134:: elevation 2,240 metres (7,349 ft). It was during these Olympic Games that endurance events saw significant below-record finishes while anaerobic, sprint events broke all types of records. It was speculated prior to these events how the altitude might affect performances of these elite, world-class athletes and most of the conclusions drawn were equivalent to those hypothesized: that endurance events would suffer and that short events would not see significant negative changes. This was attributed not only to less resistance during movement—due to the less dense air—but also to the anaerobic nature of the sprint events. Ultimately, these games inspired investigations into altitude training from which unique training principles were developed with the aim of avoiding underperformance.
167:, while maintaining the same exercise intensity during training at sea level. Due to the environmental differences at high altitude, it may be necessary to decrease the intensity of workouts. Studies examining the live-high, train-low theory have produced varied results, which may be dependent on a variety of factors such as individual variability, time spent at high altitude, and the type of training program. For example, it has been shown that athletes performing primarily anaerobic activity do not necessarily benefit from altitude training as they do not rely on oxygen to fuel their performances.
119:
277:
is beneficial to an athlete who had a musculoskeletal injury and is unable to apply large amounts of stress during exercise which would normally be needed to generate high intensity cardiovascular training. Hypoxia exposure for the time of exercise alone is not sufficient to induce changes in hematologic parameters. Hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations remain in general unchanged. There are a number of companies who provide altitude training systems, most notably
31:
87:, or altering muscle metabolism. Proponents claim that when such athletes travel to competitions at lower altitudes they will still have a higher concentration of red blood cells for 10–14 days, and this gives them a competitive advantage. Some athletes live permanently at high altitude, only returning to sea level to compete, but their training may suffer due to less available oxygen for workouts.
395:, and pH regulation, each of which may partially explain improved endurance performance independent of a greater number of red blood cells. Furthermore, exercising at high altitude has been shown to cause muscular adjustments of selected gene transcripts, and improvement of mitochondrial properties in skeletal muscle.
338:
in order to increase hemoglobin saturation and oxygen delivery. Some athletes demonstrate a strong red blood cell response to altitude while others see little or no gain in red cell mass with chronic exposure. It is uncertain how long this adaptation takes because various studies have found different
199:. Altitude training can produce slow recovery due to the stress of hypoxia. Exposure to extreme hypoxia at altitudes above 16,000 feet (5,000 m) can lead to considerable deterioration of skeletal muscle tissue. Five weeks at this altitude leads to a loss of muscle volume of the order of 10–15%.
276:
Artificial altitude can also be used for hypoxic exercise, where athletes train in an altitude simulator which mimics the conditions a high altitude environment. Athletes are able to perform high intensity training at lower velocities and thus produce less stress on the musculoskeletal system. This
417:
Due to the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, the air pressure within the breathing system must be lower than it would be at low altitudes in order for inhalation to occur. Therefore, inhalation at high altitudes typically involves a relatively greater lowering of the thoracic diaphragm
190:
Altitude training can produce increases in speed, strength, endurance, and recovery by maintaining altitude exposure for a significant period of time. A study using simulated altitude exposure for 18 days, yet training closer to sea-level, showed performance gains were still evident 15 days later.
382:
Other mechanisms have been proposed to explain the utility of altitude training. Not all studies show a statistically significant increase in red blood cells from altitude training. One study explained the success by increasing the intensity of the training (due to increased heart and respiration
272:
has designed a "high-altitude house." The air inside the house, which is situated at sea level, is at normal pressure but modified to have a low concentration of oxygen, about 15.3% (below the 20.9% at sea level), which is roughly equivalent to the amount of oxygen available at the high altitudes
293:
Altitude training works because of the difference in atmospheric pressure between sea level and high altitude. At sea level, air is denser and there are more molecules of gas per litre of air. Regardless of altitude, air is composed of 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen. As the altitude increases, the
194:
Opponents of altitude training argue that an athlete's red blood cell concentration returns to normal levels within days of returning to sea level and that it is impossible to train at the same intensity that one could at sea level, reducing the training effect and wasting training time due to
297:
The physiological adaptation that is mainly responsible for the performance gains achieved from altitude training, is a subject of discussion among researchers. Some, including
American researchers Ben Levine and Jim Stray-Gundersen, claim it is primarily the increased red blood cell volume.
249:(PCr). The body's tissues have the ability to sense hypoxia and induce vasodilation. The higher blood flow helps the skeletal muscles maximize oxygen delivery. A greater level of PCr resynthesis augments the muscles power production during the initial stages of high-intensity exercise.
