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cubic kilometers (1,200 cu mi) for the Nuuanu slide), the transport of large ("tens of kilometers" in size) blocks 50 kilometers (31 mi) or more, and evidence of rapid transport – suggests that some of these slides were, indeed, gigantic, and could have generated giant tsunamis. One of these areas is the south flank of Kīlauea, including the Hilina Slump, which is currently in motion. This has raised concern that failure of the south flank of Kīlauea could generate a tsunami that "may threaten cities in the
Pacific region", and that even relatively minor displacement of the Hilina Slump "would be truly disastrous to life and property on Hawaii island, the rest of the archipelago, and possibly the Pacific Rim."
2933:
20:
689:, where the material in the slide has broken up into pieces small enough to flow as a relatively narrow — typically less than 50 kilometers (31 mi) wide — fast-moving stream that can run out as far as 230 kilometers (140 mi). Debris avalanches, or flows, "commonly represent a single episode of rapid failure", where the potential energy of the slide is released suddenly, and could cause giant tsunamis. On the other hand,
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193:– a nearly horizontal fault where the volcanic deposits rest on the oceanic crust – about 8 to 10 km deep. The combination of rifting and gravitationally driven slumping results in seaward movement of the entire south flank (see image), especially around the Hilina Pali, with seaward motions of up to 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) per year.
360:, Kāwāʻa, Honuʻapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. According to one account, the tsunami "rolled in over the tops of the coconut trees, probably 60 feet (18 m) high ... inland a distance of a quarter of a mile in some places, taking out to sea when it returned, houses, men, women, and almost everything movable."
202:
relatively intact block slips along a concave surface, dropping vertically at the head, with the toe often extending upward as well as outward The Hilina Slump extends seaward from both ends of the Hilina Pali out to a depth of 5,000 meters (16,404 ft). Whether this slump is shallow, or reaches down to the
671:
such as Kīlauea are in contrast to the steep, picturesque cliffs (pali), deeply incised canyons, and narrow ridges typical of the older islands, and for a long while it was a bit of mystery how the latter got that way. In 1930 it was suggested that (at least in some cases) this might be the result of
84:
Simplified cross-section through the Kīlauea (gray) and Mauna Loa volcanoes (and edge of Mauna Kea), showing 1) how each volcano lies on the flank of the older volcanoes, and 2) the low-angle slopes typical of shield volcanoes. Elevation in kilometers, with no vertical exaggeration. The dip below the
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was a ubiquitous feature of
Hawaiian geology was not recognized until systematic mapping of the sea floor in the late 1980s identified 17 areas on the flanks of the islands that appear to be the remnants of large landslides. Some aspects of these slides – such as the large volume (estimated at 5,000
693:
are largely intact and undeformed blocks that are wider — up to 110 kilometers (68 mi) — and thicker — about 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) — than debris avalanches, and generally slow moving. Slumps commonly move on a concave surface, with the head dropping down almost vertically (as seen at the
1316:
Current observations of gradual seaward flank growth on Kīlauea support the interpretation that the East Rift Zone (ERZ) episodically opens as the flank is gradually compressed by deep magma and cumulate intrusion and that this compression also triggers décollement slip, which propagates the south
684:
While the
Hawaiian archipelago faces a significant threat from even relatively minor local events, the threat to other trans-Pacific regions has been deemed "exaggerated". Particularly, the larger, more powerful, and more dramatic landslides seen around the Hawaiian Islands are a type of landslide
216:
volcano, at an average speed of 10 cm/year (3.9 in/year). Kīlauea is the southeastern portion, about 13.7%, of the Big Island of Hawaii. Compared to the 25,000 to 35,000 cubic kilometers (6,000 to 8,400 cu mi) volume of Kīlauea, the submarine slide is between 10,000 and 12,000 cubic
328:
Earthquakes in Hawaiʻi result from either movement of magma, or sliding of the volcanic edifices which comprise the islands. Some of the seaward slippage of the flank occurs aseismically, without noticeable earthquakes. At other times there is a lurch, resulting in an earthquake of magnitude 6 or
201:
On the central portion of the south flank of Kīlauea the thousand-foot high cliffs of the Hilina Pali and similar scarps were recognized as early as 1930 as headscarps resulting from slumping of the coast. The Hilina Pali is the headscarp of the Hilina Slump, a type of landslide where a large and
160:
In their 1999 paper, Smith and
Malahoff discussed “magma-jacking” as a major cause of slope failure for the Hilina Slump. Magma jacking occurs when fresh magma is injected into pre-existing fractures or weak rock. The pressure of the injected magma serves to break apart the rock, leading to slope
710:
Pararas-Carayannis concluded that neither geology nor historic events indicate that Kīlauea's southern flank is "unusually unstable or that a massive collapse is possible in the foreseeable future", but even if such a collapse happened as postulated the far-field effects of the resultant tsunami
706:
Coupled with the knowledge that the
Hawaiian islands are ringed with debris fans where large portions of the various volcanoes have slid into the sea – the volume of the Hilina slump has been estimated at 10,000 to 12,000 cubic kilometers (2,400 to 2,900 cu mi) – it seems reasonable to
697:
Seaward movement of Kīlauea's flank has been largely halted on the western end by the Kamaʻehuakanaloa and Papaʻu seamounts, and slowed east of the Hilina Slump by the Hohonu
Seamount. Additional buttressing of Hilina Slump is provided by a "Midslope Bench" (see detailed map above); catastrophic
177:
On Kīlauea's seaward flank (where it is not resting against Mauna Loa) these tendencies are evident where magma oozing out of the caldera turns east and west to form the
Southwest Rift Zone (SWRZ) and East Rift Zone (ERZ), both parallel to the shore, and also in the cliffs of the Hilina Pali –
221:
are enough to exceed the static friction coefficient resulting in a slip along a failure surface. However, recent undersea measurements show that an undersea "bench" has formed a buttress at the forefront of the Hilina Slump, and "this buttress may tend to reduce the likelihood of future
172:
Vectors showing the amount and direction of movement of Global
Positioning System stations at various places on the south flank of Kīlauea, 2003 through 2006, relative to the rest of the island. Measurements for other years are very similar. The dark bands are the cliffs of the Hilina
81:
60:
Kīlauea's entire south flank, extending out to Cape
Kumukahi, is currently sliding seaward, with some parts of the central portion (overlooking the Hilina slump) moving as much as 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) per year, pushed by the forceful injection of magma and pulled by gravity.
