Herbicide - Knowledge (XXG)

518: 907: 1998: 387:, light, precipitation, and temperature. Foliage-applied herbicides will enter the leaf more readily at high humidity by lengthening the drying time of the spray droplet and increasing cuticle hydration. Light of high intensity may break down some herbicides and cause the leaf cuticle to thicken, which can interfere with absorption. Precipitation may wash away or remove some foliage-applied herbicides, but it will increase root absorption of soil-applied herbicides. Drought-stressed plants are less likely to translocate herbicides. As temperature increases, herbicides' performance may decrease. Absorption and translocation may be reduced in very cold weather. 2595:

of the efficacy of each herbicide component is possible, provided that sufficient time elapses between each application. A disadvantage with sequences is that two separate applications have to be made and it is possible that the later application will be less effective on weeds surviving the first application. If these are resistant, then the second herbicide in the sequence may increase selection for resistant individuals by killing the susceptible plants which were damaged but not killed by the first application, but allowing the larger, less affected, resistant plants to survive. This has been cited as one reason why ALS-resistant

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In 2017, the USEPA issued a revised Pesticide Registration Notice (PRN 2017-1), which provides guidance to pesticide registrants on required pesticide resistance management labeling. This requirement applies to all conventional pesticides and is meant to provide end-users with guidance on managing pesticide resistance. An example of a fully executed label compliant with the USEPA resistance management labeling guidance can be seen on the specimen label for the herbicide, cloransulam-methyl, updated in 2022.

1921: 2655:, while good for grazing sheep, compete intensely with wheat. Ryegrasses produce so many seeds that, if left unchecked, they can completely choke a field. Herbicides provided excellent control, while reducing soil disrupting because of less need to plough. Within little more than a decade, ryegrass and other weeds began to develop resistance. In response Australian farmers changed methods. By 1983, patches of ryegrass had become immune to Hoegrass ( 2262:, rendering the herbicides ineffective against target plants. Out of 31 known herbicide modes of action, weeds have evolved resistance to 21. 268 plant species are known to have evolved herbicide resistance at least once. Herbicide resistance was first observed in 1957, and since has evolved repeatedly in weed species from 30 families across the globe. Weed resistance to herbicides has become a major concern in crop production worldwide. 27: 7746: 533:. They interfere with the metabolism in the target plants. Herbicides are often classified according to their site of action because as a general rule, herbicides within the same site of action class produce similar symptoms on susceptible plants. Classification based on the site of action of the herbicide is preferable as herbicide resistance management can be handled more effectively. Classification by 6462: 2033:(MNLA) insurgents of cover, potential sources of food and to flush them out of the jungle. Deployment of herbicides and defoliants served the dual purpose of thinning jungle trails to prevent ambushes and destroying crop fields in regions where the MNLA was active to deprive them of potential sources of food. As part of this process, herbicides and defoliants were also sprayed from 1933: 5332: 982: 7770: 35: 2246:, can cause significant drops in bird populations. Even when herbicides which have low toxicity to birds are used, they decrease the abundance of many types of vegetation on which the birds rely. Herbicide use in agriculture in the UK has been linked to a decline in seed-eating bird species which rely on the weeds killed by the herbicides. Heavy use of herbicides in 7758: 455:: These herbicides are applied after weed seedlings have emerged through the soil surface. They can be foliar or root absorbed, selective or nonselective, and contact or systemic. Application of these herbicides is avoided during rain since being washed off the soil makes it ineffective. 2,4-D is a selective, systemic, foliar-absorbed postemergence herbicide. 653:: The discovery of synthetic auxins inaugurated the era of organic herbicides. They were discovered in the 1940s after a long study of the plant growth regulator auxin. Synthetic auxins mimic this plant hormone in some way. They have several points of action on the cell membrane, and are effective in the control of dicot plants. 468:: Herbicides applied to the soil are usually taken up by the root or shoot of the emerging seedlings and are used as preplant or preemergence treatment. Several factors influence the effectiveness of soil-applied herbicides. Weeds absorb herbicides by both passive and active mechanisms. Herbicide adsorption to soil 2450:

genus (wild oat) can often be controlled adequately when herbicides are applied at the 2-3 leaf stage, whereas later applications at the 2-3 tiller stage can fail badly. Patch spraying, or applying herbicide to only the badly infested areas of fields, is another means of reducing total herbicide use.

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equipped with long booms, of 60 to 120 feet (18 to 37 m) with spray nozzles spaced every 20–30 inches (510–760 mm) apart. Towed, handheld, and even horse-drawn sprayers are also used. On large areas, herbicides may also at times be applied aerially using helicopters or airplanes, or through

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No mixture is likely to have all these attributes, but the first two listed are the most important. There is a risk that mixtures will select for resistance to both components in the longer term. One practical advantage of sequences of two herbicides compared with mixtures is that a better appraisal

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should be reduced. By relying on diverse weed control methods, including non-herbicide methods of weed control, the selection pressure on weeds to evolve resistance can be lowered. Researchers warn that if herbicide resistance is combatted only with more herbicides, "evolution will most likely win."

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Cross-resistance: In this case, a single resistance mechanism causes resistance to several herbicides. The term target-site cross-resistance is used when the herbicides bind to the same target site, whereas non-target-site cross-resistance is due to a single non-target-site mechanism (e.g., enhanced

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in 41 Missouri counties revealed glyphosate resistance in 69%. Weeds from some 500 sites throughout Iowa in 2011 and 2012 revealed glyphosate resistance in approximately 64% of waterhemp samples. As of 2023, 58 weed species have developed glyphosate resistance. Weeds resistant to multiple herbicides

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Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin rashes to death. The pathway of attack can arise from intentional or unintentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in the herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation of aerial sprays, or

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or organic matter often reduces the amount available for weed absorption. Positioning of the herbicide in the correct layer of soil is very important, which can be achieved mechanically and by rainfall. Herbicides on the soil surface are subjected to several processes that reduce their availability.

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When mutations occur in the genes responsible for the biological mechanisms that herbicides interfere with, these mutations may cause the herbicide mode of action to work less effectively. This is called target-site resistance. Specific mutations that have the most helpful effect for the plant have

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and annual bluegrass share the distinction of the species with confirmed resistance to the largest number of herbicide modes of action, both with confirmed resistance to 12 different modes of action; however, this number references how many forms of herbicide resistance are known to have emerged in

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in the early growth stages, when the height similarities between growing trees and growing annual crops yields a similar problem with weed competition. Unlike with annuals however, application is mostly unnecessary thereafter and is thus mostly used to decrease the delay between productive economic

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An herbicide is described as having low residual activity if it is neutralized within a short time of application (within a few weeks or months) – typically this is due to rainfall, or reactions in the soil. A herbicide described as having high residual activity will remain potent for the long term

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had been first prepared in the 1950s but its herbicidal activity was only recognized in the 1960s. It was marketed as Roundup in 1971. The development of glyphosate-resistant crop plants, it is now used very extensively for selective weed control in growing crops. The pairing of the herbicide with

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Lock, E. A.; Ellis, M. K.; Gaskin, P; Robinson, M; Auton, T. R.; Provan, W. M.; Smith, L. L.; Prisbylla, M. P.; Mutter, L. C.; Lee, D. L. (1998). "From toxicological problem to therapeutic use: The discovery of the mode of action of 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione (NTBC),

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Non-target-site resistance: In non-target-site resistance, the genetic change giving resistance is not directly related to the target site, but causes the plant to be less susceptible by some other means. Some mechanisms include metabolic detoxification of the herbicide in the weed, reduced uptake

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Robbins, C.S.; Dowell, B.A.; Dawson, D.K.; Colon, J.A.; Estrada, R.; Sutton, A.; Sutton, R.; Weyer, D. (1992). "Comparison of neotropical migrant landbird populations wintering in tropical forest, isolated forest fragments, and agricultural habitats". In Hagan, John M.; Johnston, David W. (eds.).

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When resistance is first suspected or confirmed, the efficacy of alternatives is likely to be the first consideration. If there is resistance to a single group of herbicides, then the use of herbicides from other groups may provide a simple and effective solution, at least in the short term. For

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released crop seed varieties resistant to both dicamba and glyphosate, allowing for use of a greater variety of herbicides on fields without harming the crops. By 2020, five years after the release of dicamba-resistant seed, the first example of dicamba-resistant Palmer amaranth was found in one

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However, in 2015, an expansive study showed an increase in herbicide resistance as a result of rotation, and instead recommended mixing multiple herbicides for simultaneous application. As of 2023, the effectiveness of combining herbicides is also questioned, particularly in light of the rise of

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are acutely toxic, their use was found to be uncorrelated with any health issues like cancer in a massive US Department of Health study on 90,000 members of farmer families for over a period of 23 years. That is, the study shows lack of chronic toxicity, but cannot question the herbicide's acute

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Optimising herbicide input to the economic threshold level should avoid the unnecessary use of herbicides and reduce selection pressure. Herbicides should be used to their greatest potential by ensuring that the timing, dose, application method, soil and climatic conditions are optimal for good

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is one weed that has developed glyphosate resistance. Glyphosate-resistant weeds are present in the vast majority of soybean, cotton and corn farms in some U.S. states. Weeds that can resist multiple other herbicides are spreading. Few new herbicides are near commercialization, and none with a

427:. The herbicides kill weeds as they grow through the herbicide-treated zone. Volatile herbicides have to be incorporated into the soil before planting the pasture. Crops grown in soil treated with a preplant herbicide include tomatoes, corn, soybeans, and strawberries. Soil fumigants like 2192:; Vacco complained about misleading claims that its spray-on glyphosate-based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish (though proof that this was ever said is hard to find). Roundup is toxic and has resulted in 930:

Weed-wiping may also be used, where a wick wetted with herbicide is suspended from a boom and dragged or rolled across the tops of the taller weed plants. This allows treatment of taller grassland weeds by direct contact without affecting related but desirable shorter plants in the

491:: These are applied to a portion of the plant above the ground and are absorbed by exposed tissues. These are generally postemergence herbicides and can either be translocated (systemic) throughout the plant or remain at a specific site (contact). External barriers of plants like 128:

relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes called "total weed killers") kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields (per acre) of major crops by 3x to 6x from 1900 to 2000.

