342:
4318:
4294:
4269:
4223:
4187:
4160:
4158:{\displaystyle U-TS-}
4127:
4100:
4080:Landau potential, or
4070:
4024:
3985:
3957:
3911:
3881:
3853:
3807:
3777:
3759:Helmholtz free energy
3749:
3703:
3607:
3542:(thermal parameters);
3407:: occurs at constant
3398:: occurs at constant
3351:thermodynamic process
3227:Mechanically isolated
3055:) as hypothesized in
2998:
2861:
2798:
2778:
2758:
2738:
2706:
2682:
2658:
2631:
2591:
2569:
2543:
2501:
2472:thermodynamic systems
2435:
2358:Statistical mechanics
2353:Statistical mechanics
2347:statistical mechanics
2144:University of Glasgow
2033:Magdeburg hemispheres
1991:statistical mechanics
1976:
1932:aerospace engineering
1928:corrosion engineering
1881:spontaneous processes
1707:statistical mechanics
1347:On the Equilibrium of
1167:
1112:
1065:Helmholtz free energy
1057:
1002:
864:
840:
817:
793:
768:
732:
708:
685:
661:
636:
597:
573:
550:
526:
501:
8043:Chemical engineering
7814:Duct leakage testing
7804:Deep energy retrofit
7748:Thermographic camera
7685:Infrared thermometer
7160:Air source heat pump
7109:Water heat recycling
6675:Air changes per hour
6566:Mathematical physics
6222:at Wikimedia Commons
5958:5th ed. (in Russian)
5858:10.6028/jres.113.016
5371:24 July 2017 at the
4477:, which made use of
4423:
4403:
4388:{\displaystyle \mu }
4379:
4355:
4331:
4307:
4283:
4233:
4195:
4168:
4137:
4109:
4089:
4034:
3995:
3974:
3921:
3909:{\displaystyle U+pV}
3891:
3870:
3817:
3805:{\displaystyle U-TS}
3787:
3766:
3713:
3617:
3596:
3515:thermodynamic system
3495:, the ability to do
3444:thermodynamic system
3424:Steady state process
3322:States and processes
3316:reversible processes
3005:thermodynamic system
2943:intensive properties
2817:
2787:
2767:
2747:
2727:
2695:
2671:
2644:
2605:
2580:
2558:
2551:thermodynamic system
2529:
2502:Opening a bottle of
2468:equivalence relation
2225:thermodynamic system
2187:Josiah Willard Gibbs
2001:' 1876 and his book
1924:chemical engineering
1727:chemical engineering
1360:Motive Power of Fire
1126:
1071:
1016:
976:
928:Bridgman's equations
905:Fundamental relation
850:
829:
803:
782:
754:
718:
697:
671:
650:
619:
583:
562:
536:
515:
487:
7680:HVAC control system
7670:Home energy monitor
7644:Building automation
7430:Inverter compressor
7092:Variable air volume
7001:Passive ventilation
6971:Kitchen ventilation
6871:Constant air volume
6841:Autonomous building
6541:Atmospheric physics
6380:Classical mechanics
6308:branches of physics
6031:. Garland Science.
5910:Denbigh K. (1981).
5891:Gibbs J.W. (1928).
5776:1970JMP....11.2955R
5561:Bailyn, M. (1994).
5534:Chemie unserer Zeit
5477:2020tcsp.book.....P
4926:10.1021/ed027p584.3
4918:1950JChEd..27..584S
4623:Lists and timelines
4481:and the concept of
3511:Conjugate variables
3487:Conjugate variables
3481:Conjugate variables
3378:Isenthalpic process
3340:extensive variables
3336:intensive variables
3328:thermodynamic state
3091:
2917:thermodynamic state
2289:, meaning "power".
2156:James Clerk Maxwell
2027:and demonstrated a
1908:transport phenomena
1699:physical quantities
1338:Source ... Friction
1270:Loschmidt's paradox
462:Material properties
340:Conjugate variables
7943:Indoor air quality
7887:ASTM International
7824:Hydronic balancing
7601:Wood-burning stove
7480:Radiator reflector
7265:Evaporative cooler
7076:Underfloor heating
7061:Thermal insulation
6597:History of physics
5964:Physical Chemistry
5702:10.1007/BF01450409
5405:10.1007/BF00328156
5254:, Methuen, London.
4542:Industrial ecology
4429:
4409:
4397:chemical potential
4385:
4361:
4337:
4313:
4289:
4264:
4218:
4182:
4180:
4155:
4122:
4095:
4065:
4019:
3980:
3952:
3906:
3876:
3848:
3802:
3772:
3744:
3698:
3667:
3602:
3583:Natural variables
3546:Chemical potential
3415:Isothermal process
3387:Isentropic process
3355:process quantities
3190:Thermally isolated
3089:
3051:(i.e. a system of
3001:
2856:
2793:
2773:
2753:
2733:
2701:
2677:
2653:
2626:
2586:
2564:
2538:
2512:
2445:
2438:Carnot heat engine
2381:chemical reactions
2299:In 1854, the noun
2201:chemical reactions
2111:external condenser
2013:
1904:chemical reactions
1865:equations of state
1794:chemical reactions
1719:physical chemistry
1602:Order and disorder
1358:Reflections on the
1265:Heat death paradox
1162:
1107:
1052:
997:
859:
835:
812:
788:
763:
727:
703:
680:
656:
631:
592:
568:
545:
521:
499:{\displaystyle c=}
496:
469:Property databases
445:Reduced properties
429:Chemical potential
393:Functions of state
316:Thermal efficiency
52:Carnot heat engine
8020:
8019:
7936:Health and safety
7515:Scroll compressor
7470:Process duct work
7225:Convection heater
7220:Condensing boiler
7150:Air-mixing plenum
7046:Solar combisystem
6882:Cross ventilation
6685:Building envelope
6625:
6624:
6612:Physics education
6561:Materials science
6528:Interdisciplinary
6486:Quantum mechanics
6218:Media related to
6191:978-0-7167-1088-2
6164:978-1-8985-6315-0
6123:978-0-07-238332-4
6100:978-1-119-05209-8
6076:978-1-4398-0019-5
6038:978-0-8153-4430-8
5991:978-0-471-75798-6
5953:978-5-8114-1003-3
5823:978-0-674-75325-9
5784:10.1063/1.1665080
5770:(10): 2955–2965.
