863:(PC) and Unix, ND started developing products to meet the demand. An ND PC was developed, but sold poorly. The Unix variant Ndix was launched in 1985, but was only offered as a last resort to customers only interested in Unix systems. Use of Ndix required separate hardware. The software was developed by a third party and was so slow that the hardware was out of date by the time the software was completed. Many competitors licensed an existing variant of Unix, but ND chose to develop its own. In addition, ND chose to not port its software to Unix, despite demands from customers for Sibas and Notis on the Unix platform. Sales were further reduced by ND's reluctance to pay software developers to port common programs to Ndix.
689:, Norsk Data did not initially see it as a competitor since the Nord-5 had much better processing power. The Nord-50 had similar processing power to the Nord-5, but was also not a general-purpose computer by itself, described in Norsk Data's own literature as a special-purpose computer. Also described as an "arithmetic processor", this 32-bit computer relied on a Nord-10 front-end processor that ran the SINTRAN III operating system, with the memory sharing arrangement between the Nord-10 and Nord-50 elements identified as imposing a "memory bottleneck". However, the role of the Nord-50 as a computational accelerator raised the possibility of Norsk Data offering the machine as a companion for other minicomputers.
973:
sell outside the company, such transactions were stopped by top management. ServiceTeam achieved high internal prices through the negotiations as they held all the cards. With the introduction of standard hardware platforms, computer manufacturers had to deliver unique software portfolios to avoid a pure price competition. With the spin-off of Notis, ND allowed one of their few competitive advantages to be available for all platforms. The three partner divisions were pure sales divisions and secured all the revenue for the team-divisions and DataShop. However, the partner divisions had very low margins so the profits were being made in the other business units, and thus receiving the praise of top management.
455:, and were often trained in engineering rather than business. In the first years, ND sales representatives wore jeans and would present the products to other engineers and computer personnel, with the focus on the technical details. This changed in the mid-1970s when the company started selling computers to the business sector, where the customer representatives typically were heads of the accounting or warehouse departments. These instead expected suit-dressed salesmen and were interested in issues regarding efficiency and reliability. Profits, and the profit-based bonuses, sank through these years, giving an incentive for technical personnel to give marketing increased importance.
744:
895:, the share price fell from NOK 240 to 180. By the end of trading on NASDAQ, the share price was down to NOK 120. The price continued to fall and hit NOK 80 some days later, in part because many employees had to sell shares to pay their taxes. The economy of Norway was hit hard and employees in ND were especially stricken because of their bonuses having been paid in shares. From 1988, ND stopped recruiting new employees. A reorganization took place in which all group leaders were laid off and told to apply for new jobs as project leaders. The issue resulted in severe bad media coverage.
977:
overtime. In early 1991 a new round of layoffs was carried through, followed by a new reorganization. New control mechanisms were introduced to ensure that all employees understood the new model. Few employees would admit to not understanding it, but in reality most did not, enhancing the problem. New rounds of lay-offs took place in June and
September, the latter consisting of 500 people. ND lost all its large customers and signed no large contracts in 1990 and 1991. One of the main reasons was that sales personnel were forced to call back to the office to confirm every step in negotiations.
953:. ND had bought several software and hardware companies without a defined strategy, and often without adding new segments to the portfolio, as they often had overlapping products. The purchases were made in the hope that new software would bring new clients to choose ND hardware, which was the only product ND made profits from. Rolf Skår stated in 1988 that the company should focus on the banking industry, but this was never carried out. Sales had continued to fall during 1989, as customers were concerned that the Sintran-based product line would be discontinued.
957:
general dissatisfaction with software and the high turnover in the sales force. Also administrative routines were found to be a shortcoming and one consultant company stated that ND was the company they had investigated which had the most room for improvement. Management introduced a company-wide program to increase all employees' focus on market orientation, but the top management carried out several public blunders in poor customer management through the press. Terje
Mikkelsen started negotiations to sell ND to a major competitor, but no deal was ever made.