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to be of practical agricultural use; by 1941, his team succeeded in synthesizing a wide range of chemicals to achieve the same effect at lower cost and better efficacy, including 2,4-D. In the same year, R. Pokorny in the US achieved this as well. Independently, a team under

330:. Under alkaline soil conditions, atrazine may be carried into the soil profile as far as the water table by soil water following rainfall causing the aforementioned contamination. Atrazine is thus said to have "carryover", a generally undesirable property for herbicides. 132:

In the United States in 2012, about 91% of all herbicide usage, determined by weight applied, was in agriculture. In 2012, world pesticide expenditures totaled nearly $ 24.7 billion; herbicides were about 44% of those sales and constituted the biggest portion, followed by

441:: Preemergence herbicides are applied before the weed seedlings emerge through the soil surface. Herbicides do not prevent weeds from germinating but they kill weeds as they grow through the herbicide-treated zone by affecting the cell division in the emerging seedling. 2368:

Target-site resistance: In target-site resistance, the genetic change that causes the resistance directly alters the chemical mechanism the herbicide targets. The mutation may relate to an enzyme with a crucial function in a metabolic pathway, or to a component of an

2270:, neglecting non-herbicide weed control practices, and reliance on one herbicide for weed control. To minimize resistance, rotational programs of herbicide application, where herbicides with multiple modes of action are used, have been widely promoted. In particular, 3236:

Dill, Gerald M.; Sammons, R. Douglas; Feng, Paul C. C.; Kohn, Frank; Kretzmer, Keith; Mehrsheikh, Akbar; Bleeke, Marion; Honegger, Joy L.; Farmer, Donna; Wright, Dan; Haupfear, Eric A. (2010). "Glyphosate: Discovery, Development, Applications, and Properties".

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Alberto, Diana; Serra, Anne-Antonella; Sulmon, Cécile; Gouesbet, Gwenola; Couée, Ivan (2016). "Herbicide-related signaling in plants reveals novel insights for herbicide use strategies, environmental risk assessment and global change assessment challenges".

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Ryegrass populations were large, and had substantial genetic diversity, because farmers had planted many varieties. Ryegrass is cross-pollinated by wind, so genes shuffle frequently. To control its distribution farmers sprayed inexpensive Hoegrass, creating

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In general, many questions exist about the health and environmental effects of many herbicides because of the large number of herbicides and the myriad potential targets, mostly unintended. For example, a 1995 panel of 13 scientists reviewing studies on the

2675:. Once again, ryegrass in Australia evolved a kind of "cross-resistance" that allowed it to rapidly break down a variety of herbicides. Four classes of herbicides become ineffective within a few years. In 2013 only two herbicide classes, called 4084:

Andreotti, Gabriella; Koutros, Stella; Hofmann, Jonathan N; Sandler, Dale P; Lubin, Jay H; Lynch, Charles F; Lerro, Catherine C; De Roos, Anneclaire J; Parks, Christine G; Alavanja, Michael C; Silverman, Debra T; Beane Freeman, Laura E (2018).

892:(WSSA) developed a classification system. Groups in the WSSA and the HRAC systems are designated by numbers and letters, inform users awareness of herbicide mode of action and provide more accurate recommendations for resistance management. 2237:

Bird populations are one of many indicators of herbicide damage.Most observed effects are due not to toxicity, but to habitat changes and the decreases in abundance of species on which birds rely for food or shelter. Herbicide use in

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and U.S soldiers that handled the chemicals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land were sprayed at least once between during the war. The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in

2373:. For example, ALS-resistant weeds developed by genetic mutations leading to an altered enzyme. Such changes render the herbicide impotent. Target-site resistance may also be caused by an over-expression of the target enzyme (via 800:

Complementary to mechanism-based classifications, herbicides are often classified according to their chemical structures or motifs. Similar structural types work in similar ways. For example, aryloxphenoxypropionates herbicides

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and translocation, sequestration of the herbicide, or reduced penetration of the herbicide into the leaf surface. These mechanisms all cause less of the herbicide's active ingredient to reach the target site in the first place.

419:: Preplant herbicides are nonselective herbicides applied to the soil before planting. Some preplant herbicides may be mechanically incorporated into the soil. The objective for incorporation is to prevent dissipation through 244:

indicated that "growth substances applied appropriately would kill certain broad-leaved weeds in cereals without harming the crops," though these substances were too expensive and too short-lived in soil due to degradation by

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to contaminate groundwater or distant surface water sources. Generally, the conditions that promote herbicide transport include intense storm events (particularly shortly after application) and soils with limited capacity to

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Solomon, Keith R.; Carr, James A.; Du Preez, Louis H.; Giesy, John P.; Kendall, Ronald J.; Smith, Ernest E.; Van Der Kraak, Glen J. (2008). "Effects of Atrazine on Fish, Amphibians, and Aquatic Reptiles: A Critical Review".

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Resistance to herbicides is often attributed to overuse as well as the strong evolutionary pressure on the affected weeds. Three agricultural practices account for the evolutionary pressure upon weeds to evolve resistance:

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Using the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) and herbicide Resistance and World Grains (HRAC) systems, herbicides are classified by mode of action. Eventually the Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) and the

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use first began, it was continuously and heavily relied upon for weed control. This caused incredibly strong selective pressure upon weeds, encouraging mutations conferring glyphosate resistance to persist and spread.

302:(grasses). The low cost of 2,4-D has led to continued usage today, and it remains one of the most commonly used herbicides in the world. Like other acid herbicides, current formulations use either an amine salt (often 2220:

Herbicide use generally has negative impacts on many aspects of the environment. Insects, non-targeted plants, animals, and aquatic systems subject to serious damage from herbicides. Impacts are highly variable.

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Recently, incidences of non-target site resistance have increasingly emerged, such as examples where plants are capable of producing enzymes that neutralize herbicides before they can enter the plant's cells –

1701: 2348:. Some mutations conferring herbicide resistance may have fitness costs, reducing the plant's ability to survive in other ways, but over time, the least costly mutations tend to dominate in weed populations. 1880: 2671:. In addition, farmers sometimes diluted the herbicide in order to save money, which allowed some plants to survive application. When resistance appeared farmers turned to a group of herbicides that block 1875: 352:

Herbicides can be classified/grouped in various ways; for example, according to their activity, the timing of application, method of application, mechanism of their action, and their chemical structures.

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When 2,4-D was commercially released in 1946, it became the first successful selective herbicide, triggering a worldwide revolution in agricultural output. It allowed for greatly enhanced weed control in

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Forouzesh, Abed; Zand, Eskandar; Soufizadeh, Saeid; Samadi Foroushani, Sadegh (2015). "Classification of herbicides according to chemical family for weed resistance management strategies–an update".

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are two common processes that reduce the availability of herbicides. Many soil-applied herbicides are absorbed through plant shoots while they are still underground leading to their death or injury.

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samples were resistant to two different herbicides; 6% resisted three; and 0.5% resisted four. In Iowa 89% of waterhemp samples resist two or more herbicides, 25% resist three, and 10% resist five.

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were too few to accurately assess the risk of many types of cancer from these herbicides, even although evidence was stronger that exposure to these herbicides is associated with increased risk of

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estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange. The United States government has described these figures as unreliable.

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molecular mode of action for which there is no resistance. Because most herbicides could not kill all weeds, farmers rotate crops and herbicides to stop the development of resistant weeds.

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after being ingested in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms. The manufacturer of

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Talbot, AR; Shiaw, MH; Huang, JS; Yang, SF; Goo, TS; Wang, SH; Chen, CL; Sanford, TR (1991). "Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): A review of 93 cases".

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are preemergence herbicides. Weeds that have already emerged before application or activation are not affected by pre-herbicides as their primary growing point escapes the treatment.

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or spray drift may result in herbicide affecting neighboring fields or plants, particularly in windy conditions. Sometimes, the wrong field or plants may be sprayed due to error.