501:, with a magnitude of 7.2. A 40-mile (64 km) wide section of the Hilina Slump slid 11 feet (3.4 m) into the ocean, widening the crack by 26 ft (7.9 m). This movement also caused a tsunami that reached a maximum height of 47.0 feet (14.3 m) at
93:
The Hilina Pali (cliff) on Kīlauea
Volcano's south flank is visible evidence of the steep Hilina Fault System. Beneath this system lies the flat-lying detachment fault that has no visible surface expression, but has produced several large earthquakes in the past 200
137:
by their greater breadth and lower gradient slopes. (E.g.: Kilauea's average slope to the east is only 3.3°, and the south slope from the summit to the ocean floor averages only 6°.) When the volcano is over the hotspot a plentiful supply of
672:
large landslides. In 1964 it was noted that certain areas of sea floor with very blocky topography lay downslope from what appear to be giant amphitheaters (the large bowl left at the head of landslides), suggesting the possibility of
658:
in the eastern rift zone of Kīlauea, and in turn, the earthquake preceded further volcanic activity. This could fit into a model of correlation between earthquakes and eruption events described for the earthquakes in 1868 and 1975.
1321:
Sometimes this rapid motion is coseismic, generating a great earthquake and tsunami, but it always results in opening of the rift zone, subsidence of the coast, and collapse of the summit magma-system head by hundreds of
56:
that ring each of the Hawaiian Islands. These landslides are the means by which material deposited at a volcano's vents are transferred downward and seaward, eventually spilling onto the seabed to broaden the island.
217:
kilometers (2,400 and 2,900 cu mi), making up about 10% of the island. Model results based on present day slope and sea level suggest that earthquake accelerations stronger than about 0.4 to 0.6
23:
The Hilina Slump, on the flank of the Kīlauea Volcano on the southeast side of the island of Hawaii, extends from the Hilina fault zone approximately south of the East Rift Zone (ERZ) to the edge of deep
2346:
Owen, Susan; Segall, Paul; Lisowski, Micheal; Miklius, Asta; Denlinger, Roger; Sako, Maurice (2000), "Rapid deformation of Kilauea Volcano: Global Positioning System measurements between 1990 and 1996",
153:. These discontinuities form zones of weakness that lead to slope failure. The weight of the rock mass causes extension (stretching) downhill, favoring the formation of vertical structures, such as
2746:
157:
faults and rift zones, parallel to the slope. These disconnect the rock mass from the upper flank, putting more stress on any non-vertical planes of weakness, which may fail and form a slip zone.
209:
With the discovery in the late 1980s that the entire south flank of Kīlauea is involved with submarine landslides the term "Hilina slump" has been applied by some scientists to the broader area.
1610:
Brooks, Benjamin A.; Foster, James H.; Bevis, Michael; Frazer, L. Neil; Wolfe, Cecily J.; Behn, Mark (2006), "Periodic slow earthquakes on the flank of Kīlaue volcano, Hawai'i",
2390:"Evaluation of the Threat of Mega Tsunami Generation from Postulated Massive Slope Failure of Island Stratovolcanoes on La Palma, Canary Islands, and on the Island of Hawaii"
2304:
2571:
Thompson, Nick; Watters, Robert J.; Schiffman, Peter (2008), "Stability analysis of Hawaiian Island flanks using insight gained from strength testing of the HSDP core",
165:
makes it more susceptible to catastrophic collapse. They observed that this trend holds true for many of the historic landslides observed in the Hawaiian island chain.
505:
Landing. Oceanfront properties were washed off their foundations in Punaluʻu. Two deaths were reported at Halape, and 19 other persons were injured. The shoreline at
2411:
Robinson, Joel E.; Eakins, Barry W.; Kanamatsu, Toshiya; Naka, Jiro; Takahashi, Eiichi; Satake, Kenji; Smith, John R.; Clague, David A.; Yokose, Hisayoshi (2006),
145:
Like the rest, Kīlauea is composed of alternating subaerial and submarine lava flows fractured by cooling joints and interbedded with weaker rock, sediments, and
110:, moving to the northwest, carries the existing volcanoes away from the hotspot, new volcanoes form at the southeastern end. The newest and largest island is the
2733:
2105:
Morgan, J. K.; Moore, G. F.; Clague, D. A. (2003), "Slope failure and volcanic spreading along the submarine south flank of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii",
1935:
Miklius, Asta; Cervelli, Peter; Sako, Maurice; Lisowski, Michael; Owen, Susan; Segal, Paul; Foster, James; Kamibayashi, Kevan; Brooks, Brooks (2005),
3325:
2449:
Smith, J. R.; Malahoff, A.; Shor, A. N. (1999), "Submarine geology of the Hilina Slump and morpho-structural evolution of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii",
1680:
Cannon, Eric C.; Bürgmann, Roland (March 10, 2001), "Prehistoric fault offsets of the Hilina fault system, south flank of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii",
1597:
Evaluation of Tsunami Sources with the Potential to Impact the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts: An Updated Report to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2007:
1770:
3320:
3315:
2235:
2414:
JAMSTEC multibeam surveys and submersible dives around the Hawaiian Islands: A collaborative Japan-USA exploration of Hawaii's deep seafloor
698:
detachment of this landslide is deemed unlikely, and "dire predictions of the future breakaway of the Hilina slump ... may be overstated".