5661:10.1063/5.0207592
5610:Molecular Physics
5453:978-0-471-78015-1
5224:, Hermann, Paris.
5199:978-0-918024-77-0
5140:978-0-435-54150-7
5115:978-0-07-310768-4
5082:978-0-19-856552-9
4988:978-0-521-79549-4
4935:978-0-07-310445-4
4886:978-0-7484-0569-5
4747:978-0-598-96004-7
4720:978-0-486-59065-3
4588:Polymer chemistry
4432:{\displaystyle i}
4412:{\displaystyle N}
4364:{\displaystyle V}
4340:{\displaystyle p}
4316:{\displaystyle S}
4292:{\displaystyle T}
4277:
4276:
4171:
4119:
3983:{\displaystyle G}
3967:Gibbs free energy
3879:{\displaystyle H}
3775:{\displaystyle F}
3658:
3605:{\displaystyle U}
3405:Isochoric process
3369:Adiabatic process
3344:equation of state
3299:
3298:
2921:function of state
2796:{\displaystyle U}
2776:{\displaystyle Q}
2756:{\displaystyle U}
2736:{\displaystyle W}
2704:{\displaystyle W}
2680:{\displaystyle Q}
2589:{\displaystyle W}
2567:{\displaystyle Q}
2021:Otto von Guericke
1985:'s 1865 textbook
1979:thermodynamicists
1954:, to name a few.
1948:materials science
1900:phase transitions
1656:
1655:
1597:Self-organization
1422:
1421:
1120:Gibbs free energy
918:Maxwell relations
876:
875:
872:
871:
838:{\displaystyle V}
791:{\displaystyle 1}
746:Thermal expansion
740:
739:
706:{\displaystyle V}
659:{\displaystyle 1}
605:
604:
571:{\displaystyle N}
524:{\displaystyle T}
452:
451:
368:Process functions
354:Property diagrams
333:System properties
323:
322:
288:Endoreversibility
180:Equation of state
16:(Redirected from
8050:
7982:Building science
7737:Smart thermostat
7732:Room temperature
7315:Fireplace insert
7021:Radon mitigation
6919:Electric heating
6914:District heating
6909:District cooling
6826:Air conditioning
6652:
6645:
6638:
6629:
6551:Chemical physics
6491:Particle physics
6417:Classical optics
6300:
6293:
6286:
6277:
6241:
6233:
6217:
6203:
6176:
6149:
6143:
6135:
6115:
6104:
6080:
6061:
6042:
6023:
6017:
6013:
6011:
6003:
5976:
5967:
5957:
5938:
5932:
5924:
5915:
5906:
5896:
5887:
5877:
5835:
5815:
5796:
5795:
5753:
5747:
5746:
5728:
5722:
5721:
5679:
5673:
5672:
5640:
5634:
5633:
5616:(5): 1183–1193.
5601:
5595:
5580:
5574:
5559:
5553:
5546:
5540:
5526:
5520:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5500:
5494:
5487:
5481:
5480:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5384:
5375:
5359:
5350:
5349:
5343:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5322:science of force
5305:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5279:
5268:
5261:
5255:
5248:
5242:
5241:
5231:
5225:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5192:. Ox Bow Press.
5185:
5179:
5178:
5172:
5164:
5150:
5144:
5143:
5126:
5120:
5119:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5068:
5059:
5056:
5050:
5049:
5039:
5030:Partington, J.R.