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Shaner, D. L.; Leonard, P. (2001). "Regulatory aspects of resistance management for herbicides and other crop protection products". In Powles, S. B.; Shaner, D. L. (eds.).

7382: 4832: 2356:. This form of resistance is particularly challenging, since plants can develop non-target-site resistance to herbicides their ancestors were never directly exposed to. 784:, which protect chlorophyll in plants from being destroyed by sunlight. If this happens, the plants turn white due to complete loss of chlorophyll, and the plants die. 6808: 5104:

Dimaano, Niña Gracel; Iwakami, Satoshi (2021). "Cytochrome <SCP>P450</SCP>-mediated herbicide metabolism in plants: Current understanding and prospects".

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MacKinnon, D. S.; Freedman, B. (1993). "Effects of Silvicultural Use of the Herbicide Glyphosate on Breeding Birds of Regenerating Clearcuts in Nova Scotia, Canada".

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The use of two or more herbicides which have differing modes of action can reduce the selection for resistant genotypes. Ideally, each component in a mixture should:

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arising from environmental and occupational exposure over long periods. Much public suspicion of herbicides revolves around a confusion between valid statements of

262:(ARC) to discover methods for improving crop yield. By analyzing soil as a dynamic system, rather than an inert substance, he was able to apply techniques such as 1885: 914:

Most herbicides are applied as water-based sprays using ground equipment. Ground equipment varies in design, but large areas can be sprayed using self-propelled

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or retain the herbicides. Herbicide properties that increase likelihood of transport include persistence (resistance to degradation) and high water solubility.

812:) appear to all act as ACCase inhibitors. The so-called cyclohexanedione herbicides, which are used against grasses, include the following commercial products 767: 4869: 906: 2431:

Integrated weed management (IWM) approach utilizes several tactics to combat weeds and forestall resistance. This approach relies less on herbicides and so

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Laboratory studies have at times overestimated negative impacts on birds due to toxicity, predicting serious problems that were not observed in the field.

618:(SCTs). The ALS biological pathway exists only in plants and microorganisms (but not animals), thus making the ALS-inhibitors among the safest herbicides. 7826: 2772: 1997: 5179: 274:. While the full work of the unit remained secret, certain discoveries were developed for commercial use after the war, including the 2,4-D compound. 5391: 4888: 7571: 6695: 4047: 3394: 193:

were used to control weeds, but these chemicals were either toxic, flammable or corrosive and were expensive and ineffective at controlling weeds.

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Kukorelli, Gábor; Reisinger, Péter; Pinke, Gyula (2013). "ACCase inhibitor herbicides – selectivity, weed resistance and fitness cost: A review".

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Hamner, Charles L.; Tukey, H. B. (1944). "The Herbicidal Action of 2,4 Dichlorophenoxyacetic and 2,4,5 Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid on Bindweed".

4569:"Evolutionary and ecological insights from herbicide-resistant weeds: what have we learned about plant adaptation, and what is left to uncover?" 2250:

agricultural areas has been one of many factors implicated in limiting the usefulness of such agricultural land for wintering migratory birds.

2208:) has claimed Tordon 101 has no effects on animals and insects, in spite of evidence of strong carcinogenic activity of the active ingredient, 2017:, its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy. During the 259: 5163: 4147: 3976: 3451: 3377: 3285:

Vats, S. (2015). "Herbicides: history, classification and genetic manipulation of plants for herbicide resistance". In Lichtfouse, E. (ed.).

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Multiple resistance: In this situation, two or more resistance mechanisms are present within individual plants, or within a plant population.

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Newton, Ian (2004). "The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: An appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions".

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Retzinger, E. J. Jr.; Mallory-Smith, C. (1997). "Classification of herbicides by site of action for weed resistance management strategies".

6358: 5427: 4186:"Cancer mortality in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins. An expanded and updated international cohort study" 2719: 1144: 4340: 2852: 2651:

agriculture, after many Australian sheep farmers began to exclusively grow wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. Introduced varieties of

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example, many triazine-resistant weeds have been readily controlled by the use of alternative herbicides such as dicamba or glyphosate.

2070: 1271: 1191: 773: 6481: 4528: 2932:"Herbicides as Weed Control Agents: State of the Art: I. Weed Control Research and Safener Technology: The Path to Modern Agriculture" 1865: 1779: 1221: 570:(ALS; also known as acetohydroxyacid synthase, or AHAS) is part of the first step in the synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids ( 3714:. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 17–20 November 1997, British Crop Protection Council. pp. 1133–1140. 7056: 6325: 5787: 5399: 5013: 3620: 3254: 3159: 3027: 2906: 2814: 2169:; research has suggested such contamination results in a small rise in cancer risk after occupational exposure to these herbicides. 2162: 2049: 1721: 1626: 3992:

Ibrahim MA, Bond GG, Burke TA, Cole P, Dost FN, Enterline PE, Gough M, Greenberg RS, Halperin WE, McConnell E, et al. (1991).

840:. Knowing about herbicide chemical family grouping serves as a short-term strategy for managing resistance to site of action. The 6636: 2621:. Few natural herbicides rival the effectiveness of synthetics. Some plants also produce their own herbicides, such as the genus 2166: 2030: 3866: 2229:

Atrazine has often been blamed for affecting reproductive behavior of aquatic life, but the data do not support this assertion.

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Herbicide manufacturers have at times made false or misleading claims about the safety of their products. Chemical manufacturer

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alter the physical properties of the spray solution and the overall phytotoxicity of the herbicide, increasing translocation.

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food consumption prior to the labelled preharvest interval. Under some conditions, certain herbicides can be transported via

2090: 322:, was introduced in the 1950s; they have the current distinction of being the herbicide family of greatest concern regarding 2057:

were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange, while the

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collected from a golf course in the U.S. state of Tennessee was found in 2020 to be resistant to seven herbicides at once.

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Selectivity is determined by the circumstances and technique of application. Climatic factors affect absorption including

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Tranel, Patrick J.; Wright, Terry R. (2002). "Resistance of Weeds to ALS-inhibiting Herbicides: What Have We Learned?".

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Blus, Lawrence J.; Henny, Charles J. (1997). "Field Studies on Pesticides and Birds: Unexpected and Unique Relations".

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Keith G. Watson (2011). "Cyclohexane-1,3-dione Oxime Ether Grass-Specific Herbicides and the Discovery of Butroxydim".

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Van Almsick, A. (2009). "New HPPD-Inhibitors – A Proven Mode of Action as a New Hope to Solve Current Weed Problems".

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are produced and oxidation reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, leading to plant death.

686:, and prevent quinone from binding to this site. Therefore, this group of compounds causes electrons to accumulate on 181:

and flooding were also used to control weeds. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, inorganic chemicals such as

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been shown to occur in separate instances and dominate throughout resistant weed populations. This is an example of

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enhance the selectivity by boosting herbicide resistance by the crop but allowing the herbicide to damage the weed.

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The following terms are also used to describe cases where plants are resistant to multiple herbicides at once:

2058: 2041: 1949: 1306: 1156: 478: 270:, inhibitors, and other chemicals on the activity of microorganisms in the soil and assess their direct impact on 7622: 7576: 7426: 6641: 6556: 5687: 2370: 1681: 1646: 1606: 1259: 1226: 1076: 323: 220:

as the result of research conducted independently in the United Kingdom and the United States into the potential

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Herbicides interfere with the biochemical machinery that supports plant growth. Herbicides often mimic natural

7016: 6873: 6596: 6591: 6516: 6501: 6351: 6280: 5624: 5420: 1976: 1676: 1296: 1231: 1168: 241: 4851: 7762: 5193: 2780: 2769: 611: 7660: 7436: 7338: 7333: 7051: 6928: 6496: 2022: 1706: 1661: 1281: 733: 537:(MOA) indicates the first enzyme, protein, or biochemical step affected in the plant following application: 530: 201: 174: 5386: 3338:

Zhou Q, Liu W, Zhang Y, Liu KK (2007). "Action Mechanisms of Acetolactate Synthase-Inhibiting Herbicides".

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Gianessi, Leonard P.; Reigner, Nathan P. (April 2007). "The Value of Herbicides in U.S. Crop Production".

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toxicity at the recommended levels of usage. For instance, while glyphosate formulations with tallowamine

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etc. affect herbicide absorption and action. Glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba are foliar-applied herbicides.

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the resistant seed contributed to the consolidation of the seed and chemistry industry in the late 1990s.

326:. Atrazine does not break down readily (within a few weeks) after being applied to soils of above-neutral 3425: 7750: 7508: 7225: 6843: 6838: 6731: 6546: 6541: 6531: 6511: 6202: 3936: 2724: 2680: 2672: 2271: 1814: 1656: 1522: 1434: 1131: 901: 567: 4986: 714:) are photosystem II inhibitors. Other members of this class are chlorbromuron, pyrazon, isoproturon, 509:

in the soil. For some compounds, the residual activity can leave the ground almost permanently barren.

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of the grass plant. The ACCases of grasses are sensitive to these herbicides, whereas the ACCases of

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One major complication to the use of herbicides for weed control is the ability of plants to evolve

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metabolic detoxification) that entails resistance across herbicides with different sites of action.