3202:
3008:
2289:
Owen, Susan; Segall, Paul; Freymueller, Jeff; Miklius, Asta; Denlinger, Roger; Árnadóttir, Thóra; Sako, Maurice; Bürgmann, Roland (1995),
2189:
1271:
341:, rocked the southeast coast of Hawaiʻi with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.75. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the
3197:
535:
386:
2044:
Moore, James G.; Krivoy, Harold L. (May 15, 1964), "The 1962 flank eruption of Kilauea Volcano and structure of the east rift zone",
1202:
1820:
1254:
1793:"Structural variability along the submarine south flank of Kilauea Volcano, Hawai'i: from a multichannel seismic reflection survey"
3276:
3106:
2726:
2185:
1905:
Ground deformation associated with the 1975 magnitude 7.2 earthquake and resulting changes in activity of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii
1267:
549:
400:
3187:
2418:
769:
99:
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failure. Smith and Malahoff also proposed that Kīlauea's status as a secondary volcanic structure on the flanks of the larger
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580:
431:
2943:
1595:
323:
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resulted in the slump moving about 2 feet (0.6 m). It appears to have been precipitated by vibrations caused by the
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3217:
3212:
2770:
1776:
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faults of the Hilina fault system – which form the head-scarp where a large block of rock has slumped down and outward.
123:
3232:
2719:
2429:
1649:
Clague, Dennis A.; Sherrod, David R. (2014), Poland, Michael P.; Takahasi, Taeko Jane; Landowski, Claire M. (eds.),
3192:
3126:
3116:
3111:
524:
375:
3136:
616:
463:
2917:
2765:
2504:
Displacement of the south flank of Kilauea volcano: the result of forceful intrusion of magma into the rift zones
2006:
Moore, J. G.; Clague, D. A.; Holcomb, R. T.; Lipman, P. W.; Normark, W. R.; Torresan, M. E. (December 10, 1989),
1996:
1655:, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Papers: Professional Paper 1801, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 97–146,
3121:
2076:
655:
591:
186:
65:
142:
allows it to build a broad shield; when it loses its supply of magma it dies and is eroded back to sea level.
3166:
2797:
1902:
Lipman, Peter W.; Lockwood, John P.; Okamura, Reginald T.; Swanson, Donald A.; Yamashita, Kenneth M. (1985),
3257:
2998:
2988:
2588:
651:
498:
338:
114:
of Hawaiʻi, formed by the merger of seven volcanoes. The largest, at the trailing edge of the island, is
2953:
707:
consider the risk of volcanic and/or seismic activity in Hawaiʻi wreaking havoc around the Pacific Rim.
244:
939:
349:
237:
2290:
2885:
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2640:
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2308:
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2155:
2118:
2114:
2053:
2022:
1984:
1800:
1780:
1714:
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1619:
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2248:
1854:
3330:
3131:
2865:
2523:
68:, coupled with evidence of massive submarine slides in the geological past, has led to claims that
2524:"Chapter 1: The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory–A Natural Laboratory for Studying Basaltic Volcanism"
1795:. In Takahashi, Eiichi; Lipman, Peter W.; Garcia, Micheal O.; Naka, Jiro; Aramaki, Shigeo (eds.).
28:
2902:
2658:
2548:
2374:
2332:
1879:
1830:
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The rift zones enable transport of lava tens of kilometers away from the caldera (as seen in the
53:
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2613:
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2126:
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2030:
1992:
1808:
1727:
1697:
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1627:
1623:
774:
764:
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686:
19:
2208:
3053:
3028:
3018:
2780:
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1891:
1842:
1791:
Hills, Denise J.; Morgan, Julia K.; Moore, Gregory F.; Leslie, Stephen C. (January 2002).
1759:
1206:
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502:
111:
45:
41:
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1988:
1804:
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3161:
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3078:
3063:
3048:
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2742:
2519:
742:
668:
203:
190:
130:
103:
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2249:"Rock mass strength and slope stability of the Hilina slump, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaiʻi"
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3262:
3222:
3073:
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2279:
1972:
1936:
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728:
353:
134:
107:
3182:
2662:
2378:
2336:
1639:
189:). They also serve as wedges, forcing the south flank of Kīlauea downslope across a
3242:
2983:
2875:
2711:
2674:"Cumbre Vieja Volcano – potential collapse and tsunami at La Palma, Canary Islands"
736:
677:
314:
2860:
2320:
1938:
Global positioning system measurements on the island of Hawai'i: 1997 through 2004
1069:, p. 153. See figure 3 for a cross-section diagram of Kīlauea's south flank.