273:
often used for altitude training due to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen at altitude. Athletes live and sleep inside the house, but perform their training outside (at normal oxygen concentrations at 20.9%). Rusko's results show improvements of EPO and red-cell levels.
227:(RSH), athletes run short sprints under 30 seconds as fast as they can. They experience incomplete recoveries in hypoxic conditions. The exercise to rest time ratio is less than 1:4, which means for every 30 second all out sprint, there is less than 120 seconds of rest.
284:
A South
African scientist named Neil Stacey has proposed the opposite approach, using oxygen enrichment to provide a training environment with an oxygen partial pressure even higher than at sea level. This method is intended to increase training intensity.
294:
pressure exerted by these gases decreases. Therefore, there are fewer molecules per unit volume: this causes a decrease in partial pressures of gases in the body, which elicits a variety of physiological changes in the body that occur at high altitude.
154:
One suggestion for optimizing adaptations and maintaining performance is the live-high, train-low principle. This training idea involves living at higher altitudes in order to experience the physiological adaptations that occur, such as increased
301:
Others, including
Australian researcher Chris Gore, and New Zealand researcher Will Hopkins, dispute this and instead claim the gains are primarily a result of other adaptions such as a switch to a more economic mode of oxygen utilization.
374:. The natural secretion of EPO by the human kidneys can be increased by altitude training, but the body has limits on the amount of natural EPO that it will secrete, thus avoiding the harmful side effects of the illegal doping procedures.
260:
Altitude simulation systems have enabled protocols that do not suffer from the tension between better altitude physiology and more intense workouts. Such simulated altitude systems can be utilized closer to competition if necessary.
170:
A non-training elevation of 2,100–2,500 metres (6,900–8,200 ft) and training at 1,250 metres (4,100 ft) or less has shown to be the optimal approach for altitude training. Good venues for live-high train-low include
955:
Brugniaux, JV; Schmitt, L; Robach, P; Nicolet, G; et al. (January 2006). "Eighteen days of "living high, training low" stimulate erythropoiesis and enhance aerobic performance in elite middle-distance runners".
234:(RSN), studies show that RSH improved time to fatigue and power output. RSH and RSN groups were tested before and after a 4-week training period. Both groups initially completed 9–10 all-out sprints before total
883:
Rodríguez, FA; Truijens, MJ; Townsend, NE; Stray-Gundersen, J; et al. (2007). "Performance of runners and swimmers after four weeks of intermittent hypobaric hypoxic exposure plus sea level training".
386:
Another set of researchers claim that altitude training stimulates a more efficient use of oxygen by the muscles. This efficiency can arise from numerous other responses to altitude training, including
1443:
Ponsot, E; Dufour, SP; Zoll, J; Doutrelau, S; et al. (April 2006). "Exercise training in normobaric hypoxia in endurance runners. II. Improvement of mitochondrial properties in skeletal muscle".
1252:
Gore, CJ; Hopkins, WG (November 2005). "Counterpoint: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are not mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume".
207:
In the live-high, train-high regime, an athlete lives and trains at a desired altitude. The stimulus on the body is constant because the athlete is continuously in a hypoxic environment. Initially VO
1206:
Levine, BD; Stray-Gundersen, J (November 2005). "Point: positive effects of intermittent hypoxia (live high:train low) on exercise performance are mediated primarily by augmented red cell volume".
1400:
Zoll, J; Ponsot, E; Dufour, S; Doutreleau, S; et al. (April 2006). "Exercise training in normobaric hypoxia in endurance runners. III. Muscular adjustments of selected gene transcripts".
60:, though more commonly at intermediate altitudes due to the shortage of suitable high-altitude locations. At intermediate altitudes, the air still contains approximately 20.9%
1115:
Bogdanis, GC; Nevill, ME; Boobis, LH; Lakomy, HK (1 March 1996). "Contribution of phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism to energy supply during repeated sprint exercise".
571:
Wehrlin, JP; Zuest, P; Hallén, J; Marti, B (June 2006). "Live high—train low for 24 days increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume in elite endurance athletes".
848:
Stray-Gundersen, J; Chapman, RF; Levine, BD (2001). ""Living high—training low" altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners".
110:, which consists of reducing the breathing frequency while exercising, can also mimic altitude training by significantly decreasing blood and muscle oxygenation.
238:. After the 4 week training period, the RSH group was able to complete 13 all out sprints before exhaustion and the RSN group only completed 9.