2102: 1691: 1636: 1601: 1527: 1454: 1404: 1399: 1384: 1041: 939:, a scheme offering free weed-wiper hire was launched in 2015 in an effort to reduce the levels of 757: 534: 255: 251: 5525: 4964: 4163: 737: 7811: 7607: 7521: 7486: 7372: 7265: 7245: 6566: 6220: 5677: 5586: 5505: 5129: 4813: 4731: 4681: 4608: 4445: 4322: 4227:"Triazine herbicide exposure and breast cancer incidence: An ecologic study of Kentucky counties" 3810: 3742: 3692: 3520: 3320: 3072: 2998: 2729: 2692: 2668: 2432: 2374: 2315: 2158: 2014: 1992: 1925: 1686: 1562: 1324: 1106: 1046: 1016: 963: 841: 821: 789: 599: 420: 221: 20: 5725: 4910: 3725:

Mallory-Smith, C. (1999). "Impact of labeling herbicides by site of action: A University view".

2870:"Governments say glyphosate is safe, but some say 'poison' is being sprayed on northern forests" 833: 813: 7009: 6131: 6111: 6106: 6008: 5596: 5485: 5223: 7821: 7655: 7516: 7481: 7476: 7343: 7185: 6970: 6918: 6581: 6571: 6121: 5797: 5735: 5710: 5500: 5267: 5159: 5121: 5086: 5046: 5009: 4769: 4723: 4600: 4524: 4437: 4401: 4314: 4256: 4207: 4143: 4135: 4116: 4066: 4023: 3972: 3906: 3616: 3512: 3447: 3417: 3373: 3250: 3188: 3155: 3115: 3064: 3023: 2963: 2912: 2902: 2810: 2295: 2098: 2018: 1988: 1574: 1497: 1490: 1444: 1311: 1101: 1096: 1006: 848: 377: 166: 6182: 6081: 4946: 4928: 2601:

has evolved in Scotland recently (2000), despite the regular use of a sequence incorporating

145:. Herbicide is also used in forestry, where certain formulations have been found to suppress 7738: 7712: 7466: 7230: 7153: 6955: 6903: 6756: 6551: 5259: 5180:"PRN 2017-1: Guidance for Pesticide Registrants on Pesticide Resistance Management Labeling" 5113: 5078: 5038: 4803: 4761: 4715: 4673: 4643: 4590: 4580: 4500: 4473: 4429: 4393: 4306: 4246: 4238: 4197: 4106: 4098: 4056: 4013: 4005: 3802: 3734: 3684: 3591: 3581: 3547: 3504: 3476: 3409: 3347: 3312: 3242: 3180: 3107: 3056: 2990: 2953: 2943: 2802: 2308: 2303: 2201: 2185: 2121: 1920: 1834: 1731: 1671: 1557: 1510: 1459: 1419: 1394: 1379: 1361: 1336: 1276: 1161: 1111: 492: 217: 209: 95: 54: 48: 7717: 7702: 7697: 7389: 7295: 7275: 7175: 7163: 7148: 7128: 7123: 6987: 6938: 6913: 6893: 6536: 5937: 5042: 3175:

Quastel, J. H. (1950). "2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) as a Selective Herbicide".

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the species at some point, not how many have been found simultaneously in a single plant.

2086: 2034: 1619: 1579: 1449: 1414: 1346: 1286: 1214: 1151: 1051: 694:

reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, killing the plant. The

549: 496: 190: 89: 3760: 2635:; such actions of natural herbicides, and other related chemical interactions, is called 5337: 5255: 5074: 4639: 4389: 4302: 3798: 3710:

Schmidt, R. R. (1997). "HRAC classification of herbicides according to mode of action".

3103: 399:, are used to clear industrial sites, waste grounds, railways, and railway embankments. 7692: 7682: 7526: 7471: 7461: 7416: 7280: 7255: 7235: 7103: 7098: 7088: 6980: 6975: 6960: 6888: 6788: 6615: 6159: 6126: 6073: 5614: 4251: 4226: 4202: 4185: 4111: 4086: 4018: 3993: 2958: 2931: 2734: 2676: 2632: 2364:

Resistance to herbicides can be based on one of the following biochemical mechanisms:

2323: 2307:

with completely different biological action modes are on the rise. In Missouri, 43% of

2146: 2117: 1937: 1741: 1641: 1596: 1589: 1584: 1341: 1036: 749: 679: 669: 303: 26: 3847: 7790: 7687: 7665: 7441: 7350: 7300: 7285: 7220: 7215: 7200: 7170: 7133: 7113: 7073: 7068: 7038: 7004: 6943: 6923: 6908: 6868: 6776: 6602: 6215: 6210: 6032: 5971: 5880: 5854: 5806: 5657: 5520: 5133: 4735: 4504: 3696: 2378: 2291: 2174: 1756: 1246: 1241: 1236: 994: 633: 625: 595: 587: 526: 446: 267: 246: 182: 5082: 5029:

Powles, S.B.; Yu, Q. (2010). "Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides".

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The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War : a Political, Social, and Military History

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Kraehmer, Hansjoerg; Laber, Bernd; Rosinger, Chris; Schulz, Arno (5 November 2014).

7632: 7451: 7431: 7399: 7328: 7315: 7290: 7270: 7240: 6965: 6933: 6711: 6526: 6461: 6431: 6404: 6399: 6320: 6315: 6305: 6167: 5950: 5652: 5561: 5553: 5495: 5490: 5436: 4719: 4326: 3524: 3179:. Advances in Chemistry. Vol. 1. American Chemical Society. pp. 244–249. 2744: 2699: 2294:

relatively early, but more recently, glyphosate resistance has dramatically risen.

2243: 2239: 2189: 2006: 1789: 1751: 1736: 1567: 1532: 1477: 1196: 1056: 662: 591: 428: 271: 154: 4765: 4041:

Howard I. Morrison; Kathryn Wilkins; Robert Semenciw; Yang Mao; Don Wigle (1992).

590:. They affect grasses and dicots alike. The ALS inhibitor family includes various 5263: 3351: 3316: 3149: 3111: 3017: 732:

to Fdx to NADP, leading to direct discharge of electrons on oxygen. As a result,

7543: 7538: 7323: 7210: 7205: 7195: 7190: 7118: 7108: 6883: 6848: 6828: 6793: 6761: 6446: 6426: 6389: 6192: 6187: 5945: 5927: 5907: 5897: 5889: 5814: 5762: 5715: 5550: 5540: 5510: 5475: 2636: 2421: 2267: 2247: 2045: 1711: 1409: 1389: 1026: 924: 805: 781: 761: 687: 482: 404: 344:

are specifically formulated to degrade within a short period after application.

134: 5313:

A Brief History of On-track Weed Control in the N.S.W. SRA during the Steam Era

4310: 3830:

The Global Politics of Pesticides: Forging Consensus from Conflicting Interests

3184: 2188:

agreed to change its advertising after pressure from New York attorney general

124:. Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving the desired 7260: 7143: 7078: 7063: 7021: 6898: 6798: 6486: 6436: 6310: 6290: 6270: 6230: 6136: 6096: 5998: 5862: 5844: 5829: 5720: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5591: 5571: 5566: 5530: 5460: 4704:"Herbicide resistance evolution, fitness cost, and the fear of the superweeds" 4433: 4397: 4061: 4042: 3738: 3688: 3508: 3413: 3246: 2275: 2197: 1761: 1517: 1021: 920: 872: 837: 829: 825: 793: 785: 729: 725: 683: 641: 629: 583: 579: 474: 373: 333: 6680: 3910: 3068: 2916: 2806: 361:

Chemical structure of the herbicide is of primary affecting efficacy. 2,4-D,

7707: 7670: 7617: 7592: 7250: 6736: 6723: 6715: 6451: 6441: 6419: 6409: 6384: 6375: 6367: 6300: 6275: 6255: 6091: 6013: 5993: 5912: 5839: 5834: 5819: 5700: 5695: 5480: 5154:

Moss, S. R. (2002). "Herbicide-Resistant Weeds". In Naylor, R. E. L. (ed.).

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Agronomic factors influencing the risk of herbicide resistance development

2173:

exposure has been implicated in a likely relationship to increased risk of

34: 4595: 4523:. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London. pp. 207–220. 4405: 4318: 4260: 4242: 4211: 4102: 4070: 4027: 3516: 3045:"In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides" 2948: 2424:– a number of products combine herbicides with different means of action. 910:

Herbicides being sprayed from the spray arms of a tractor in North Dakota.

369:

control many broadleaf weeds but remain ineffective against turf grasses.

7566: 7493: 7421: 7158: 7033: 6823: 6265: 6116: 6101: 6086: 6064: 6050: 6003: 5985: 5922: 5917: 5824: 5782: 5767: 5705: 5581: 5535: 5515: 5465: 3211:. The Industry Task Force II on 2,4-D Research Data. 2015. Archived from 2784: 2652: 2602: 2331: 2287: 2209: 2170: 2113: 1201: 947: 864: 802: 777: 753: 745: 715: 707: 699: 695: 637: 400: 384: 362: 319: 299: 186: 150: 146: 4833:"Tank mixing herbicides may not be enough to avoid herbicide resistance" 4544: 4009: 2994: 2797:

Appleby, Arnold P.; Müller, Franz; Carpy, Serge (2001). "Weed Control".