3237:
3227:
2907:
2812:
2775:
2167:
927:
915:
506:
69:
1631:
750:
3058:
2963:
2785:
2412:
2209:"Giant volcano-related landslides and the development of the Hawaiian Islands"
935:
718:
213:
119:
3291:
3278:
2540:
2529:. In Poland, Michael P.; Takahashi, Taeko Jane; Landowski, Claire M. (eds.).
2095:
1871:
1860:. In Poland, Michael P.; Takahashi, Taeko Jane; Landowski, Claire M. (eds.).
1739:
1720:. In Poland, Michael P.; Takahashi, Taeko Jane; Landowski, Claire M. (eds.).
1670:
631:
618:
478:
465:
3156:
2978:
2828:
2817:
2807:
2801:
2485:
2389:
2065:
2034:
1953:
931:
923:
352:, killing 31 people. A tsunami claimed 46 additional lives. The villages of
342:
162:
2842:
2502:
2328:
2175:
1903:
357:
2216:
Submarine Landslides: Selected Studies in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone
2701:
2653:
2458:
2369:
2263:
2131:
1702:
179:
154:
212:
The Hilina slump is sliding seaward on top of the southern flank of the
89:
2870:
1812:
345:
206:
that underlies the entire Kīlauea south flank, is still under debate.
2968:
2891:
1919:
Mader, Charles L. (2001), "Modeling the La Palma landslide tsunami",
146:
49:
2501:
Swanson, Donald A.; Duffield, Wendell A.; Fiske, Richard S. (1976),
2143:
1963:, Professional Paper 501-D, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. D95–D98
1731:
1594:
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Tsunami Hazard Assessment Group (2008),
1661:
2993:
2849:
2835:
2623:, Special Report 176, National Academy of Sciences, pp. 11–33
2214:, in Schwab, William C.; Lee, Homa J.; Twichell, David C. (eds.),
167:
139:
88:
79:
72:
might result if the south flank of Kīlauea should suddenly fail.
27:
18:
2530:
2291:"Rapid Deformation of the South Flank of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii"
1861:
1772:
Facts on the stability of Kilauea's south flank, past and present
1721:
1650:
2897:
2855:
2715:
694:
Hilina Pali and related cliffs), and the toe thrusting upward.
2518:
Tilling, Robert I.; Kauahikaua, James P.; Brantley, StevenR.;
1799:. AGU Geophysical Monograph. Vol. 128. pp. 333–346.
1209:—Slope failure on Kilauea's submarine south flank (Subsection)
2207:
Normark, William R.; Moore, James G; Torresan, M. E. (1993),
2142:
Moore, James G; Normark, William R; Holcomb, Robin T (1994),
1138:, figure 1, and the oblique map view of figure 19, available
1030:
2931:
1135:
1094:
862:
1997:
10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<1471:VGAEOT>2.3.CO;2
1855:"Chapter 10: Natural Hazards and Risk Reduction in Hawaiʻi"
1034:
806:
98:
The Hawaiian Islands are volcanoes, the newest part of the
1218:
1551:
1490:
1462:
1450:
1378:
1362:
1118:
874:
834:
822:
818:
2487:
Geology and water resources of the Kau District, Hawaii
2008:"Prodigious submarine landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge"
1303:
1151:
850:
2631:
Ward, Steven N. (June 10, 2001), "Landslide Tsunami",
1973:"Volcano growth and evolution of the island of Hawaii"
1078:
2228:
Vanished Islands and Hidden Continents of the Pacific
918:(submerged, off the northwest corner of the island),
1366:
1337:
1050:
891:
3175:
3097:
3007:
2942:
2754:
2535:. Professional Paper 1801. U.S. Geological Survey.
2305:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
1971:Moore, James G.; Clague, David A. (November 1992),
1866:. Professional Paper 1801. U.S. Geological Survey.
1726:. Professional Paper 1801. U.S. Geological Survey.
1474:
1390:
1349:
1234:
610:
602:
586:
575:
560:
547:
534:
523:
457:
449:
437:
426:
411:
398:
385:
374:
2075:Moore, James G.; Mark, Robert K. (December 1992),
1954:"Giant submarine landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge"
1575:
1911:, Professional Paper 1276, U.S. Geological Survey
1853:Kauahikaua, James P.; Tilling, Robert I. (2014).
1563:
1538:
1526:
1514:
1426:
1402:
1187:
1163:
1018:
2510:, Professional Paper 963, U.S. Geological Survey
2493:, Water-Supply Paper 616, U.S. Geological Survey
2397:The International Journal of the Tsunami Society
1797:Hawaiian Volcanoes: Deep Underwater Perspectives
1369:list the 17 slides and provide maps and details.
149:, resulting in what has been characterized as a
2614:"Chapter 2: Slope movement types and processes"
1325:
1222:
1082:
1066:
1054:
838:
794:
85:letter "K" corresponds to the view shown below.
2573:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
2484:Stearns, Harold T.; Clark, William O. (1930),
2451:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
2256:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1715:"Chapter 4: Instability of Hawaiian Volcanoes"
1713:Denlinger, Roger P.; Morgan, Julia K. (2014).