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706:
106:
system where the barometric pressure is kept the same, but the oxygen content is reduced which also reduces the partial pressure of oxygen.
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In a study comparing rats active at high altitude versus rats active at sea level, with two sedentary control groups, it was observed that
311:
936:
427:
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Athletes or individuals who wish to gain a competitive edge for endurance events can take advantage of exercising at high altitude.
354:
and injections in order to gain advantages in endurance events. Abuse of EPO, however, increases RBC counts beyond normal levels (
1486:
Bigard, AX; Brunet, A; Guezennec, CY; Monod, H (1991). "Skeletal muscle changes after endurance training at high altitude".
1287:
Prchal, JT; Pastore, YD (2004). "Erythropoietin and erythropoiesis: polycythemias due to disruption of oxygen homeostasis".
215:
as much oxygen as they would at sea level. Any given velocity must be performed at a higher relative intensity at altitude.
684:
1526:
659:
487:
1068:"Advancing hypoxic training in team sports: from intermittent hypoxic training to repeated sprint training in hypoxia"
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Rupert, JL; Hochachka, PW (2001). "Genetic approaches to understanding human adaptation to altitude in the Andes".
319:
172:
1531:
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Neil, Stacey (2017-10-17). "Oxygen enrichment to enhance training effectiveness and physiological adaptation".
211:
max drops considerably: by around 7% for every 1000 m above sea level. Athletes will no longer be able to
107:
1181:
34:
Altitude training in the Swiss
Olympic Training Base in the Alps (elevation 1,856 m or 6,089 ft) in
224:
383:
rate). This improved training resulted in effects that lasted more than 15 days after return to sea level.
118:
809:
The effects of altitude training are mediated primarily by acclimatization rather than by hypoxic exercise
733:
Ward-Smith, AJ (1983). "The influence of aerodynamic and biomechanical factors on long jump performance".
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678:
664:
US Army
Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report
180:
318:
At high altitudes, there is a decrease in oxygen hemoglobin saturation. This hypoxic condition causes
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127:
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65:
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While EPO occurs naturally in the body, it is also made synthetically to help treat patients with
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350:. Over the past thirty years, EPO has become frequently abused by competitive athletes through
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challenges which led to an increased metabolic efficiency during the beta oxidative cycle and
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Formenti, F; Constantin-Teodosiu, D; Emmanuel, Y; Cheeseman, J; et al. (June 2010).
770:"Live high:train low increases muscle buffer capacity and submaximal cycling efficiency"
698:
529:
1092:
1067:
548:
513:
448:"Prediction of barometric pressures at high altitude with the use of model atmospheres"
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323:
156:
80:
619:"Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure"
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811:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 502. pp. 75–88.
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84:
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Notes from higher grounds: an altitude training guide for endurance athletes
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The study of altitude training was heavily delved into during and after the
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RSH is still a relatively new training method and is not fully understood.
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473:
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is typically defined as any elevation above 1,500 metres (5,000 ft).
1066:
Faiss, Raphael; Girard, Olivier; Millet, Gregoire P (11 September 2013).
1004:
Smoliga, J (Summer 2009). "High-altitude training for distance runners".
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who pioneered the artificial altitude training systems in the mid-1990s.
231:
53:
331:
327:
265:
184:
160:
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Chapman, R; Levine, BD (2007). "Altitude training for the marathon".
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Hoppeler, H; Vogt, M (2001). "Muscle tissue adaptations to hypoxia".
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61:
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309:
117:
29:
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conclusions based on the amount of time spent at high altitudes.
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Gore, CJ; Hahn, AG; Aughey, RJ; Martin, DT; et al. (2001).
241:
Possible physiological advantages from RSH include compensatory
75:
Depending on the protocols used, the body may acclimate to the
666:(USARIEM–TN–04–05). Archived from the original on 2009-04-23
514:"Regulation of human metabolism by hypoxia-inducible factor"
358:) and increases the viscosity of blood, possibly leading to
518:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA
322:(HIF1) to become stable and stimulates the production of
122:
Altitude training in a low-pressure room in East
Germany
488:"Online high-altitude oxygen and pressure calculator"
56:, preferably over 2,400 metres (8,000 ft) above
617:
Gore, CJ; Clark, SA; Saunders, PU (September 2007).
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levels, increased red blood cell levels, and higher
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79:in one or more ways such as increasing the mass of
334:, EPO stimulates red blood cell production from
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8:
699:Hypoventilation training, push your limits!
230:When comparing RSH and repeated sprints in
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658:Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004).