2318:

with resistance to six different herbicide modes of action has emerged.

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Service, R. F. (2013). "What Happens when Weed Killers Stop Killing?".

4545:"Current Status of the International Herbicide-Resistant Weed Database" 3814: 2623: 2054: 2002: 915: 868: 860: 658: 575: 469: 432: 366: 178: 170: 4647: 4585: 4568: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4087:"Glyphosate Use and Cancer Incidence in the Agricultural Health Study" 3596: 935:

sward beneath. The method has the benefit of avoiding spray drift. In

796:, was discovered in the course of developing this class of herbicides. 7367: 7360: 7355: 6771: 6045: 5757: 5470: 2628: 2178: 2151: 2094: 1839: 1819: 1726: 1716: 1424: 741: 711: 571: 295: 291: 5117: 4785: 4783: 3806: 3586: 3569: 3551: 3480: 2770:

Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates

2584:

Have similar persistence in the soil (if it is a residual herbicide)

644:(Roundup) is a systemic EPSPS inhibitor inactivated by soil contact. 208:, the first selective chemical herbicide, was discovered during the 6040: 2853:"Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 2008 – 2012 Market Estimates" 7456: 5744: 4929:"Multiple resistant Amaranthus palmeri from United States, Kansas" 2447: 2193: 1996: 1849: 1794: 1186: 936: 905: 856: 845: 780:

breakdown. Tyrosine breakdown products are used by plants to make

654: 648: 557: 516: 307: 283: 279: 225: 205: 200: 117: 33: 25: 552:. Thus, ACCase inhibitors affect cell membrane production in the 7377: 6992: 6172: 6150: 5777: 5772: 2739: 1824: 1071: 1066: 1031: 940: 852: 675: 287: 125: 121: 6684: 6340: 5409: 3568:

Beckie, H. J.; Harker, L. M.; Hall, S. I.; et al. (2006).

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arising from ingestion of a significant quantity rapidly, and

6336: 5396: 4911:"Number of Resistant Species to Individual Active Herbicides" 2440:

activity. In the UK, partially resistant grass weeds such as

173:, salinity, or fertility levels, were used to control weeds. 5369: 4225:

Kettles, MK; Browning, SR; Prince, TS; Horstman, SW (1997).

2381:). A related mechanism is that an adaptable enzyme such as 104: 60: 19:"Weedkiller" redirects here. For the album by Ashnikko, see 4980: 4978: 4947:"Multiple resistant Poa Anna from United States, Tennessee" 4678:

10.1614/0043-1745(2002)050[0700:rrowta]2.0.co;2

4478:

10.1890/1051-0761(1997)007[1125:FSOPAB]2.0.CO;2

3061:

10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0290:ITBTMD]2.0.CO;2

2128:

toxicity as opposed to equally valid statements of lack of

582:). These herbicides slowly starve affected plants of these 327: 72: 3937:"U.S. in first effort to clean up Agent Orange in Vietnam" 3780: 3778: 3636: 5242:

Stokstad, E. (2013). "The War Against Weeds Down Under".

5158:(9th ed.). Blackwell Science Ltd. pp. 225–252. 4792:"The "Wicked" Nature of the Herbicide Resistance Problem" 4521:

Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds

2428:

may use herbicides alongside other pest control methods.

66: 4359:

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Food & Rural Affairs

4164:"Facts About Herbicide - Department Of Veterans Affairs" 2659:), a family of herbicides that inhibit an enzyme called 266:. Quastel was able to quantify the influence of various 5363: 4702:

Damalas, Christos A.; Koutroubas, Spyridon D. (2024).

4184:

Kogevinas, M; Becher, H; Benn, T; et al. (1997).

3867:"Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans" 3761:"Campaign launched to halt Welsh river pesticide rise" 3289:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 153–192. 5381: 4341:"Complaints halt herbicide spraying in Eastern Shore" 78: 69: 4965:"Resistant Species by # of Sites of Action (Top 15)" 3654: 3133:

Templeman, W. G. (1945). "Harnessing the hormones".

2093:

had divided opinions on the likelihood 2,4-D causes

628:(EPSPS) is used in the synthesis of the amino acids 75: 63: 7648: 7585: 7552: 7314: 6857: 6722: 6624: 6469: 6374: 6243: 6201: 6158: 6149: 6072: 6063: 6031: 6022: 5984: 5959: 5936: 5888: 5879: 5853: 5805: 5796: 5743: 5734: 5686: 5638: 5605: 5549: 5447: 748:) inhibit the FeS to Fdx step of that chain, while 258:made the same discovery. Quastel was tasked by the 101: 98: 57: 4376:Reuber, MD (1981). "Carcinogenicity of Picloram". 4274:"Monsanto Pulls Roundup Advertising in New York". 3563: 3561: 2647:Herbicide resistance became a critical problem in 2242:, used to favor certain types of growth following 2040:The use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the 521:Herbicides classified by their mechanism of action 318:The triazine family of herbicides, which includes 3570:"A decade of herbicide-resistant crops in Canada" 2901:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. p. 862. 2385:is redesigned to neutralize the pesticide itself. 2029:in the Malaysian countryside in order to deprive 4870:"Herbicide-resistant weeds raise more questions" 3016:Andrew H. Cobb; John P. H. Reade (2011). "7.1". 2639:. The applicability of these agents is unclear. 626:Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase enzyme 3967:Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2011). "Defoliation". 3712:1997 Brighton crop protection conference: weeds 3615:. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp. 279–294. 2605:, a herbicide with a different mode of action. 2581:Be detoxified by different biochemical pathways 407:, and glyphosate are non-selective herbicides. 340:Many modern herbicides used in agriculture and 5317:Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin 4378:Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 3637:"PROTECTING CROP YIELDS AND QUALITY WORLDWIDE" 3151:A History of Weed Science in the United States 2851:Atwood, Donald; Paisley-Jones, Claire (2017). 2799:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2783:Main page for EPA reports on pesticide use is 2643:Farming practices and resistance: a case study 586:, which eventually leads to the inhibition of 6696: 6352: 5421: 4091:JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2683:inhibitors, were effective against ryegrass. 2590:Synergise the activity of the other component 1957: 395:Non-selective herbicides, generally known as 16:Type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants 8: 7572:List of organic gardening and farming topics 5366:, Information about pesticide-related topics 4659: 4657: 3887:, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 263 1983:Use politically, militarily, and in conflict 216:The major breakthroughs occurred during the 5004:Powles, S. B.; Shaner, D. L., eds. (2001). 3495:its toxicology and development as a drug". 665:are examples of synthetic auxin herbicides. 165:Prior to the widespread use of herbicides, 116:, are substances used to control undesired 6703: 6689: 6681: 6359: 6345: 6337: 6155: 6069: 6028: 5885: 5802: 5740: 5428: 5414: 5406: 5008:. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p. 328. 4852:"The grim reality of herbicide resistance" 4697: 4695: 4136:"8: Fate of herbicides in the environment" 2832:"Nitrogen Cycle and World Food Production" 1964: 1950: 1854: 980: 958: 728:, specifically the normal pathway through 372:Chemical additives influence selectivity. 5392:European Commission pesticide information 5224:"Natural Herbicides: Are they effective?" 4807: 4594: 4584: 4250: 4201: 4110: 4060: 4017: 3595: 3585: 3372:. W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 670. 3363: 3361: 3298: 3296: 2957: 2947: 2617:has come to mean herbicides intended for 2302:A 2008–2009 survey of 144 populations of 5370:National Agricultural Statistics Service 5237: 5235: 5233: 4747: 4745: 4048:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3305:International Journal of Pest Management 3239:Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds 3231: 3229: 2453: 640:. They affect grasses and dicots alike. 30:A field after application of a herbicide 5149: 5147: 5145: 5143: 3899:"Agent Orange Still Haunts Vietnam, US" 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 2899:Encyclopedia of environment and society 2884:"GLYPHOSATE AND THE POLITICS OF SAFETY" 2858:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2761: 1893: 1857: 970: 3497:Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease 2553:Approaches to treating resistant weeds 792:are herbicides in this class; a drug, 548:(ACCase) is part of the first step of 5364:National Pesticide Information Center 5043:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112119 5006:Herbicide Resistance and World Grains 3641:Herbicide Resistance Action Committee 3613:Herbicide Resistance and World Grains 3395:"4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase" 3340:Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 2274:evolved rapidly in part because when 7: 7757: 2846: 2844: 2720:List of environmental health hazards 616:sulfonylamino carbonyl triazolinones 7769: 4985:Brown, H. Claire (18 August 2021). 4291:Human & Experimental Toxicology 4140:Handbook of Weed Management Systems 2886:. Halifax Examiner. 7 October 2016. 2575:Be active at different target sites 2071:Environmental effects of pesticides 1192:Radium and radon in the environment 774:4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase 674:reduce electron flow from water to 5286:"Hoegrass 500 Selective Herbicide" 4889:"Marestail Jumps Glyphosate Fence" 4203:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009069 3287:Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 15 2097:in humans. As of 1992, studies on 2050:impacts upon the Vietnamese people 682:. They bind to the Qb site on the 435:are in use as preplant herbicides. 14: 7827:Chemical anti-agriculture weapons 5400:Pest Management Regulatory Agency 4231:Environmental Health Perspectives 3655:"Weed Science Society of America" 3574:Canadian Journal of Plant Science 2013:Although herbicidal warfare uses 298:(broadleaf plants), but not most 7768: 7756: 7745: 7744: 7732: 6460: 5387:UK Pesticides Safety Directorate 5330: 5067:Science of the Total Environment 4887:Marking, Syl (January 1, 2002). 4505:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00375.x 4190:American Journal of Epidemiology 3444:Modern crop protection compounds 2112:Herbicides have widely variable 2065:Health and environmental effects 2031:Malayan National Liberation Army 1931: 1919: 94: 53: 5083:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.064 4142:. CRC Press. pp. 245–278. 3949:from the original on 2013-03-03 3917:from the original on 2017-03-30 3865:Haberman, Clyde (11 May 2014). 3043:Troyer, James R. (March 2001). 3019:Herbicides and Plant Physiology 2705:Environmental impact assessment 2587:Exert negative cross-resistance 2286:Plants developed resistance to 2157:Cases have been reported where 2025:forces deployed herbicides and 1012:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 890:Weed Science Society of America 764:) inhibit the Fdx to NADP step. 256:Rothamsted Experimental Station 38:Weeds controlled with herbicide 5031:Annual Review of Plant Biology 4720:10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111934 4422:Critical Reviews in Toxicology 3442:Krämer, Wolfgang, ed. (2012). 3177:Agricultural Control Chemicals 2181:relationship remains unclear. 1881:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 946:There is little difference in 294:grass crops, because it kills 157:, as well as pasture systems. 1: 4766:10.1126/science.341.6152.1329 2661:acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase 2578:Have a high level of efficacy 2048:has left tangible, long-term 1352:Electrical resistance heating 851:(IAA). This family includes 690:molecules. As a consequence, 678:at the photochemical step in 546:Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase 260:Agricultural Research Council 6522:Persistent organic pollutant 5264:10.1126/science.341.6147.734 4355:"Tordon 101: picloram/2,4-D" 3935:King, Jessica (2012-08-10). 3897:Stocking, Ben (2007-06-14). 3848:"The legacy of Agent Orange" 3352:10.1016/j.pestbp.2007.04.004 3317:10.1080/09670874.2013.821212 3112:10.1126/science.100.2590.154 2897:Robbins, Paul (2007-08-27). 2283:non-target site resistance. 2075:Health effects of pesticides 1062:Persistent organic pollutant 986:Air pollution from a factory 883:WSSA and HRAC classification 485:are soil-applied herbicides. 234:Imperial Chemical Industries 7603:Index of pesticide articles 6665:Index of pesticide articles 6492:Agricultural spray adjuvant 3469:Outlooks on Pest Management 2779:. Summary in press release 2710:Index of pesticide articles 7843: 6747:Climate-friendly gardening 6660:Integrated Pest Management 6507:Integrated pest management 4987:"Attack of the Superweeds" 4567:Baucom, Regina S. (2019). 4343:. CBC News. June 16, 2009. 4311:10.1177/096032719101000101 3971:(2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. 3787:Journal of Applied Ecology 3185:10.1021/ba-1950-0001.ch045 2715:Integrated pest management 2690: 2426:Integrated pest management 2412:Integrated pest management 2409: 2360:Biochemistry of resistance 2068: 2059:Viet Nam Red Cross Society 2005:, most of them victims of 1986: 899: 112:), also commonly known as 18: 7726: 7623:Plant disease forecasting 7577:Vegan organic agriculture 7427:Genetically modified tree 6655: 6557:Paradox of the pesticides 6458: 6160:Photosystem II inhibitors 6074:Photosystem II inhibitors 5194:"Pesticide Product Label" 4434:10.1080/10408440802116496 4398:10.1080/15287398109529973 3739:10.1017/S0890037X00046376 3689:10.1017/S0890037X00043116 3414:10.1016/j.abb.2004.08.015 3370:Biochemistry, 4th Edition 3247:10.1002/9780470634394.ch1 3148:Robert L Zimdahl (2007). 3022:. John Wiley & Sons. 2518:Control in previous years 2371:electron-transport system 1607:War and environmental law 1227:Health effects from noise 1077:Volatile organic compound 955:Misuse and misapplication 529:, enzyme substrates, and 324:groundwater contamination 236:. In 1940, his work with 228:was first synthesized by 185:, arsenic, copper salts, 6597:Pesticide Action Network 6517:Non-pesticide management 6033:Photosystem I inhibitors 5156:Weed management handbook 2872:. CBC News. 2 July 2019. 2807:10.1002/14356007.a28_165 2001:Handicapped children in 1977:Herbicide volatilisation 1232:Marine mammals and sonar 951:cycles of lumber crops. 776:, which are involved in 722:Photosystem I inhibitors 710:) and urea derivatives ( 612:pyrimidinyl oxybenzoates 391:Non-selective herbicides 310:of the parent compound. 222:use of herbicides in war 6497:Biological pest control 5106:Pest Management Science 4893:Corn and Soybean Digest 4809:10.1614/WS-D-15-00035.1 4790:Shaw, David R. (2016). 4466:Ecological Applications 4062:10.1093/jnci/84.24.1866 4043:"Herbicides and Cancer" 3998:Environ Health Perspect 3509:10.1023/A:1005458703363 3368:Stryer, Lubert (1995). 2513:Single modes of action 1707:Freshwater salinization 1627:Agricultural wastewater 734:reactive oxygen species 7562:Biodynamic agriculture 7499:Postharvest physiology 7447:Landscape architecture 7144:Indonesian home garden 6610:The Pesticide Question 5319:, April, 1996 pp99–116 5069:. 569–570: 1618–1628. 4134:Smith (18 July 1995). 3883:Lewy, Guenter (1978), 3828:Bruce Cumings (1998). 2567:Mixtures and sequences 2558:Alternative herbicides 2540:Resistance in vicinity 2443:Alopecurus myosuroides 2212:, in studies on rats. 2161:are contaminated with 2010: 1926:Environment portal 911: 698:herbicides (including 522: 242:naphthaleneacetic acid 213: 149:varieties in favor of 39: 31: 6809:Historic conservation 6512:Maximum residue limit 6482:Environmental effects 4243:10.1289/ehp.971051222 3393:Moran GR (Jan 2005). 2949:10.1104/pp.114.241901 2725:Preemergent herbicide 2691:Further information: 2681:long-chain fatty acid 2673:acetolactate synthase 2420:– a major concern in 2406:Resistance management 2339:Evolutionary insights 2272:glyphosate resistance 2000: 1667:Industrial wastewater 1435:Municipal solid waste 1357:Soil guideline values 909: 902:Pesticide application 900:Further information: 724:steal electrons from 568:Acetolactate synthase 520: 460:Method of application 411:Timing of application 204: 37: 29: 7739:Gardening portal 7638:Aquamog weed remover 7613:List of insecticides 6670:Pesticide categories 5182:. 