1414:
2727:
1977:Bulletin of the Geological Society of America
979:
903:
878:
499:similar earthquake occurred November 29, 1975
8:
2633:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2349:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2107:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2015:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1682:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
1106:
592:
518:
369:
16:Subsided section of the Big Island of Hawaii
2619:, in Schuser, R. L.; Krizek, R. J. (eds.),
1046:
967:
943:
2734:
2720:
2712:
2218:, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 184–196
1961:Geological Survey Research 1964, Chapter D
1438:
517:
368:
118:, and on its seaward flank is the younger
2700:
2652:
2592:
2368:
2130:
1701:
1660:
1053:, pp. 1, 2, 24, 31, and throughout;
955:
64:Current movement of the Hilina slump and
102:, created by eruption of magma from the
786:
667:The breadth and gentle slopes of young
652:magnitude 6.9 earthquake on May 4, 2018
133:, distinguished from the more familiar
2556:
2546:
2434:, Berkeley Seismology Lab, May 7, 2018
2144:"Giant Hawaiian underwater landslides"
1887:
1877:
1838:
1828:
1755:
1745:
1502:
1221:, pp. 18, 983, 18, 994, 18, 996;
1122:
875:Thompson, Watters & Schiffman 2008
819:Thompson, Watters & Schiffman 2008
2532:Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes
1863:Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes
1723:Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes
1652:Characteristics of Hawaiian volcanoes
1175:
1014:
1012:
1003:
991:
7:
2672:Ward, Steven N.; Day, Simon (2001),
2077:"Morphology of the Island of Hawaii"
1367:Normark, Moore & Torresan (1993)
1291:
348:, five miles (8.0 km) north of
2431:A Slow Emergency and a Sudden Slump
2388:Pararas-Carayannis, George (2002),
1612:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1006:, §2.1) has a detailed explanation.
1505:, p. 13, and see figure 2.5b.
1338:Normark, Moore & Torresan 1993
1051:Swanson, Duffield & Fiske 1976
892:Swanson, Duffield & Fiske 1976
126:(formerly Lōʻihi) just off-shore.
14:
1475:Moore, Normark & Holcomb 1994
1391:Moore, Normark & Holcomb 1994
1350:Moore, Normark & Holcomb 1994
1235:Moore, Normark & Holcomb 1994
52:, is the most notable of several
3107:1955 Hawaiian submarine eruption
2621:Landslides, Analysis and Control
2603:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.11.008
2280:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.06.006
2186:National Geophysical Data Center
1268:National Geophysical Data Center
749:
735:
721:
711:"have been greatly overstated".
301:
289:
262:
250:
243:
236:
3326:Landslides in the United States
3203:Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
3198:Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
3188:Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes
2046:Journal of Geophysical Research
1564:Smith, Malahoff & Shor 1999
1539:Morgan, Moore & Clague 2003
1527:Morgan, Moore & Clague 2003
1515:Smith, Malahoff & Shor 1999
1427:Smith, Malahoff & Shor 1999
1403:Smith, Malahoff & Shor 1999
1188:Morgan, Moore & Clague 2003
1164:Morgan, Moore & Clague 2003
1019:Smith, Malahoff & Shor 1999
770:Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes
676:landslides. However, that such
100:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
2230:, University of Hawaii Press,
1166:, in the caption for figure 1.
44:on the southeast coast of the
1:
3321:Tsunamis in the United States
2475:10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00098-0
2321:10.1126/science.267.5202.1328
1779:, 14 May 2018, archived from
1479:Geological Society of America
324:List of earthquakes in Hawaii
3316:Landforms of Hawaii (island)
3213:Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
2681:Geophysical Research Letters
1944:, Open-File Report 2005-1425
1777:Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
1304:Berkeley Seismology Lab 2018
1121:, p. 17,468, following
40:, on the south flank of the
32:Details of the Hilina Slump.
2168:10.1126/science.264.5155.46
1326:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
1223:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
1083:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
1067:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
1055:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
839:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
795:Denlinger & Morgan 2014
339:earthquake on April 2, 1868
129:The Hawaiian volcanoes are
122:, with the still submerged
3352:
3127:2022 eruption of Mauna Loa
3117:1984 eruption of Mauna Loa
3112:1975 eruption of Mauna Loa
2421:Data Series, vol. 171
1921:Science of Tsunami Hazards
1632:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.03.035
1415:Cannon & Bürgmann 2001
890:Excerpt from figure 16 in
509:was dramatically altered.
321:
222:catastrophic detachment."
2929:
2918:North Arch volcanic field
2766:South Arch volcanic field
2612:Varnes, David J. (1978),
2226:Nunn, Patrick D. (2009),
1481:Special Paper 229 (1988).
980:Clague & Sherrod 2014
904:Clague & Sherrod 2014
879:Clague & Sherrod 2014
793:Excerpt from Figure 2 of
124:Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
3122:2018 lower Puna eruption
1952:Moore, James G. (1964),
1603:, U.S. Geological Survey
1107:Stearns & Clark 1930
187:2018 lower Puna eruption
66:recent volcanic activity
3258:Puna Geothermal Venture
3193:Haleakalā National Park
2066:10.1029/JZ069i010p02033
2035:10.1029/jb094ib12p17465
1624:2006E&PSL.246..207B
1576:Pararas-Carayannis 2002
1047:Moore & Krivoy 1964
968:Moore & Krivoy 1964
944:Moore & Clague 1992
3292:19.27083°N 155.16444°W
2999:Pearl and Hermes Atoll
2936:
2639:(6): 11, 201–11, 215,
2419:U.S. Geological Survey
1517:, pp. 80, 82, 85.