946:. ND would not develop its own hardware any more, but purchase components from third parties, including Dolphin. At a public meeting, Skår responded to a question by stating that Notis would be replaced with new systems. Development of Notis was spun off in its own company, Notis AS, which continued to develop the program for ND. Sales fell dramatically as customers lost confidence in that ND could deliver the products in the future and by the internal process demotivating the sales employees. Only in Germany did sales not decrease during 1988 and 1989.
379:
were not required elsewhere, they were moved to the marketing department. It was first with this move that the company's management started realizing the importance of marketing. However, other non-technical departments, especially finances, had also not been keeping up with the company's growth.[Kolbjørn
Johansen was therefore hired as chief financial officer in 1969. The board decided on 18 October 1972 to replace Monrad-Krohn with Johansen as CEO, with the former becoming chair of the board. He would within a few years leave Norsk Data and establish
919:
700:(was not made from bit-slice components but microprogrammed with a new instruction set) that all software had to be rewritten - except for SINTRAN. The computer was launched in 1981, but with fundamental shortcomings imposed by the OS. It was much faster than the VAX, but did not meet the general customers' expectation of being a multi-purpose computer. Later models improved the performance and tweaking of the system allowed it to become a multipurpose system at the performance of a special purpose super computer as sold by
899:
port ND Application's portfolio to Unix. However, the journalist's question made the executives realize they had not properly planned its strategy. ND became caught between two customer groups: one which was happy with the existing systems and wanted ND to continue to deliver its own system and software, and other which wanted open standards. ND's signals to switch to Unix caused the first group of customers to place their orders on hold, while new customers did not order because ND's Unix-based products did not exist yet.
443:, in 1973. CERN later followed up with purchasing a Nord-10 in 1975 for their largest department. Additional orders were made and by the end of 1976 CERN were operating fifty ND computers. The delivery to CERN combined with a more efficient software portfolio with the Nord-10 were key factors in the continued growth. For instance, ND delivered a turn-key system for meteorology in Algeria in 1974, complete with software developed in-house. Half the company's revenue came from international sales that year.
992:
entailed confidence among customers. As the only profitable part of ND, it was able to make a NOK 100-million profit in 1992. The revenue and margins were being made on selling
Sintran-based systems to existing customers, and was described by an analyst as "having a monopoly of a melting iceberg" and that the company was not creating a new customer base of non-Sintran systems. Norsk Data was delisted from Oslo Stock Exchange on 2 March 1993. Formula Open Soft was sold to
969:. These included ND StatsPartner for sales towards the central government, ND LokalPartner for sales to local government, ND BusinessPartner for sale towards selected large corporate clients and ND DataShop for sale of standardized products. These would then purchase products from ND ServiceTeam for hardware and ND SystemTeam, a continuation of ND Application. Towards the end of 1989 ND was able to turn the tide and experienced a growth in sales.
984:, SystemTeam was sold to Avenir and the buildings at Skullerud to a contractor. ND lost NOK 810 million in 1991, and with an eighty percent decrease was the European company to have the second-largest share price loss in 1991. After failed negotiations over many months to sell Comtec, ND made plans to close the division in February 1992. The Comtec business was later acquired by Sysdeco. This was followed up with the sale of Technovision to
239:
had any education or experience in business and operations started without a budget. The company's culture was inherited from NDRE—technology-oriented with focus on creativity and challenges. The first other employee was Tove
Pedersen; she had an interview with the fan company, but had instead met up at ND. Monrad-Krohn did not let her inn on the error and instead carried out an interview and offered her a job, which she accepted.
799:
641:
637:, also in Oslo, which was part of its inefficiency problems. A relocation to Kjelsås was desired, but this resulted in a struggle between the two companies regarding a NOK 20-million advance that Tandberg had paid ND. When resolved, this allowed ND to Take over the Skullerud facilities. To eliminate the negative cash flow and debt in Tandberg, it was sold to ND's shareholders in early 1981.