5026:
5020:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4974:
4968:
4967:
4961:
4957:
4955:
4947:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4872:
4866:
4865:
4845:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4816:
4810:
4808:
4803:
4801:
4787:
4778:
4777:
4771:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4706:
4690:
4675:
4611:
4606:
4605:
4479:Pfaffian systems
4438:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4418:
4416:
4415:
4410:
4394:
4392:
4391:
4386:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4346:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4322:
4320:
4319:
4314:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4273:
4271:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4259:
4227:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4217:
4216:
4207:
4206:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4183:
4179:
4164:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4123:
4121:
4120:
4117:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4096:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4060:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4020:
3989:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3947:
3915:
3913:
3912:
3907:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3857:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3843:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3739:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3682:
3677:
3676:
3666:
3651:
3636:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3571:
3396:Isobaric process
3332:state quantities
3295:
3292:
3291:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3092:
3061:tropical cyclone
2902:
2891:
2880:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2842:
2841:
2829:
2828:
2802:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2340:. The qualifier
2241:E. A. Guggenheim
2233:Gilbert N. Lewis
2172:J. Willard Gibbs
2160:Ludwig Boltzmann
1995:Ludwig Boltzmann
1769:and gave to the
1705:constituents by
1665:that deals with
1648:
1641:
1634:
1618:
1617:
1325:Key publications
1306:
1305:("living force")
1255:Brownian ratchet
1250:Entropy and life
1245:Entropy and time
1196:
1171:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1061:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1006:
1004:
1003:
998:
900:Clausius theorem
895:Carnot's theorem
868:
866:
865:
860:
844:
842:
841:
836:
821:
819:
818:
813:
797:
795:
794:
789:
776:
775:
772:
770:
769:
764:
736:
734:
733:
728:
712:
710:
709:
704:
689:
687:
686:
681:
665:
663:
662:
657:
644:
643:
640:
638:
637:
632:
601:
599:
598:
593:
577:
575:
574:
569:
554:
552:
551:
546:
530:
528:
527:
522:
509:
508:
505:
503:
502:
497:
475:
474:
348:
167:
48:
34:
21:
8058:
8057:
8053:
8052:
8051:
8049:
8048:
8047:
8023:
8022:
8021:
8016:
7977:ASHRAE Handbook
7965:
7949:Passive smoking
7931:
7864:
7858:
7770:
7768:
7762:
7616:
7610:
7591:Whole-house fan
7505:Run-around coil
7500:Reversing valve
7445:Mechanical room
7435:Kerosene heater
7425:Infrared heater
7355:Gasoline heater
7295:Fan filter unit
7210:Condensate pump
7195:Centrifugal fan
7113:
7016:Radiant heating
7011:Radiant cooling
6986:Passive cooling
6981:Microgeneration
6851:Central heating
6799:
6775:Thermal comfort
6667:
6661:
6656:
6626:
6621:
6585:
6571:Medical physics
6522:
6481:Nuclear physics
6450:
6444:Non-equilibrium
6366:
6338:
6310:
6304:
6227:
6210:
6192:
6182:Thermal Physics
6179:
6165:
6152:
6136:
6124:
6116:. McGraw Hill.
6107:
6101:
6088:
6077:
6064:
6058:
6045:
6039:
6026:
6014:
6004:
5992:
5979:
5970:
5961:
5954:
5941:
5925:
5918:
5909:
5900:
5890:
5839:
5824:
5807:
5804:
5802:Further reading
5799:
5755:
5754:
5750:
5743:
5730:
5729:
5725:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5642:
5641:
5637:
5603:
5602:
5598:
5581:
5577:
5560:
5556:
5547:
5543:
5527:
5523:
5513:
5511:
5502:
5501:
5497:
5488:
5484:
5466:
5465:
5461:
5454:
5441:
5440:
5436:
5386:
5385:
5378:
5373:Wayback Machine
5360:
5353:
5335:
5334:
5330:
5307:
5306:
5302:
5292:
5290:
5281:
5280:
5271:
5262:
5258:
5249:
5245:
5233:
5232:
5228:
5219:
5215:
5200:
5187:
5186:
5182:
5165:
5152:
5151:
5147:
5141:
5128:
5127:
5123:
5116:
5108:. McGraw-Hill.
5103:
5102:
5098:
5083:
5070:
5069:
5062:
5057:
5053:
5028:
5027:
5023:
5017:Wayback Machine
5008:
5004:
4989:
4976:
4975:
4971:
4958:
4948:
4936:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4887:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4854:
4837:
4836:
4832:
4818:
4817:
4813:
4799:
4797:
4789:
4788:
4781:
4764:
4757:
4755:
4748:
4733:
4732:
4728:
4721:
4708:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4694:
4693:
4687:Rudolf Clausius
4676:
4672:
4667:
4625:
4607:
4600:
4597:
4592:
4583:Thermoeconomics
4507:
4452:
4421:
4420:
4401:
4400:
4377:
4376:
4353:
4352:
4329:
4328:
4305:
4304:
4281:
4280:
4251:
4231:
4230:
4208:
4198:
4193:
4192:
4166:
4165:
4135:
4134:
4112:
4107:
4106:
4087:
4086:
4082:grand potential
4081:
4052:
4032:
4031:
3993:
3992:
3972:
3971:
3939:
3919:
3918:
3889:
3888:
3868:
3867:
3835:
3815:
3814:
3785:
3784:
3764:
3763:
3731:
3711:
3710:
3683:
3668:
3627:
3623:
3615:
3614:
3594:
3593:
3589:Internal energy
3559:
3550:particle number
3489:
3483:
3436:
3434:Instrumentation
3428:internal energy
3324:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3279:
3273:
3269:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3232:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3182:
3178:
3172:
3168:
3162:
3158:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3121:
3095:Type of system
2993:
2963:
2951:irreversibility
2929:
2901:
2895:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2846:
2833:
2820:
2815:
2814:
2785:
2784:
2765:
2764:
2745:
2744:
2725:
2724:
2693:
2692:
2669:
2668:
2642:
2641:
2603:
2602:
2578:
2577:
2556:
2555:
2527:
2526:
2522:internal energy
2496:
2476:Brownian motion
2454:
2430:
2424:
2409:
2397:
2370:
2355:
2333:
2324:
2301:thermo-dynamics
2249:
2168:Rudolf Clausius
2152:William Thomson
2148:Rudolf Clausius
2140:William Rankine
2088:Thomas Newcomen
2007:which launched
1983:Rudolf Clausius
1971:
1869:internal energy
1822:
1763:Rudolf Clausius
1754:Napoleonic Wars
1661:is a branch of
1652:
1607:
1606:
1582:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1432:
1424:
1423:
1402:
1388:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1337:
1304:
1297:
1279:
1260:Maxwell's demon
1222:
1193:
1192:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1014:
1013:
1012:
974:
973:
972:
970:Internal energy
965:
950:
940:
939:
914:
889:
879:
878:
877:
848:
847:
827:
826:
801:
800:
780:
779:
752:
751:
716:
715:
695:
694:
669:
668:
648:
647:
617:
616:
611:Compressibility
581:
580:
560:
559:
534:
533:
513:
512:
485:
484:
464:
454:
453:
434:Particle number
387:
346:
335:
325:
324:
283:Irreversibility
195:State of matter
162:Isolated system
147:
137:
136:
135:
110:
100:
99:
95:Non-equilibrium
87:
62:
54:
30:
23:
22:
18:Heat generation
15:
12:
11:
5:
8056:
8054:
8046:
8045:
8040:
8038:Thermodynamics
8035:
8025:
8024:
8018:
8017:
8015:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7994:
7989:
7984:
7979:
7973:
7971:
7967:
7966:
7964:
7963:
7957:
7951:
7946:
7939:
7937:
7933:
7932:
7930:
7929:
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7889:
7884:
7879:
7874:
7868:
7866:
7860:
7859:
7857:
7856:
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7816:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7795:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7774:
7772:
7764:
7763:
7761:
7760:
7755:
7750:
7745:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7727:Psychrometrics
7724:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7703:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7657:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7626:
7624:Air flow meter
7620:
7618:
7612:
7611:
7609:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7593:
7588:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7400:Heating system
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7380:Heat exchanger
7377:
7372:
7367:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7347:
7345:Gas compressor
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7280:Expansion tank
7277:
7272:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7227:
7222:
7217:
7212:
7207:
7202:
7200:Ceramic heater
7197:
7192:
7187:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7152:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7132:
7127:
7121:
7119:
7115:
7114:
7112:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7095:
7089:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7048:
7043:
7041:Solar air heat
7038:
7033:
7031:Renewable heat
7028:
7023:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6947:
6942:
6940:Forced-air gas
6937:
6932:
6927:
6921:
6916:
6911:
6906:
6901:
6895:
6890:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6807:
6805:
6801:
6800:
6798:
6797:
6792:
6790:Thermodynamics
6787:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6760:Psychrometrics
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6715:Gas compressor
6712:
6710:Fluid dynamics
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6671:
6669:
6663:
6662:
6657:
6655:
6654:
6647:
6640:
6632:
6623:
6622:
6620:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6599:
6593:
6591:
6587:
6586:
6584:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6532:
6530:
6524:
6523:
6521:
6520:
6515:
6514:
6513:
6508:
6503:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6471:
6460:
6458:
6452:
6451:
6449:
6448:
6447:
6446:
6441:
6434:Thermodynamics
6431:
6430:
6429:
6424:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6403:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6387:
6376:
6374:
6368:
6367:
6365:
6364:
6363:
6362:
6352:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6312:
6311:
6305:
6303:
6302:
6295:
6288:
6280:
6274:
6273:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6224:
6223:
6220:Thermodynamics
6209:
6208:External links
6206:
6205:
6204:
6190:
6177:
6163:
6150:
6122:
6105:
6099:
6082:
6081:
6075:
6062:
6057:978-1107656789
6056:
6043:
6037:
6024:
6016:|journal=
5990:
5977:
5968:
5959:
5952:
5939:
5916:
5907:
5898:
5888:
5852:(4): 209–220.
5837:
5822:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5748:
5741:
5723:
5696:(3): 355–386.
5674:
5635:
5596:
5575:
5554:
5541:
5521:
5495:
5482:
5459:
5452:
5434:
5399:(3): 231–288.
5376:
5351:
5328:
5300:
5269:
5256:
5243:
5226:
5213:
5198:
5180:
5163:–248, 343–524.
5145:
5139:
5121:
5114:
5096:
5081:
5060:
5051:
5021:
5002:
4987:
4969:
4960:|journal=
4934:
4900:
4885:
4867:
4852:
4830:
4823:. 4th Series.