1033:, Figure 13. See also
174:
95:
86:
33:
25:
2954:French Frigate Shoals
2935:
2247:Okubo, C. H. (2004),
2115:John Wiley & Sons
1554:, Figure 1 for a map.
1477:, p. 47, citing
1249:by Walter C. Dudley (
956:Moore & Mark 1992
564:May 4, 2018
171:
92:
83:
31:
22:
3297:19.27083; -155.16444
2886:East Molokai Volcano
2881:West Molokai Volcano
2702:10.1029/2001gl013110
2654:10.1029/2000JB900450
2370:10.1029/2000JB900109
2132:10.1029/2003JB002411
2021:(B12): 17465–17484,
1703:10.1029/2000JB900412
1328:, pp. 150, 168.
807:Robinson et al. 2006
3336:Volcanic landslides
3288: /
3233:Mauna Loa eruptions
3132:Keanakakoi eruption
2693:2001GeoRL..28.3397W
2645:2001JGR...10611201W
2585:2008JVGR..171..163T
2467:1999JVGR...94...59S
2361:2000JGR...10518983O
2355:(B8): 18983–18998,
2313:1995Sci...267.1328O
2272:2004JVGR..138...43O
2160:1994Sci...264...46M
2123:2003JGRB..108.2415M
2058:1964JGR....69.2033M
2027:1989JGR....9417465M
1989:1992GSAB..104.1471M
1805:2002GMS...128..105H
1694:2001JGR...106.4207C
1578:, pp. 253–254.
1453:, pp. 17, 482.
1363:Moore et al. (1989)
1294:, pp. 134–135.
1200:Hawaiian Landslides
1035:Miklius et al. 2005
1031:Tilling et al. 2014
628: /
530:2018-05-04 22:32:55
520:
475: /
381:1975-11-29 14:47:40
371:
232:Kīlauea earthquakes
151:fractured rock mass
2937:
2743:Hawaiian volcanism
2520:Neal, Christina A.
1813:10.1029/GM128p0105
1205:2009-05-27 at the
1152:Brooks et al. 2006
1136:Lipman et al. 1985
1109:, pp. 51, 95.
851:Brooks et al. 2006
837:, p. 17,482;
632:19.313°N 154.998°W
479:19.333°N 155.002°W
175:
96:
87:
34:
26:
3271:
3270:
3218:Kīlauea eruptions
3208:Hawaiian eruption
3137:ʻAilāʻau eruption
3098:Notable eruptions
2959:Gardner Pinnacles
2687:(17): 3397–3400,
2237:978-0-8248-3219-3
2052:(10): 2033–2045,
1983:(11): 1471–1484,
1688:(B3): 4207–4219,
1552:Moore et al. 1989
1493:, p. 17,482.
1491:Moore et al. 1989
1465:, p. 17,469.
1463:Moore et al. 1989
1451:Moore et al. 1989
1381:, p. 17,472.
1379:Moore et al. 1989
1119:Moore et al. 1989
1079:Hills et al. 2002
835:Moore et al. 1989
823:Moore et al. 1989
765:Geology of Hawaii
687:debris avalanches
656:movement of magma
647:
646:
494:
493:
415:November 29, 1975
116:Mauna Loa Volcano
3343:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3281:
2974:Lisianski Island
2934:
2771:Kamaʻehuakanaloa
2736:
2729:
2722:
2713:
2705:
2704:
2678:
2665:
2656:
2624:
2618:
2605:
2596:
2579:(3–4): 163–177,
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2200:
2198:
2196:
2190:"Tsunami runups"
2178:
2135:
2134:
2098:
2081:
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2037:
2012:
1999:
1964:
1958:
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1618:(3–4): 207–216,
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1335:
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1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1272:"Tsunami runups"
1264:
1258:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1219:Owen et al. 2000
1216:
1210:
1197:
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1185:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
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1143:
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1110:
1104:
1098:
1095:Owen et al. 1995
1092:
1086:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1049:, p. 2043;
1044:
1038:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
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863:Owen et al. 1995
860:
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759:
757:Volcanoes portal
754:
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745:
740:
739:
731:
726:
725:
724:
669:shield volcanoes
643:
642:
640:
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638:
637:19.313; -154.998
633:
629:
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597:
571:
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521:
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487:
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484:19.333; -155.002
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372:
316:
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276:
271:
270:Kamaʻehuakanaloa
266:
265:
259:
254:
253:
247:
240:
178:coincident with
131:shield volcanoes
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3305:
3296:
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3277:
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3272:
3267:
3238:Pāhoehoe (lava)
3171:
3147:Kīlauea Caldera
3099:
3093:
3010:
3003:
2945:
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2927:
2757:
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2594:10.1.1.613.1557
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2184:
2154:(5155): 46–47,
2141:
2104:
2090:(12): 257–262,
2079:
2074:
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2010:
2005:
1970:
1956:
1951:
1941:
1934:
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1901:
1886:
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1732:10.3133/pp18014
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1457:
1449:
1445:
1439:NRC report 2008
1437:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1417:, p. 4207.
1413:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1389:
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1207:Wayback Machine
1198:
1194:
1186:
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1150:
1146:
1134:As outlined by
1133:
1129:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1097:, p. 1329.
1093:
1089:
1081:, p. 110;
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1045:
1041:
1029:
1025:
1017:
1010:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
978:
974:
970:, p. 2043.
966:
962:
954:
950:
946:, p. 1471.