19:
204:. While in Bergen the group met an old fellow student, Ivar Aanderaa, who was working as an entrepreneur. He inspired the others of the joys of being self-employed and a discussion went on all night on the 23 April 1967 about starting up a computer-manufacturing company. Based on that they had a technological edge and believed to have good timing, a decision to start a company was made.
474:
347:
576:, had previously built similar systems. Norsk Data originally cooperated with the small simulator manufacturer Hydrosystems, but this spurred Singer Link, the world's largest manufacturer, to investigate ND's systems. In the end, three of four simulator contenders bid with ND-based systems, combining Nord-50 and Nord-10/S machines, and the contract was awarded to Singer Link.
154:
597:
867:
227:
497:
margins were in the central parts of the hardware while independent software firms were not making money. Towards the end of the 1970s this strategy started to backfire, as hardware-oriented customers, such as universities, were pressing down prices while companies which wanted turn-key solutions were increasingly willing to pay full price.
219:
NOK 600,000. A founding meeting was held on 7 July 1967 with fifteen people present. The largest investor was
Mosvold Shipping Group which invested NOK 100,000, while remaining investors put in NOK 94,000. The company was established as A/S Nordata – Norsk Data-Elektronikk. As "Nordata" was already registered by a company in
403:
215:-based Norcontrol, which was working on a project for ship automation but needed a computer to run the system. To raise capital, Skår took contact with his former college-mate Terje Mikalsen, who was working at Norcontrol. Mikalsen had married into a ship-owning family and was thus able to provide capital the others could not.
856:, which was disliked at ND. This would remove the vendor lock-in and the well-liked Notis, which was instrumental in creating profits. Management had a high pressure from investors to create high growth rates, which again caused the company to choose short-term profit margins ahead of long-term strategic positioning.
716:
enable the high clock frequency. If an electric current is switched at a clock frequency of 1 GHz, it travels about one foot per cycle, so 10 cm is a delay of a clock cycle at 3 GHz. The ND-500 computers had timing problems caused by wire-distance, and going faster just required everything to be close.
399:(CERN) for its accelerator. The first tender was unsuccessful, but a delegation from CERN visited all the European manufacturers, largely out of courtesy as they had a long history of choosing American suppliers. ND chose to only demonstrate the computer from a terminal, rather than display the hardware.
910:, but this was largely rejected by the international sales divisions. Of fear of the company failing completely to the side, projects were abandoned as was the Ndix project. 1988 became the first year since 1967 that Norsk Data did not make a profit. That year also saw the company's share equity halve.
976:
The reorganizing also made a drastic change to the corporate culture. While ND previously had allowed a high degree of autonomy for its employees and divisions, issues became increasingly top-managed. Motivation and sales dropped, and the company lost much of its ability to get employees to work free
882:
company
Pumatec. The following year, Computas Complete and Alfa Data were bought and merged with Infologic to create ND Application, which had 350 employees. The new subsidiary was to merge the existing software into a new portfolio. While the old companies had sold well because they were tailored to
739:
architecture. Such was the company's confidence that it publicly aired observations that several US-based minicomputer vendors were entering a period of serious hardship and that the company was considering the possibility of acquiring one of them, selling its own systems to the
European customers of
337:
in
Trondheim. Later Sintran II was launched. This was the first major competitive edge ND had on Kongsberg. In 1969 the company relocated to a larger facility. The following year, fifteen Nord-1s were manufactured and the company had 88 employees. During these years Norsk Data secured a customer base
270:
A strategic cooperation with
Norcontrol started in November 1967, when Norsk Data bought shares for NOK 200,000 in Norcontrol, which again bought shares for NOK 70,000 in Norsk Data. Norcontrol placed the first order for a Norsk Data computer on 26 January 1968. Shortly afterwards computers
140:
and never recovered. The company went through a series of reorganizations, but the company never succeeded at making money on open systems and the last area with profits was sales to existing Sintran customers. From 1988 the company was gradually split up; parts were sold to foreign competitors while
941:
Management announced on 24 January 1989 a major restructuring of the company. The development division would be reduced from several hundred to less than a hundred employees, there would be large down-scaling in the foreign sales offices and the development of Unix-based systems would be spun off in
875:
middle of the meeting, Skår chose to leave to reach another meeting. A summary was distributed to all employees and soon was creating headlines in the press. The process also created mistrust and doubt within the organization and within a short time all the employees in the course division had quit.