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547:
537:
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807:Levine, BD; Stray-Gunderson, J (2001).
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676:
410:, showing an increased utilization of
52:of training for several weeks at high
7:
27:Athletic training at high elevations
362:and increasing the likelihood of a
428:Effects of high altitude on humans
25:
1336:10.2165/00007256-200737040-00031
1260:(5): 2055–7, discussion 2057–8.
786:10.1046/j.1365-201X.2001.00906.x
660:"Altitude Acclimatization Guide"
1457:10.1152/japplphysiol.00361.2005
1414:10.1152/japplphysiol.00359.2005
1367:Journal of Experimental Biology
1266:10.1152/japplphysiol.00820.2005
1220:10.1152/japplphysiol.00877.2005
1028:Journal of Experimental Biology
970:10.1152/japplphysiol.00808.2005
898:10.1152/japplphysiol.01320.2006
585:10.1152/japplphysiol.01284.2005
306:Increased red blood cell volume
1184:. Altitude.org. Archived from
490:. Altitude.org. Archived from
1:
1488:Journal of Applied Physiology
1254:Journal of Applied Physiology
1208:Journal of Applied Physiology
1117:Journal of Applied Physiology
958:Journal of Applied Physiology
886:Journal of Applied Physiology
850:Journal of Applied Physiology
720:"Mexico 1968 Summer Olympics"
452:Journal of Applied Physiology
346:and to treat patients during
1500:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.6.2114
1084:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092741
931:. Kukimbia Huru Publishing.
862:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.3.1113
747:10.1016/0021-9290(83)90116-1
636:10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49d3
465:10.1152/jappl.1996.81.4.1850
1129:10.1152/jappl.1996.80.3.876
817:10.1007/978-1-4757-3401-0_7
722:. Olympics.org. 2018-12-18.
402:types changed according to
219:Repeated sprints in hypoxia
1548:
1182:"A High Altitude Resource"
320:hypoxia-inducible factor 1
683:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
446:West, JB (October 1996).
414:for aerobic performance.
289:Principles and mechanisms
173:Mammoth Lakes, California
90:Altitude training can be
108:Hypoventilation training
100:altitude simulation room
96:altitude simulation tent
45:is the practice by some
1379:10.1242/jeb.204.18.3151
1040:10.1242/jeb.204.18.3133
735:Journal of Biomechanics
701:", Arpeh, 2014, 176 p (
539:10.1073/pnas.1002339107
418:than at low altitudes.
223:In repeated sprints in
77:relative lack of oxygen
1301:10.1038/sj.thj.6200434
1168:10.5281/zenodo.1013924
623:Med. Sci. Sports Exerc
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130:, which took place in
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72:of oxygen is reduced.
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18:High-altitude training
391:, glucose transport,
314:Human red blood cells
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203:Live-high, train-high
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33:
268:, a scientist named
245:and regeneration of
157:erythropoietin (EPO)
150:Live-high, train-low
1527:Exercise physiology
530:2010PNAS..10712722F
524:(28): 12722–12727.
256:Artificial altitude
132:Mexico City, Mexico
66:barometric pressure
1373:(Pt 18): 3151–60.
1289:Hematology Journal
774:Acta Physiol Scand
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177:Flagstaff, Arizona
124:
114:Background history
94:through use of an
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1034:(18): 3133–3139.
927:Egan, E. (2013).
826:978-1-4419-3374-4
707:978-2-9546040-1-5
697:Xavier Woorons, "
408:citric acid cycle
197:altitude sickness
138:Training regimens
43:Altitude training
16:(Redirected from
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324:erythropoietin
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1295:: S110–S113.
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360:hypertension
356:polycythemia
352:blood doping
348:chemotherapy
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1006:Track Coach
404:homeostatic
336:bone marrow
104:hypoxicator
1521:Categories
1192:2010-07-03
670:2009-03-05
498:2010-07-03
434:References
393:glycolysis
364:blood clot
236:exhaustion
213:metabolize
187:in Spain.
179:; and the
85:hemoglobin
64:, but the
36:St. Moritz
326:(EPO), a
92:simulated
58:sea level
47:endurance
1465:16339351
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870:11509506
835:11950157
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645:17805094
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558:20616028
422:See also
232:normoxia
54:altitude
50:athletes
1508:1778900
1473:3904731
1430:2068027
1137:8964751
1093:3903143
755:6643537
601:2536000
549:2906567
526:Bibcode
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332:kidneys
328:hormone
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