21 September 2017. 3763:. BBC. 16 April 2015 3402:Arch Biochem Biophys 2510:Many modes of action 2418:herbicide resistance 2354:metabolic resistance 2346:convergent evolution 2260:herbicide resistance 2206:Dow Chemical Company 2107:non-Hodgkin lymphoma 2023:British Commonwealth 1876:Most polluted cities 1528:Overhead power lines 752:herbicides (such as 740:herbicides (such as 6261:aminocyclopyrachlor 6226:sulfometuron methyl 5358:General Information 5291:. Bayer CropScience 5256:2013Sci...341..734S 5075:2016ScTEn.569.1618A 4837:farmers advance.com 4640:2015WeedR..55..334F 4573:The New Phytologist 4390:1981JTEH....7..207R 4303:1991HETox..10....1T 4103:10.1093/jnci/djx233 4010:10.1289/ehp.9196213 3903:The Washington Post 3799:1993JApEc..30..395M 3104:1944Sci...100..154H 2995:10.1614/WT-06-130.1 2768:EPA. February 2011 2456: 2103:soft tissue sarcoma 2015:chemical substances 1692:Ocean acidification 1602:Unexploded ordnance 1523:Advertising clutter 1455:Post-consumer waste 1400:Foam food container 1385:Biodegradable waste 1042:Global distillation 896:Use and application 608:triazolopyrimidines 535:mechanism of action 513:Mechanism of action 314:Further discoveries 252:Juda Hirsch Quastel 169:, such as altering 7807:Soil contamination 7608:List of fungicides 7373:Companion planting 6221:metsulfuron-methyl 5890:Nitrophenyl ethers 4991:The New York Times 3885:America in Vietnam 3871:The New York Times 2775:2015-03-18 at the 2730:Soil contamination 2693:List of herbicides 2669:selection pressure 2482:Cultivation system 2454: 2433:selection pressure 2375:gene amplification 2216:Ecological effects 2159:Phenoxy herbicides 2099:phenoxy herbicides 2011: 1993:Herbicidal warfare 1938:Ecology portal 1563:Herbicidal warfare 1107:Introduced species 1047:Indoor air quality 1017:Chlorofluorocarbon 943:in water courses. 923:systems (known as 912: 844:mimic the natural 842:phenoxyacetic acid 600:metsulfuron-methyl 523: 421:photodecomposition 378:Herbicide safeners 214: 175:Mechanical control 40: 32: 21:Weedkiller (album) 7784: 7783: 7656:Community orchard 7482:drought tolerance 6678: 6677: 6334: 6333: 6239: 6238: 6145: 6144: 6059: 6058: 5980: 5979: 5881:Protox inhibitors 5875: 5874: 5871: 5870: 5798:ACCase inhibitors 5376:Regulatory policy 5250:(6147): 734–736. 5165:978-0-632-05732-0 4648:10.1111/wre.12153 4586:10.1111/nph.15723 4149:978-0-8247-9547-4 4055:(24): 1866–1874. 3978:978-1-85109-961-0 3453:978-3-527-32965-6 3379:978-0-7167-2009-6 3241:. pp. 1–33. 3194:978-0-8412-2442-1 3098:(2590): 154–155. 2615:organic herbicide 2609:Natural herbicide 2550: 2549: 2477:Crop monoculture 2446:(blackgrass) and 2019:Malayan Emergency 1989:Rainbow herbicide 1974: 1973: 1909: 1908: 1575:Nuclear holocaust 1498:Urban heat island 1312:Radioactive waste 1097:Biological hazard 1007:Air quality index 849:indoleacetic acid 542:ACCase inhibitors 306:) or one of many 254:, working at the 238:indoleacetic acid 167:cultural controls 7834: 7772: 7771: 7760: 7759: 7748: 7747: 7737: 7736: 7713:Plant collecting 7649:Related articles 7586:Plant protection 6767:French intensive 6705: 6698: 6691: 6682: 6464: 6361: 6354: 6347: 6338: 6156: 6070: 6029: 5938:Pyrimidinediones 5886: 5803: 5741: 5688:Organophosphorus 5430: 5423: 5416: 5407: 5334: 5333: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5296: 5290: 5282: 5276: 5275: 5239: 5228: 5227: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5208: 5198: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5151: 5138: 5137: 5101: 5095: 5094: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4982: 4973: 4972: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4895:. 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Archived from 3399: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3300: 3291: 3290: 3282: 3261: 3260: 3233: 3224: 3223: 3221: 3220: 3209:"2,4-D Benefits" 3205: 3199: 3198: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2951: 2942:(3): 1119–1131. 2936:Plant Physiology 2927: 2921: 2920: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2848: 2839: 2838: 2836: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2794: 2788: 2766: 2529:Weed infestation 2485:Annual ploughing 2457: 2377:or changes in a 2320:Annual bluegrass 2233:Bird populations 2202:Dow AgroSciences 2186:Monsanto Company 2122:chronic toxicity 1966: 1959: 1952: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1924: 1923: 1855: 1558:Chemical warfare 1460:Waste management 1420:Industrial waste 1395:Electronic waste 1380:Advertising mail 1362:Phytoremediation 1337:Land degradation 1277:Depleted uranium 1162:Overillumination 1112:Invasive species 984: 974: 959: 651:-like herbicides 622:EPSPS inhibitors 218:Second World War 210:Second World War 197:First herbicides 120:, also known as 111: 110: 107: 106: 103: 100: 93: 85: 84: 81: 80: 77: 74: 71: 68: 65: 62: 59: 52: 7842: 7841: 7837: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7832: 7831: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7780: 7731: 7722: 7718:Turf management 7703:Lists of plants 7698:List of gardens 7644: 7581: 7548: 7310: 6860: 6853: 6718: 6709: 6679: 6674: 6651: 6620: 6465: 6456: 6370: 6365: 6335: 6330: 6235: 6197: 6141: 6055: 6018: 5976: 5955: 5932: 5867: 5849: 5792: 5730: 5682: 5648:flurochloridone 5634: 5620:copper arsenate 5601: 5545: 5443: 5434: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5335: 5331: 5326: 5315:Longworth, Jim 5309: 5307:Further reading 5304: 5294: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5283: 5279: 5241: 5240: 5231: 5221: 5220: 5216: 5206: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5153: 5152: 5141: 5118:10.1002/ps.6040 5103: 5102: 5098: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5028: 5027: 5023: 5016: 5003: 5002: 4998: 4984: 4983: 4976: 4969:weedscience.org 4963: 4962: 4958: 4951:weedscience.org 4945: 4944: 4940: 4933:weedscience.org 4927: 4926: 4922: 4915:weedscience.org 4909: 4908: 4904: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4868: 4867: 4863: 4850:Haynes, Betty. 4849: 4848: 4844: 4831:Quinn, Lauren. 4830: 4829: 4825: 4789: 4788: 4781: 4751: 4750: 4743: 4701: 4700: 4693: 4663: 4662: 4655: 4625: 4624: 4620: 4566: 4565: 4556: 4549:weedscience.org 4543: 4542: 4538: 4531: 4517: 4516: 4512: 4490: 4489: 4485: 4463: 4461: 4457: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4375: 4374: 4370: 4353: 4352: 4348: 4339: 4338: 4334: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4278:. Nov 27, 1996. 4273: 4272: 4268: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4196:(12): 1061–75. 4183: 4182: 4178: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4133: 4132: 4128: 4083: 4082: 4078: 4040: 4039: 4035: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3966: 3965: 3961: 3952: 3950: 3934: 3933: 3929: 3920: 3918: 3896: 3895: 3891: 3882: 3878: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3846: 3845: 3841: 3827: 3826: 3822: 3807:10.2307/2404181 3784: 3783: 3776: 3766: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3727:Weed Technology 3724: 3723: 3719: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3677:Weed Technology 3674: 3673: 3669: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3610: 3609: 3605: 3587:10.4141/P05-193 3567: 3566: 3559: 3552:10.1071/CH10366 3537: 3536: 3532: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3481:10.1564/20feb09 3466: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3441: 3440: 3436: 3428: 3397: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3367: 3366: 3359: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3302: 3301: 3294: 3284: 3283: 3264: 3257: 3235: 3234: 3227: 3218: 3216: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3147: 3146: 3142: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2983:Weed Technology 2980: 2979: 2975: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2909: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2882: 2881: 2877: 2868: 2867: 2863: 2855: 2850: 2849: 2842: 2834: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2817: 2796: 2795: 2791: 2777:Wayback Machine 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2695: 2689: 2657:diclofop-methyl 2645: 2619:organic farming 2611: 2598:Stellaria media 2569: 2560: 2555: 2502:Herbicide only 2490:minimum tillage 2471:Cropping system 2414: 2408: 2383:cytochrome P450 2362: 2341: 2316:Palmer amaranth 2256: 2235: 2227: 2218: 2204:, owned by the 2116:in addition to 2087:carcinogenicity 2082: 2077: 2067: 2035:Royal Air Force 1995: 1987:Main articles: 1985: 1970: 1932: 1930: 1918: 1911: 1910: 1810: 1802: 1801: 1775: 1767: 1766: 1702:Pharmaceuticals 1682:Nonpoint source 1622: 1612: 1611: 1580:Nuclear fallout 1553: 1543: 1542: 1513: 1503: 1502: 1493: 1483: 1482: 1473: 1465: 1464: 1450:Packaging waste 1415:Hazardous waste 1375: 1367: 1366: 1327: 1317: 1316: 1287:Nuclear fallout 1282:Nuclear fission 1262: 1252: 1251: 1217: 1207: 1206: 1182: 1174: 1173: 1147: 1145:Electromagnetic 1137: 1136: 1127: 1119: 1118: 1092: 1082: 1081: 1052:Ozone depletion 997: 987: 972: 957: 904: 898: 885: 769:HPPD inhibitors 718:, and terbacil. 594:(SUs) (such as 560:plants are not. 550:lipid synthesis 515: 506: 473:Volatility and 462: 413: 393: 359: 350: 316: 230:W. G. Templeman 224:. The compound 199: 191:sodium chlorate 163: 97: 88: 87: 56: 47: 46: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7840: 7838: 7830: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7789: 7788: 7782: 7781: 7779: 7778: 7766: 7754: 7742: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7693:Garden tourism 7690: 7685: 7683:Groundskeeping 7680: 7679: 7678: 7673: 7663: 7658: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7589: 7587: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7558: 7556: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7472:free-flowering 7469: 7464: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7353: 7348: 7347: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7320: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 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6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6502:Gene silencing 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6477:Health effects 6473: 6471: 6470:Related topics 6467: 6466: 6459: 6457: 6455: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6381: 6379: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6356: 6349: 6341: 6332: 6331: 6329: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6247: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6207: 6205: 6203:ALS inhibitors 6199: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6162: 6153: 6147: 6146: 6143: 6142: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6127:terbuthylazine 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6037: 6035: 6026: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5990: 5988: 5982: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5969: 5963: 5961: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5953: 5948: 5942: 5940: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5894: 5892: 5883: 5877: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5869: 5868: 5866: 5865: 5859: 5857: 5855:DIM herbicides 5851: 5850: 5848: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5811: 5809: 5807:FOP herbicides 5800: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5749: 5747: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5692: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5644: 5642: 5640:HPPD inhbitors 5636: 5635: 5633: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5615:cacodylic acid 5611: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5558: 5556: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5457: 5455: 5445: 5444: 5435: 5433: 5432: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5367: 5360: 5359: 5336: 5329: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5324:External links 5322: 5321: 5320: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5277: 5229: 5222:Cheryl Wilen. 5214: 5185: 5171: 5164: 5139: 5096: 5056: 5037:(1): 317–347. 5021: 5014: 4996: 4974: 4956: 4938: 4920: 4902: 4899:on 2009-07-10. 4879: 4876:. 23 May 2023. 4861: 4842: 4823: 4779: 4760:(6152): 1329. 4741: 4691: 4672:(6): 700–712. 4653: 4634:(4): 334–358. 4618: 4596:2027.42/149516 4554: 4536: 4530:978-1560981138 4529: 4510: 4499:(4): 579–600. 4483: 4455: 4428:(9): 721–772. 4411: 4384:(2): 207–222. 4368: 4365:on 2010-03-12. 