814:
in January 1983. No Norwegian company had previously been listed in the US; the legislation was not harmonized and there were restrictions on twenty percent foreign ownership of Norwegian companies. The limit was raised to forty-nine percent, but this was regarded by ND as too low, so they split the
794:
to capture customers within a specific industry; this often made it difficult to sell as clients often found it difficult to purchase from a non-niche manufacturer. For instance, ND attempted to sell to the Scandinavian banking market; they were asked by clients if they would make this a prioritized
378:
When the project finished Norsk Data was without orders. Sales representatives were not appreciated in the company and were typically fired about once a year. The company's strategy was to create excellent products which could sell themselves. As the twenty-five people involved in the Nordic project
279:
agreement on 23 April 1968, in which Kongsberg would deliver computers to the military industry while Norsk Data would deliver to the civilian sector. In the early years, Kongsberg would continue to be Norsk Data's main competitor as the only other Norwegian manufacturer of minicomputers. Additional
898:
The company started in early 1988 developing a strategy and products to switch ND's focus to open standards. The project was publicly launched on 11 April and included PCs, Unix-servers and software to link new and old systems. Upon questions from a journalist, ND also announced that they would not
496:
was in the first years of the 1970s the first customer to apply an ND system to accounting. The software was developed and owned by ND, but Skår rejected proposals that the company should develop a portfolio of administrative software. At the time this was based on the strategy that the high profit
956:
Norsk Data engaged a number of consultancy companies to analyze the firm in 1989. One important finding was that the customers' perception of ND's strengths and weaknesses was completely different from the employees' perception. Another was that the customers did not understand ND's strategy and a
592:
and Kongsberg, which would become the "cornerstone companies". The plan was launched by Hauge, who started negotiations of purchasing Mikkelsen's shares in both Norcontrol and Norsk Data. He chose to sell Norcontrol to Kongsberg, but would not sell Norsk Data. The government continued to press the
354:
Monrad-Krohn was appointed professor of digital technology at NTH in December 1969. He chose to combine the professorship with the position as CEO of Norsk Data. Stord Verft took delivery of the first Nord-20 the following year and Norcontrol took delivery of the first of its 28 Nord-4s. The first
238:
The company's first offices were located at Ole Deviks vei 10 in Oslo, which was located in the facilities of a fan manufacturer. Operations commenced on 19 September with the three founders, Monrad-Krohn, Skår and Bjørge. They received the same wages as they had at NDRE. None of the entrepreneurs
218:
At this time NDRE was working with Kongsberg for plans to build a computer for a field artillery system. Monrad-Krohn proposed that their company should try to get this contract, but after it was awarded to NDRE, they had increased difficulty finding investors. The company had estimated a need for
972:
Thus the re-organized ND was in a situation where it sold PCs, Sintran systems and Unix systems. In January 1990, the business units started negotiating the internal prices. Although top management had originally proposed that the partners could buy services from outside the company and the teams
886:
The new company was plagued by internal disputes over which suit to base the new product on and a large number of customers disputes, leaving little capacity for product development. At the time software developers had low margins. The companies had been bought with a short-term goal to sell more
874:
On 9 September 1986, the company's course division invited representatives form the largest customers to a dialog with ND's top management. While the management at the time believed they had an excellent product, the customers pointed at several weaknesses in the organization and products. In the
847:
During the mid-1980s, the market shifted such that customers went away from purchasing hardware and instead wanted complete systems including software, preferably tailor-made for the industry. This was a disadvantage for ND, as they had their advantage in designing hardware systems. Their lack of
838:
ranked it the world's 75th largest information technology company, and the world's 13th largest minicomputer manufacturer. It was the world's third-most profitable and had the seventh-highest growth rate. That year the company's profits hit a record-high NOK 475 million from a NOK 2,576
715:
started before the ND-500 was completed. The design was changed to become more modular; this increased the development costs, but reduced production costs and increased scalability. On the ND-5000, components were placed in cards that were interconnected, initially to simplify cooling but also to
991:
Tor Alfheim took over as CEO in July 1992. DataShop was sold in late August to a group of investors from the company's management. The following month ND ServiceTeam, which at the time had 560 employees, was renamed Comma. The company cited the reason as being that the Norsk Data brand no longer
668:
text editor was used, but this was later replaced with TED, developed by Kvam Data. Notis was installed on all systems from 1980 and quickly became popular among customers. Because ND's screens were not optimized for text processing, from 1982 Tandberg Data delivered tailor-made keyboards and
620:
decided in May that they wanted Tandberg to continue operations in the same scale, and offered a NOK 105-million subsidy and a large discount in the Skullerud facility to Norsk Data if they took over all of Tandberg. ND accepted the deal and paid NOK 12 million for 92 percent of the
960:
Skår resigned as CEO in August 1989 and was replaced by the newly hired Erik Engebretsen, who had a business education. This also resulted in several new people in the top management, which became dominated by businesspeople rather than engineers. In September, all jobs in the company's new
394:
system, Nord-TSS. Monrad-Krohn articulated in 1972 that he hoped for the company to first grow into Scandinavia and then Europe. He emphasized that ND's small size was an advantage, as it allowed quicker production of newer and thus faster computers. The company decided to participate with
418:, and ND was only underbid by three manufacturers, all which were found to not meet their technical criteria by CERN. A decision was taken by CERN's technical committee on 19 September 1972, in which German and French interest failed to get their technically disqualified and higher priced
484:
Sintran II VS and the Nord-50 were released in 1975. The following year the company had a revenue of NOK 81 million, NOK 4 million in profits and 221 employees. In 1977 subsidiaries were established in Germany and the United Kingdom. In Oslo, ND moved into a second facility, in
489:. By then there was an uproar against Johansen within the organization as he was regarded by many as too empathetic; this had caused him to several times not make hard enough decisions and other times let the decisions be taken by others. He was replaced by Skår as CEO on 8 November.
317:
sat on Norcontrol's board. For 1968 Norsk Data had a revenue of NOK 730,000, sold four computers plus additional memory for SAM 2, had thirteen employees at the end of the year and had a profit of NOK 21,000. That year a cooperation started with NEBB to develop an automatic
426:
computers selected. The decision fell on Norsk Data, with the contract signed in January 1973. The computer was delivered and accepted on 12 July 1973, twelve days after the contract specified. The contract included twenty-four computers and a revenue of NOK 12 million.
669:
keyboards. Because text processing required high performance and extra peripherals, ND made high margins on the implementation. ND bought the typesetting system Comtec in 1981, which was combined with Nortext and resulted in large increases in the sale of the systems.
839:
million revenue. The peak revenue was 2,934 million in 1989, while the peak employment was 4,488 employees in 1987. In 1987 Norsk Data had the 50th highest revenue of Norwegian companies, but had the second-highest market capitalization, behind Norsk Hydro.
826:
for distribution of ND computers in Germany. ND became a majority shareholder in July 1983 and the following year Dietz was merged into ND. By 1985 Dietz' plant was producing ND systems and their old systems taken off the market. On 30 October 1984 ND and
294:(NTH) to have instruments installed. It spent a year in Trondheim and was constantly needing repairs. However, once it was not constantly being tweaked by engineers it operated for eighteen months without any failures. The Nord-1 was installed on MS
223:, the name was changed to A/S Norsk Data-Elektronikk on 20 July. The name would change again somewhat later in 1977 to the more concise and recognisable Norsk Data, this being more accessible to the company's increasingly international audience.