914:
910:
902:
898:
889:
885:
877:, p. 165;
873:
869:
861:
857:
849:
845:
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821:, p. 165;
817:
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135:stratovolcanoes
104:Hawaiʻi hotspot
78:
42:Kīlauea Volcano
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3162:Powers Caldera
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2557:|journal=
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2001:
1967:
1966:
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1888:|journal=
1849:
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1783:on 16 May 2018
1766:
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1407:
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1371:
1354:
1342:
1340:, p. 184.
1330:
1317:flank seaward.
1308:
1296:
1284:
1259:
1239:
1227:
1225:, p. 153.
1211:
1192:
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1168:
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1144:
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958:, p. 257.
948:
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883:
881:, p. 109.
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853:, p. 208.
843:
841:, p. 155.
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743:Geology portal
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2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2794:Pauahi Crater
2791:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2753:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2732:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2675:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2628:
2622:
2615:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2568:
2562:
2550:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2515:
2506:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2489:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2446:
2433:
2432:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2416:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2307:: 1328–1332,
2306:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2223:
2217:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1955:
1950:
1949:
1940:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1893:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1844:
1832:
1824:
1822:9781118668436
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1788:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1761:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1607:
1599:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1585:
1577:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1444:
1441:, p. 57.
1440:
1435:
1432:
1429:, p. 84.
1428:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1405:, p. 59.
1404:
1399:
1396:
1393:, p. 46.
1392:
1387:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:0-8248-1125-9
1252:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1237:, p. 46.
1236:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1000:
997:
994:, p. 44.
993:
988:
985:
982:, p. 97.
981:
976:
973:
969:
964:
961:
957:
952:
949:
945:
942:(submarine).
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
912:
909:
906:, p. 97.
905:
900:
897:
894:, p. 26.
893:
887:
884:
880:
876:
871:
868:
864:
859:
856:
852:
847:
844:
840:
836:
831:
828:
824:
820:
815:
812:
808:
803:
800:
796:
790:
787:
780:
776:
775:Nuʻuanu Slide
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
762:
758:
752:
747:
744:
738:
733:
730:
729:Hawaii portal
719:
714:
712:
708:
701:
699:
695:
692:
688:
682:
679:
675:
670:
662:
660:
657:
653:
641:
613:
609:
605:
601:
598:
589:
585:
582:
578:
574:
563:
559:
556:
553:
551:
546:
543:
540:
537:
533:
529:
526:
522:
512:
510:
508:
504:
500:
488:
460:
456:
452:
448:
440:
436:
433:
429:
425:
414:
410:
407:
404:
402:
397:
394:
391:
388:
384:
380:
377:
373:
363:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
344:
340:
332:
330:
325:
315:
246:
239:
225:
223:
220:
215:
210:
207:
205:
196:
194:
192:
188:
183:
181:
170:
166:
164:
158:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
108:Pacific Plate
105:
101:
91:
82:
75:
73:
71:
67:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
30:
21:
3273:
3253:Pele's tears
3243:Pele (deity)
3142:Halemaʻumaʻu
2984:Midway Atoll
2890:
2876:Penguin Bank
2848:
2841:
2834:
2827:
2684:
2680:
2636:
2632:
2620:
2576:
2572:
2531:
2503:
2486:
2454:
2450:
2436:, retrieved
2430:
2413:
2403:(5): 251–277
2400:
2396:
2352:
2348:
2300:
2294:
2259:
2255:
2227:
2215:
2193:. Retrieved
2151:
2147:
2110:
2106:
2087:
2083:
2049:
2045:
2018:
2014:
1980:
1976:
1960:
1937:
1927:(3): 150–170
1924:
1920:
1904:
1862:
1796:
1781:the original
1771:
1722:
1685:
1681:
1651:
1615:
1611:
1596:
1571:
1559:
1546:
1534:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1478:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1386:
1374:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1320:
1315:
1311:
1299:
1287:
1275:. Retrieved
1262:
1246:
1242:
1230:
1214:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1159:
1147:
1130:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1074:
1062:
1042:
1026:
999:
987:
975:
963:
951:
911:
899:
886:
870:
858:
846:
830:
814:
802:
789:
709:
705:
702:Megatsunamis
696:
683:
678:mass wasting
673:
666:
649:
519:Hilina Slump
496:
370:Hilina Slump
336:
327:
218:
211:
208:
200:
197:Hilina Slump
184:
176:
159:
150:
144:
128:
97:
70:megatsunamis
63:
59:
38:Hilina Slump
37:
35:
3295: /
3248:Pele's hair
3228:Limu o Pele
3183:ʻAʻā (lava)
3152:Kīlauea Iki
2790:Kīlauea Iki
1503:Varnes 1978
1190:, Abstract.
1123:Varnes 1978
1004:Okubo (2004
865:, Abstract.
635: /
623:154°59′53″W
579:12:33 p.m.