4811:
4779:
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4612:
4609:Physics portal
4596:
4593:
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4590:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4569:
4567:Psychrometrics
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4508:
4506:
4505:Applied fields
4503:
4451:
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4428:
4408:
4384:
4360:
4336:
4312:
4288:
4275:
4274:
4263:
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4009:
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3990:
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3591:
3585:
3584:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3543:
3533:
3485:Main article:
3482:
3479:
3435:
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3412:
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3393:
3384:
3375:
3323:
3320:
3297:
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3276:
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3259:
3249:
3239:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3212:
3202:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3175:
3165:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3138:
3128:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
2992:
2989:
2962:
2959:
2928:
2925:
2899:
2888:
2877:
2868:
2867:
2853:
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2832:
2827:
2823:
2792:
2772:
2752:
2732:
2700:
2676:
2652:
2649:
2638:
2637:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2585:
2563:
2537:
2534:
2504:sparkling wine
2495:
2492:
2470:on the set of
2453:
2450:
2426:Main article:
2423:
2420:
2408:
2405:
2396:
2393:
2369:
2366:
2362:quantum theory
2354:
2351:
2332:
2329:
2323:
2320:
2310:was coined by
2308:thermodynamics
2294:thermo-dynamic
2252:Thermodynamics
2248:
2245:
2073:steam digester
1970:
1967:
1842:The second law
1821:
1818:
1779:virial theorem
1771:theory of heat
1659:Thermodynamics
1654:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1636:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1622:
1609:
1608:
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1599:
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1412:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1379:Thermodynamics
1375:
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1371:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1355:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1333:
1328:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1296:
1295:
1293:Caloric theory
1289:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
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1021:
1007:
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951:
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902:
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873:
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869:
858:
855:
845:
834:
823:
822:
811:
808:
798:
787:
773:
762:
759:
749:
742:
741:
738:
737:
726:
723:
713:
702:
691:
690:
679:
676:
666:
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641:
630:
627:
624:
614:
607:
606:
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602:
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578:
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531:
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389:
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364:
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321:
320:
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308:
300:
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293:
292:
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290:
285:
280:
275:
273:Free expansion
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
240:
235:
227:
226:
220:
219:
218:
217:
212:
210:Control volume
207:
202:
200:Phase (matter)
197:
192:
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182:
174:
173:
165:
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80:
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64:
63:
60:
59:
56:
55:
50:The classical
49:
41:
40:
38:Thermodynamics
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8055:
8044:
8041:
8039:
8036:
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8028:
8013:
8010:
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7998:
7995:
7993:
7990:
7988:
7985:
7983:
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7972:
7968:
7961:
7958:
7955:
7952:
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7947:
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7938:
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7888:
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7883:
7880:
7878:
7875:
7873:
7870:
7869:
7867:
7865:organizations
7861:
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7852:
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7847:
7845:
7842:
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7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7810:
7809:Duct cleaning
7807:
7805:
7802:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
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7756:
7754:
7751:
7749:
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7740:
7738:
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7733:
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7728:
7725:
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7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7707:
7704:
7701:
7698:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7676:
7673:
7671:
7668:
7666:
7663:
7661:
7660:Control valve
7658:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7625:
7622:
7621:
7619:
7613:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7586:
7583:
7581:
7580:Turning vanes
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7555:Thermal wheel
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7520:Solar chimney
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7290:Fan coil unit
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7235:Cooling tower
7233:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7122:
7120:
7116:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7099:
7096:
7093:
7090:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7081:Vapor barrier
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7056:Solar heating
7054:
7052:
7051:Solar cooling
7049:
7047:
7044:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7026:Refrigeration
7024:
7022:
7019:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6996:Passive house
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6931:
6928:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6907:
6905:
6902:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6866:Chilled water
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6802:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6765:Sensible heat
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6745:Noise control
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6725:Heat transfer
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6664:
6660:
6653:
6648:
6646:
6641:
6639:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6594:
6592:
6588:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6576:Ocean physics
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6534:
6533:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6519:
6516:
6512:
6511:Modern optics
6509:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6462:
6461:
6459:
6457:
6453:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6436:
6435:
6432:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6386:
6383:
6382:
6381:
6378:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6369:
6361:
6360:Computational
6358:
6357:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6341:
6333:
6330:
6329:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6301:
6296:
6294:
6289:
6287:
6282:
6281:
6278:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6239:
6238:
6232:
6226:
6225:
6221:
6216:
6212:
6211:
6207:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6187:
6183:
6178:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6160:
6156:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6119:
6114:
6113:
6106:
6102:
6096:
6092:
6087:
6086:
6085:
6078:
6072:
6069:. CRC Press.
6068:
6063:
6059:
6053:
6049:
6044:
6040:
6034:
6030:
6025:
6021:
6009:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5987:
5983:
5978:
5974:
5969:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5949:
5945:
5940:
5936:
5930:
5922:
5917:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5819:
5814:
5813:
5806:
5805:
5801:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5764:
5759:
5752:
5749:
5744:
5742:9780521539272
5738:
5734:
5727:
5724:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5692:(in German).
5691:
5690:
5685:
5678:
5675:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5636:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5600:
5597:
5593:
5592:9780471862567
5589:
5585:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5558:
5555:
5551:
5545:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5522:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5496:
5492:
5486:
5483:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5463:
5460:
5455:
5449:
5445:
5438:
5435:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5383:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5370:
5367:
5364:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5341:
5332:
5329:
5325:
5323:
5317:
5313:
5312:
5304:
5301:
5288:
5285:. EoHT.info.