815:
ownership into A- and B-shares, with and without voting rights. With this change, Norwegian authorities permitted an eighty percent foreign ownership in the company, but only the non-voting B shares were permitted to be listed on NASDAQ. The
355:
major conflict in top management took place in February 1971 regarding a new organizational structure, with Monrad-Krohn on the one side and Bjørge and Skår on the other. Although revenue continued to rise, the company failed to create good
470:; therefore purchase of computer systems were often more of a strategic than product-specific purchase. An important aspect for ND was therefore to convince their potential customers that they would be able to deliver in the long run.
890:
After thirteen years of high annual growth, the sales flattened in 1987. On 16 October, the company announced that its sales targets for the year would not be met, and a planned placement of new shares was canceled. On the morning of
117:. Throughout the 1980s ND acquired a series of domestic and foreign hardware and software companies, many loosely oriented at increased hardware sales. At the peak in 1986 and 1987, Norsk Data had 4,500 employees, 2.5 billion
763:, which the company bought and renovated. Between 1972 and 1981 the company had an average annual revenue increase of forty-five percent. It split its profits seventy percent to reinvest in the company and thirty percent as
430:
Norsk Data took a strategic decision to abandon their role as system supplier for a few, large customers and decided to become a European-wide minicomputer supplier which could compete directly with American manufacturers.
734:
techniques in processor design, claiming a higher throughput for complex instructions in the ND-5000 architecture than that attained for "simple" instructions in competing RISC designs such as Hewlett-Packard's emerging
659:
section was based on a program which had been developed by an employee while working at CERN and this was combined with systems for incorporating tables with figures such as budgets. The system also features search and
632:
There was a bad relationship between the two companies, in part caused by opposition from within Tandberg against a start-up managing the old company's affairs. Tandberg had split its production between Skullerud and
795:
market, but ND responded that they only would if they received sufficient sales. The answer caused the banking industry to go elsewhere for its products, despite an initial enthusiasm for ND's products.
374:
minicomputer in the world, employing the Nord-5 as a number cruncher while the Nord-1s would handle smaller tasks. One of these was used to collect information from a global network of weather stations.
2115:
1773:
759:
Norsk Data's sales in the United Kingdom were originally handled by the agent Richard B. Norton. An ND-owned subsidiary was established in 1980 with the acquisition of Norton's business, and based at
141:
others were spun off as subsidiaries or sold. By 1993 all equity had been lost and the remaining parts of the company sold off or taken over by the creditors. The main parts of company were bought by
1929:
685:
in 1977, Norsk Data had already delivered its first 32-bit computer, the Nord-5, to three users, and had delivered ten units of its successor, the Nord-50. As the VAX-11 was 32-bit and regarded as a
783:
in July 1981. It carried out a placement of shares worth NOK 30 million in August 1981 and for NOK 100 million in March 1982. ND received the Company of Year Award in 1983. The company's
33:
which operated between 1967 and 1992. The company was established as A/S Nordata – Norsk Data-Elektronikk on 7 July 1967 and took into use the Norsk Data brand in 1975. The company was founded by
616:, was spun off. In April 1979 Norsk Data agreed to take over Tandberg's training materials' division and its facilities at Skullerud in Oslo, which would give ample space for expansion. However,
504:
program Sibas in 1975 on the ND platform based on the Univac Fortran IV source. The first commercial ND system which was sold to handle a database was to Jonas Øglænd. The second contract was to
492:
From the mid-1970s ND started serving a more differentiated customer base and was increasingly dependent on the sales force coming with feedback as to which functionality needed to be developed.
730:. However, despite the fortuitous adoption of CMOS technology, mitigating power consumption and heat dissipation issues, Norsk Data's designers continued to reject the adoption of "fashionable"
883:
a particular industry, such as Computas for the processing industry and Infologic for wholesalers, the unified systems were so general that it lost its competitive advantage to all industries.