538: event
507:Keauhou Bay
482: /
470:155°00′07″W
389: event
226:Earthquakes
204:décollement
191:décollement
3310:Categories
3283:155°9′52″W
3280:19°16′15″N
2964:Kure Atoll
2829:Kahoʻolawe
2195:1 December
1566:, Abstract
1324:(p. 168);
1319:(p. 150);
1277:1 December
1176:Okubo 2004
992:Okubo 2004
781:References
663:Landslides
620:19°18′47″N
568:2018-05-04
527: time
467:19°19′59″N
445: 7.7
419:1975-11-29
378: time
322:See also:
112:Big Island
54:landslides
46:Big Island
3167:Puʻu ʻŌʻō
3157:Mauna Ulu
3100:and vents
3029:Daikakuji
3011:Seamounts
2979:Maro Reef
2866:West Maui
2861:Haleakalā
2818:Mauna Kea
2808:Mauna Loa
2802:Mauna Ulu
2798:Puʻu ʻŌʻō
2589:CiteSeerX
2559:ignored (
2549:cite book
2541:2330-7102
2461:: 59–88,
2266:: 43–76,
2096:1052-5173
2084:GSA Today
1890:ignored (
1880:cite book
1872:2330-7102
1841:ignored (
1831:cite book
1758:ignored (
1748:cite book
1740:2330-7102
1671:2330-7102
1292:Nunn 2009
932:Mauna Loa
924:Mauna Kea
611:Epicenter
587:Magnitude
542:611928827
458:Epicenter
438:Magnitude
343:Mauna Loa
329:greater.
297:Mauna Loa
163:Mauna Loa
106:. As the
2923:Waiʻanae
2903:Honolulu
2871:Molokaʻi
2813:Hualālai
2776:Māhukona
2756:Windward
2745:topics (
2663:53867250
2522:(2014).
2459:Elsevier
2379:36578563
2337:30320632
2329:17812606
2303:(5202),
2264:Elsevier
2176:17778132
2117:: 2415,
1640:31863578
1247:Tsunami!
1203:Archived
928:Hualālai
916:Māhukona
715:See also
354:Punaluʻu
180:dip-slip
155:dip-slip
3331:Kīlauea
3089:Yuryaku
3069:Nintoku
3039:Hancock
3034:Detroit
3024:Colahan
3009:Emperor
2944:Leeward
2913:Koʻolau
2892:Niʻihau
2786:Kīlauea
2781:Hawaiʻi
2689:Bibcode
2641:Bibcode
2581:Bibcode
2463:Bibcode
2457:(1–4),
2438:May 27,
2357:Bibcode
2309:Bibcode
2296:Science
2268:Bibcode
2262:(1–2),
2156:Bibcode
2148:Science
2119:Bibcode
2054:Bibcode
2023:Bibcode
1985:Bibcode
1801:Bibcode
1690:Bibcode
1620:Bibcode
1586:Sources
1322:meters.
936:Kīlauea
685:called
566: (
503:Keauhou
417: (
346:volcano
309:Kīlauea
214:Kīlauea
120:Kīlauea
76:Geology
50:Hawaiʻi
3176:Topics
3054:Kimmei
3019:Abbott
2969:Laysan
2908:Kaʻena
2850:Lānaʻi
2843:Kaʻula
2836:Kauaʻi
2823:Kohala
2661:
2591:
2539:
2377:
2335:
2327:
2234:
2174:
2113:(B9),
2094:
1870:
1819:
1738:
1669:
1638:
1541:, ¶60.
1529:, ¶65.
1253:
940:Lōʻihi
938:, and
920:Kohala
691:slumps
606:2.1 km
555:ComCat
430:04:47
406:ComCat
393:722344
358:Nīnole
350:Pāhala
258:Hohonu
147:tephra
94:years.
24:water.
3084:Yomei
3079:Suiko
3064:Meiji
3049:Kammu
3044:Jingū
2994:Nihoa
2946:Isles
2898:Oʻahu
2758:Isles
2677:(PDF)
2659:S2CID
2617:(PDF)
2527:(PDF)
2508:(PDF)
2491:(PDF)
2393:(PDF)
2375:S2CID
2333:S2CID
2252:(PDF)
2212:(PDF)
2080:(PDF)
2011:(PDF)
1957:(PDF)
1942:(PDF)
1909:(PDF)
1858:(PDF)
1718:(PDF)
1636:S2CID
1601:(PDF)
1361:Both
674:giant
603:Depth
548:USGS-
450:Depth
399:USGS-
173:Pali.
140:magma
3074:Ojin
3059:Koko
2856:Maui
2747:list
2561:help
2537:ISSN
2440:2018
2325:PMID
2232:ISBN
2197:2012
2172:PMID
2092:ISSN
1892:help
1868:ISSN
1843:help
1817:ISBN
1760:help
1736:ISSN
1667:ISSN
1550:See
1365:and
1279:2012
1251:ISBN
1140:here
590:6.9
550:ANSS
513:2018
453:9 km
401:ANSS
364:1975
333:1868
285:1868
280:1975
275:2018
36:The
2697:doi
2649:doi
2637:106
2599:doi
2577:171
2471:doi
2365:doi
2353:105
2317:doi
2301:267
2276:doi
2260:138
2164:doi
2152:264
2127:doi
2111:108
2062:doi
2031:doi
1993:doi
1981:104
1809:doi
1728:doi
1698:doi
1686:106
1657:doi
1628:doi
1616:246
581:HST
536:ISC
525:UTC
432:HST
387:ISC
376:UTC
337:An
48:of
3312::
2800:,
2796:,
2792:,
2695:,
2685:28
2683:,
2679:,
2657:,
2647:,
2635:,
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2587:,
2575:,
2553::
2551:}}
2547:{{
2469:,
2455:94
2453:,
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2323:,
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2188:.
2170:,
2162:,
2150:,
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2109:,
2086:,
2082:,
2060:,
2050:69
2048:,
2029:,
2019:94
2017:,
2013:,
1991:,
1979:,
1975:,
1959:,
1925:19
1923:,
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593:M
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443:w
441:M
421:)
219:g
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