4346: 4332: 4281: 4266: 4237:(11): 1222–7. 4217: 4176: 4155: 4148: 4126: 4097:(5): 509–516. 4076: 4033: 3984: 3977: 3959: 3927: 3889: 3876: 3857: 3839: 3820: 3793:(3): 395–406. 3774: 3752: 3717: 3702: 3683:(2): 384–393. 3667: 3646: 3628: 3621: 3603: 3557: 3546:(4): 367–372. 3530: 3503:(5): 498–506. 3486: 3459: 3452: 3434: 3431:on 2014-03-03. 3385: 3378: 3357: 3330: 3311:(3): 165–173. 3292: 3262: 3255: 3225: 3200: 3193: 3167: 3160: 3140: 3125: 3082: 3055:(2): 290–297. 3035: 3028: 3008: 2989:(2): 559–566. 2973: 2922: 2907: 2889: 2875: 2861: 2840: 2830:Smil, Vaclav. 2822: 2815: 2789: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2735:Surface runoff 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2707: 2702: 2696: 2688: 2685: 2677:Photosystem II 2644: 2641: 2633:tree of heaven 2610: 2607: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2568: 2565: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2492: 2486: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2399: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2361: 2358: 2340: 2337: 2324:Rigid ryegrass 2292:ALS-inhibitors 2255: 2252: 2234: 2231: 2226: 2223: 2217: 2214: 2147:surface runoff 2118:acute toxicity 2081: 2078: 2066: 2063: 1984: 1981: 1972: 1971: 1969: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1941: 1940: 1928: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1871:Law by country 1868: 1860: 1859: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1811: 1808: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1799: 1798: 1797: 1792: 1782: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1769: 1768: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1742:Surface runoff 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1642:Eutrophication 1639: 1634: 1629: 1623: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1597:Scorched earth 1594: 1593: 1592: 1590:Nuclear winter 1587: 1585:Nuclear famine 1582: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1560: 1554: 1549: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1376: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1342:Bioremediation 1339: 1334: 1328: 1323: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1272:Bioremediation 1269: 1263: 1258: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1222:Transportation 1218: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1183: 1180: 1179: 1176: 1175: 1172: 1171: 1169:Radio spectrum 1166: 1165: 1164: 1159: 1148: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1104: 1099: 1093: 1088: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1037:Global dimming 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 1004: 998: 993: 992: 989: 988: 985: 977: 976: 968: 967: 956: 953: 897: 894: 884: 881: 798: 797: 765: 750:diphenyl ether 719: 680:photosynthesis 670:Photosystem II 666: 645: 619: 604:imidazolinones 564:ALS inhibitors 561: 527:plant hormones 514: 511: 505: 502: 501: 500: 489:Foliar applied 486: 461: 458: 457: 456: 450: 436: 412: 409: 392: 389: 358: 355: 349: 346: 315: 312: 304:trimethylamine 290:, and similar 268:plant hormones 247:microorganisms 198: 195: 162: 159: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7839: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7777: 7776: 7767: 7765: 7764: 7755: 7753: 7752: 7743: 7741: 7740: 7735: 7729: 7728: 7725: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7688:Garden centre 7686: 7684: 7681: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7668: 7667: 7666:Floral design 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7647: 7639: 7636: 7635: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7590: 7588: 7584: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7557: 7555: 7551: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7532:reforestation 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7442:Intercropping 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7384: 7383:most valuable 7381: 7380: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7351:Arboriculture 7349: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6990: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6945: 6944:Garden square 6942: 6941: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6874:Ancient Egypt 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6864: 6862: 6856: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6805: 6802: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6777:Garden design 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6701: 6699: 6694: 6692: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6654: 6648: 6647:United States 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6611: 6607: 6605: 6604: 6603:Silent Spring 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6472: 6468: 6463: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6421: 6418: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6357: 6355: 6350: 6348: 6343: 6342: 6339: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6216:flazasulfuron 6214: 6212: 6211:chlorsulfuron 6209: 6208: 6206: 6204: 6200: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6062: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6021: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5989: 5987: 5983: 5973: 5972:sulfentrazone 5970: 5968: 5967:carfentrazone 5965: 5964: 5962: 5960:Triazolinones 5958: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5891: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5856: 5852: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5812: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5746: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5658:leptospermone 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5521:pendimethalin 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5431: 5426: 5424: 5419: 5417: 5412: 5411: 5408: 5401: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5375: 5374: 5371: 5368: 5365: 5362: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5350: 5349: 5343: 5339: 5323: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5306: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5238: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5225: 5218: 5215: 5203:. 19 May 2022 5202: 5195: 5189: 5186: 5181: 5175: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5157: 5150: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5140: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5100: 5097: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5060: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5022: 5017: 5015:9781420039085 5011: 5007: 5000: 4997: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4970: 4966: 4960: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4934: 4930: 4924: 4921: 4916: 4912: 4906: 4903: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4846: 4843: 4838: 4834: 4827: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4748: 4746: 4742: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4708:Plant Science 4705: 4698: 4696: 4692: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4628:Weed Research 4622: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4540: 4537: 4532: 4526: 4522: 4514: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4484: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4459: 4456: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4415: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4372: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4350: 4347: 4342: 4336: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4276:Wichita Eagle 4270: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4165: 4159: 4156: 4151: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4130: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4080: 4077: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4049: 4044: 4037: 4034: 4029: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3985: 3980: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3960: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3931: 3928: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3890: 3886: 3880: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3861: 3858: 3853: 3849: 3843: 3840: 3836:. p. 61. 3835: 3831: 3824: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3718: 3713: 3706: 3703: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3668: 3656: 3650: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3632: 3629: 3624: 3622:9781420039085 3618: 3614: 3607: 3604: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540:Aust. J. Chem 3534: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3460: 3455: 3449: 3445: 3438: 3435: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3408:(1): 117–28. 3407: 3403: 3396: 3389: 3386: 3381: 3375: 3371: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3334: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3256:9780470410318 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3232: 3230: 3226: 3215:on 2015-11-02 3214: 3210: 3204: 3201: 3196: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3171: 3168: 3163: 3161:9780123815026 3157: 3153: 3152: 3144: 3141: 3136: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3029:9781444322491 3025: 3021: 3020: 3012: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2977: 2974: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2908:9781452265582 2904: 2900: 2893: 2890: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2854: 2847: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2826: 2823: 2818: 2816:3-527-30673-0 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2793: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2765: 2762: 2756: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2694: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2557: 2552: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2507:Herbicide use 2506: 2505: 2501: 2499:Cultural only 2498: 2495: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2474:Good rotation 2473: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2437: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2413: 2405: 2400: 2396: 2395: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2379:gene promoter 2376: 2372: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2349: 2347: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2261: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2232: 2230: 2224: 2222: 2215: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2177:, although a 2176: 2175:breast cancer 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2153: 2148: 2144: 2138: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2042:U.S. military 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1994: 1990: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1955: 1953: 1948: 1947: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1914: 1903: 1900: 1899: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1771: 1770: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1757:Water quality 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1615: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1547: 1546: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1533:Traffic signs 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1507: 1506: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1487: 1486: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1469: 1468: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1440:Nanomaterials 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1371: 1370: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1353: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1321: 1320: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1302:Radioactivity 1300: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1256: 1255: 1248: 1247:Soundproofing 1245: 1243: 1242:Noise control 1240: 1238: 1237:Noise barrier 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1216: 1211: 1210: 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1178: 1177: 1170: 1167: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1146: 1141: 1140: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1065: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1003: 1000: 999: 996: 991: 990: 983: 979: 978: 975: 969: 965: 961: 960: 954: 952: 949: 944: 942: 938: 934: 928: 926: 922: 917: 908: 903: 895: 893: 891: 882: 880: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 847: 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