5284:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5257:
5253:
5247:
5244:
5239:
5238:
5230:
5227:
5223:
5217:
5214:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5195:
5191:
5184:
5181:
5176:
5170:
5162:
5158:
5157:
5149:
5146:
5142:
5136:
5132:
5125:
5122:
5117:
5111:
5107:
5100:
5097:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5078:
5074:
5067:
5065:
5061:
5055:
5052:
5047:
5043:
5038:
5037:
5031:
5025:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5011:
5006:
5003:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4970:
4965:
4953:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4882:
4878:
4871:
4868:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4853:9780486632773
4849:
4844:
4843:
4834:
4831:
4826:
4822:
4815:
4812:
4807:
4795:
4794:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4775:
4769:
4753:
4749:
4743:
4739:
4738:
4730:
4727:
4722:
4716:
4712:
4705:
4702:
4696:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4674:
4671:
4664:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4614:
4610:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4504:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4473:'s 1909 work
4472:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4449:
4447:
4445:
4440:
4426:
4406:
4398:
4382:
4374:
4358:
4350:
4334:
4326:
4310:
4302:
4286:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4229:
4213:
4209:
4203:
4199:
4176:
4172:
4152:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4133:
4085:
4083:
4078:
4077:
4057:
4053:
4046:
4043:
4040:
4037:
4030:
4016:
4013:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3991:
3977:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3944:
3940:
3933:
3930:
3927:
3924:
3917:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3887:
3873:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3860:
3840:
3836:
3829:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3813:
3799:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3783:
3769:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3756:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3709:
3694:
3688:
3684:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3652:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3613:
3599:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3569:
3566:
3563:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3488:
3480:
3478:
3474:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3461:
3460:ideal gas law
3457:
3453:
3452:James Maxwell
3449:
3445:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3347:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3287:
3277:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3250:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3213:
3203:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3176:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3139:
3129:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3073:event horizon
3070:
3066:
3065:Kerry Emanuel
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2997:
2991:System models
2990:
2988:
2986:
2981:
2978:
2977:absolute zero
2973:
2972:
2968:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2911:
2906:
2905:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2872:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2804:
2790:
2770:
2750:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2698:
2690:
2674:
2666:
2665:closed system
2650:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2601:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2583:
2576:
2561:
2554:
2552:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2517:
2509:
2505:
2500:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2451:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2330:
2328:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2255:
2253:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2237:Merle Randall
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2129:Carnot engine
2126:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2095:heat capacity
2091:
2089:
2085:
2084:Thomas Savery
2081:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2010:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1999:Willard Gibbs
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1830:The first law
1827:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1746:steam engines
1743:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1717:, especially
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1613:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1592:Self-assembly
1590:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1563:van der Waals
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1488:von Helmholtz
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1428:
1427:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1398:
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936:
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926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
915:
911:
910:Ideal gas law
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
892:
888:
883:
882:
856:
846:
832:
825:
824:
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774:
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628:
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477:
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458:
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446:
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441:
440:Vapor quality
438:
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302:
301:
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289:
286:
284:
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279:
278:Reversibility
276:
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264:
261:
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256:
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158:
155:
153:
152:Closed system
150:
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129:
127:
124:
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119:
117:
114:
113:
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104:
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42:
39:
35:
32:
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7987:Fireproofing
7771:and services
7767:Professions,
7665:Gas detector
7565:Trickle vent
7540:Smoke damper
7535:Smoke canopy
7530:Space heater
7460:Plenum space
7395:Heating film
7275:Exhaust hood
7245:Dehumidifier
7185:Blast damper
7180:Barrier pipe
7155:Air purifier
7066:Thermosiphon
6945:Free cooling
6861:Chilled beam
6789:
6785:Thermal mass
6770:Stack effect
6755:Particulates
6735:Infiltration
6666:Fundamental
6536:Astrophysics
6433:
6350:Experimental
6235:
6181:
6154:
6111:
6090:
6083:
6066:
6047:
6028:
5981:
5972:
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5732:
5726:
5693:
5687:
5677:
5652:
5648:
5638:
5613:
5609:
5599:
5594:, pp. 11–13.
5583:
5578:
5562:
5557:
5549:
5548:Klaus Roth:
5544:
5533:
5529:
5528:Klaus Roth:
5524:
5512:. Retrieved
5507:
5498:
5490:
5485:
5468:
5462:
5443:
5437:
5396:
5392:
5366:Scanned Copy
5362:
5339:
5331:
5321:
5319:
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5303:
5291:. Retrieved
5264:
5259:
5251:
5246:
5236:
5229:
5221:
5216:
5189:
5183:
5155:
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5124:
5105:
5099:
5072:
5054:
5035:
5024:
5019:– EoHT.info.
5005:
4978:
4972:
4909:
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4870:
4841:
4833:
4824:
4820:
4814:
4805:
4798:. Retrieved
4792:
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4736:
4729:
4710:
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4682:
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3560:
3532:parameters);
3509:
3490:
3475:
3462:
3437:
3363:
3348:
3325:
3312:
3300:
3085:
3081:
3045:steam engine
3041:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3010:surroundings
3009:
3002:
2982:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2955:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2914:
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2903:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2807:
2805:
2716:
2712:
2688:
2639:
2596:
2574:
2548:
2519:
2513:
2487:
2484:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2446:
2442:Carnot cycle
2410:
2398:
2371:
2356:
2346:
2341:
2334:
2325:
2315:
2307:
2305:
2300:
2298:
2293:
2291:
2286:
2273:
2264:
2256:
2251:
2250:
2229:Pierre Duhem
2199:, including
2190:
2184:
2176:
2137:
2133:Carnot cycle
2122:
2115:steam engine
2103:Joseph Black
2092:
2077:
2045:Robert Hooke
2041:Robert Boyle
2014:
2002:
1986:
1956:
1940:cell biology
1885:
1860:surroundings
1858:
1852:
1850:
1823:
1820:Introduction
1813:
1783:
1767:Carnot cycle
1739:
1723:biochemistry
1658:
1657:
1453:Carathéodory
1384:Heat engines
1356:
1345:
1334:
1316:Motive power
1301:
961:Free entropy
932:
432:
431: /
421:
420: /
412:introduction
405:
404: /
343:
306:Heat engines
93: /
67:
37:
31:
26:
7997:Warm Spaces
7639:Blower door
7617:and control
7615:Measurement
7596:Windcatcher
7570:Trombe wall
7510:Sail switch
7490:Refrigerant
7485:Recuperator
7360:Grease duct
7320:Freeze stat
7305:Fire damper
7175:Back boiler
7145:Air ionizer
7140:Air handler
7104:Ventilation
6956:Hybrid heat
6821:Air barrier
6740:Latent heat
6439:Statistical
6355:Theoretical
6332:Engineering
4495:temperature
4301:temperature
3536:Temperature
3471:calorimeter
3456:thermometer
3419:temperature
2715:the system
2480:temperature
2312:James Joule
2266:thermometer
2217:temperature
2119:Sadi Carnot
2099:latent heat
2069:Denis Papin
2061:Boyle's Law
2059:. In time,
2053:temperature
2025:vacuum pump
1912:black holes
1910:, and even
1892:engineering
1877:equilibrium
1802:statistical
1758:Lord Kelvin
1750:Sadi Carnot
1735:meteorology
1715:engineering
1703:microscopic
1675:temperature
1275:Synergetics
956:Free energy
402:Temperature
263:Quasistatic
258:Isenthalpic
215:Instruments
205:Equilibrium
157:Open system
91:Equilibrium
73:Statistical
8027:Categories
7753:Thermostat
7675:Humidistat
7606:Zone valve
7575:TurboSwing
7450:Oil heater
7420:Humidifier
7350:Gas heater
7300:Fan heater
7270:Evaporator
7255:Economizer
7230:Compressor
7135:Air filter
7118:Components
6935:Forced-air
6831:Antifreeze
6804:Technology
6750:Outgassing
6690:Convection
6556:Geophysics
6546:Biophysics
6390:Analytical
6343:Approaches
5571:0883187973
5293:29 October
4827:: 122–127.
4758:2 November
4697:References
3557:Potentials
3530:mechanical
3448:zeroth law
3077:black hole
3063:, such as
2927:Second law
2809:wall, then
2488:zeroth law
2452:Zeroth law
2164:Max Planck
2107:James Watt
2031:using his
1894:, such as
1742:efficiency
1587:Nucleation
1431:Scientists
1235:Philosophy
948:Potentials
311:Heat pumps
268:Polytropic
253:Isentropic
243:Isothermal
7863:Industry
7712:OpenTherm
7390:Heat pump
7385:Heat pipe
7335:Fume hood
7310:Fireplace
7215:Condenser
7165:Attic fan
6961:Hydronics
6506:Molecular
6407:Acoustics
6400:Continuum
6395:Celestial
6385:Newtonian
6372:Classical
6315:Divisions
6140:cite book
6018:ignored (
6008:cite book
5929:cite book
5866:1044-677X
5792:0022-2488
5718:118230148
5710:0025-5831
5669:0021-9606
5630:0026-8976
5413:0003-9519
5169:cite book
5091:123283342
5040:. Dover.
4962:ignored (
4952:cite book
4768:cite book
4383:μ
4253:μ
4200:μ
4173:∑
4153:−
4144:−
4114:Φ
4093:Ω
4011:−
3794:−
3670:μ
3660:∑
3641:−
3621:∫
3505:mechanics
3501:First Law
3499:. By the
3467:barometer
3359:conjugate
3099:Mass flow
3071:, or the
2961:Third law
2648:Δ
2621:−
2609:Δ
2533:Δ
2494:First law
2342:classical
2247:Etymology
2182:in 1865.
2037:Aristotle
1952:economics
1920:chemistry
1810:axiomatic
1744:of early
1691:radiation
1568:Waterston
1518:von Mayer
1473:de Donder
1463:Clapeyron
1443:Boltzmann
1438:Bernoulli
1399:Education
1370:Timelines
1154:−
1099:−
887:Equations
854:∂
807:∂
758:α
722:∂
675:∂
629:−
623:β
587:∂
540:∂
248:Adiabatic
238:Isochoric
224:Processes
185:Ideal gas
68:Classical
7970:See also
7695:LonWorks
7629:Aquastat
7495:Register
7475:Radiator
7130:Air door
6930:Firestop
6730:Humidity
6705:Enthalpy
6695:Dilution
6680:Bake-out
6668:concepts
6200:32932988
6173:36025958
6132:45791449
6000:16878778
5884:27096122
5832:32826343
5573:, p. 79.
5514:17 April
5429:36609995
5421:41133471
5369:Archived
5287:Archived
5208:27974820
5046:19353301
5032:(1989).
5013:Archived
4997:43993556
4944:56491111
4895:36457809
4752:Archived
4595:See also
4349:pressure
3863:Enthalpy
3580:Formula
3522:Pressure
3400:pressure
3382:enthalpy
3264:Isolated
3035:, or of
3031:, or as
3021:boundary
3016:boundary
2969:states:
2935:states:
2518:states:
2460:states:
2279:dynamics
2221:pressure
2071:built a
2049:pressure
1918:and for
1857:and its
1620:Category
1558:Thompson
1468:Clausius
1448:Bridgman
1302:Vis viva
1284:Theories
1218:Gas laws
1010:Enthalpy
418:Pressure
233:Isobaric
190:Real gas
78:Chemical
61:Branches
7769:trades,
7340:Furnace
7205:Chiller
6877:Coolant
6590:Related
6474:General
6469:Special
6327:Applied
5875:4651616
5772:Bibcode
5473:Bibcode
4914:Bibcode
4862:8846081
4800:19 June
4491:entropy
4325:entropy
4299:is the
3577:Symbol
3540:entropy
3391:entropy
3049:nuclide
2985:Rankine
2947:entropy
2549:, of a
2287:dynamis
2284:δύναμις
2260:thermo-
2223:of the
2209:entropy
2180:entropy
1969:History
1916:physics
1896:engines
1888:science
1846:entropy
1711:science
1683:entropy
1663:physics
1543:Smeaton
1538:Rankine
1528:Onsager
1513:Maxwell
1508:Massieu
1213:Entropy
1208:General
1199:History
1189:Culture
1186:History
410: (
407:Entropy
344:italics
145:Systems
8033:Energy
7922:SMACNA
7882:ASHRAE
7702:(MERV)
7656:(CADR)
7634:BACnet
7587:(ULPA)
7440:Louver
7365:Grille
7240:Damper
7190:Boiler
7088:(VCRS)
6889:(DOAS)
6501:Atomic
6456:Modern
6306:Major
6198:
6188:
6171:
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6130:
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4883:
4860:
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4546:Exergy
4493:, and
4460:axioms
4373:volume
4279:where
3526:volume
3493:energy
3463:pV=nRT
3409:volume
3361:pair.
3153:Closed
3053:quarks
3037:matter
2640:where
2377:energy
2274:therme
2239:, and
2213:volume
2205:energy
2150:, and
2131:, the
2080:piston
2057:volume
2055:, and
2029:vacuum
1950:, and
1854:system
1687:matter
1679:energy
1673:, and
1533:Planck
1523:Nernst
1498:Kelvin
1458:Carnot
748:
613:
481:
423:Volume
338:Note:
297:Cycles
126:Second
116:Zeroth
7962:(VOC)
7956:(SBS)
7945:(IAQ)
7902:CIBSE
7897:BSRIA
7800:(BIM)
7744:(STP)
7708:(NTP)
7330:Freon
7100:(VRF)
7094:(VAV)
6952:(HRV)
6926:(ERV)
6900:(DCV)
6873:(CAV)
5714:S2CID
5425:S2CID
5417:JSTOR
4665:Notes
4544:(re:
3574:Name
3528:(the
3304:state
3075:of a
3025:walls
2871:where
2385:state
2379:with
2271:θέρμη
1836:, as
1581:Other
1548:Stahl
1503:Lewis
1493:Joule
1483:Gibbs
1478:Duhem
171:State
131:Third
121:First
7917:LEED
7877:AMCA
7872:AHRI
7405:HEPA
7325:Flue
7250:Duct
6427:Wave
6322:Pure
6196:OCLC
6186:ISBN
6169:OCLC
6159:ISBN
6146:link
6128:OCLC
6118:ISBN
6095:ISBN
6071:ISBN
6052:ISBN
6033:ISBN
6020:help
5996:PMID
5986:ISBN
5948:ISBN
5935:link
5880:PMID
5862:ISSN
5828:OCLC
5818:ISBN
5788:ISSN
5737:ISBN
5706:ISSN
5665:ISSN
5626:ISSN
5588:ISBN
5567:ISBN
5516:2023
5448:ISBN
5409:ISSN
5295:2023
5204:OCLC
5194:ISBN
5175:link
5135:ISBN
5110:ISBN
5087:OCLC
5077:ISBN
5042:OCLC
4993:OCLC
4983:ISBN
4964:help
4940:OCLC
4930:ISBN
4891:OCLC
4881:ISBN
4858:OCLC
4848:ISBN
4802:2012
4774:link
4760:2020
4742:ISBN
4715:ISBN
4487:heat
4395:the
4371:the
4347:the
4323:the
3497:work
3373:heat
3116:Open
3109:Heat
3104:Work
3033:heat
3029:work
2965:The
2514:The
2456:The
2219:and
2170:and
2097:and
2015:The
1977:The
1890:and
1879:and
1871:and
1838:work
1834:heat
1729:and
1713:and
1689:and
1671:work
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383:Heat
378:Work
108:Laws
7927:UMC
7912:IIR
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7285:Fan
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5870:PMC
5854:doi
5850:113
5780:doi
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5657:doi
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5618:doi
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4038:T
4017:S
4014:T
4008:V
4005:p
4002:+
3999:U
3978:G
3950:}
3945:i
3941:N
3937:{
3934:,
3931:p
3928:,
3925:S
3904:V
3901:p
3898:+
3895:U
3874:H
3846:}
3841:i
3837:N
3833:{
3830:,
3827:V
3824:,
3821:T
3800:S
3797:T
3791:U
3770:F
3742:}
3737:i
3733:N
3729:{
3726:,
3723:V
3720:,
3717:S
3695:)
3689:i
3685:N
3680:d
3674:i
3664:i
3656:+
3653:V
3649:d
3644:p
3638:S
3634:d
3629:T
3625:(
3600:U
3548:-
3538:-
3524:-
3294:N
3284:N
3274:N
3257:Y
3247:N
3237:N
3220:N
3210:Y
3200:N
3183:Y
3173:Y
3163:N
3146:Y
3136:Y
3126:Y
2900:2
2897:U
2889:1
2886:U
2878:0
2875:U
2866:,
2852:2
2848:U
2844:+
2839:1
2835:U
2831:=
2826:0
2822:U
2791:U
2771:Q
2751:U
2731:W
2699:W
2675:Q
2651:U
2636:.
2624:W
2618:Q
2615:=
2612:U
2584:W
2562:Q
2536:U
2524:,
2506:(
2011:.
1647:e
1640:t
1633:v
1160:S
1157:T
1151:H
1148:=
1145:)
1142:p
1139:,
1136:T
1133:(
1130:G
1105:S
1102:T
1096:U
1093:=
1090:)
1087:V
1084:,
1081:T
1078:(
1075:A
1050:V
1047:p
1044:+
1041:U
1038:=
1035:)
1032:p
1029:,
1026:S
1023:(
1020:H
995:)
992:V
989:,
986:S
983:(
980:U
857:T
833:V
810:V
786:1
761:=
725:p
701:V
678:V
654:1
626:=
590:T
566:N
543:S
519:T
494:=
491:c
414:)
20:)
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