366:
which ND won in February 1971 in competition with major international players. The Nord Integrated Computer System (Nordic) was completed in April 1972 and consisted of three Nord-1s and a new
2089:
1737:
211:, both government-owned. They expressed interest in the technology and considered themselves putting it into production. The other company which showed interest for the technology was the
790:
ND introduced the marketing concept ND-SAFE in 1982, where the company focused on the scalability of the systems. Except for the municipal and university sectors, ND did not attempt at
539:
in Sweden. ND decided to start a campaign to sell typesetting computers to Norwegian newspapers and developed along with Data Logic GMS-12, later renamed Nortext. The first client were
338:
in universities, college and research institutions in Norway. By 1971 nearly every such institution had a Nord-1 computer. NOK 2 million in venture capital was received in 1971.
2034:
612:
By December 1978, one of the cornerstones, Tandberg, filed for bankruptcy. The company was split up and Norsk Data became one of the shareholders, although the computer division,
1003:
on 11 May 1993. Norsk Data merged with Nordic Data and Comma on 31 December to create Comma Data Services, which had 800 employees. All ND shareholders lost their values, the
887:
minicomputers and ND lacked a strategic plan for them. The problem was accelerated because the sales force lacked intricate knowledge of the industries they were selling to.
625:. Tandberg saw a NOK 13-million loss of a NOK 130 million revenue in 1979, which were consolidated into Norsk Data's accounts. Not until a February 1980 deal with
1955:
740:
the acquired company while using it as a marketing vehicle in the US. It also regarded Unix as a niche product, of significance only in the Swedish defence market.
622:
466:. A Swedish subsidiary was established the following year. Because of the proprietary system architecture of each manufacturer, companies would fall into a
207:
For the entrepreneurs the main challenge was that their newly created computer was the property of the NDRE, which again had a strategic cooperation with
3044:
396:
564:
fighter jets. The Americans were obliged to use subcontractors from these countries in areas where they were competitive. Norsk Data put its eye on the
902:
ND started working to find new market segments it could create tailor-made systems for on top of its existing product lines. The first such market was
88:(SIBAS is (tm) of SRS that has full rights to the code developed at the Central Institute for Industrial Research by Olli, Salter, Aschim and Hoffmann)
852:, which meant that ND's most important sales arguments were being determined by a third party. Another development was the open standards, especially
509:
451:
Norsk Data continued to undermine marketing until the mid-1970s. Sales personnel had low wages, little to no influence on product development, high
178:
42:
3248:
113:, although Tandberg was sold again in 1980. ND became the first foreign-listed Norwegian company in 1981, which also saw the launch of the 32-bit
193:. The project was risky, as TSS originally had proposed buying an American computer and NDRE would have to buy such a computer if SAM 2 failed.
3253:
3243:
743:
3004:
1151:
359:. The issues caused two board members to resign and in June ten employees were laid off after orders were NOK 3 million below budget.
1015:(30 percent). Dolphin was on 30 November announced closed and all employees were laid off, but on 23 December it was instead sold to the
322:
reservoir regulation system with a Nord-1 at its heart. The first system was installed in 1970 and remained in use for eighteen years.
3054:
363:
174:
46:
681:
was introduced in 1979, which was specialized at flexibility and focused on administrative applications. When Digital launched their
2973:
2954:
291:
185:(TSS) and was the third computer built by NDRE. The main developers of the system were Rolf Skår, Per Bjørge, Lars Monrad-Krohn and
281:
584:
1975 saw the creation of a new government plan to consolidate the Norwegian information technology industry into three companies:
516:. This was achieved by connecting the 150 terminals via XMSG and remained in use until 1990. The same system was delivered to the
573:
655:
started in January 1978 out of the existing expertise in typesetting and a desire to sell computers to the public sector. The
272:
264:
980:
By then the partner divisions were merged to NordPartner, later renamed ND-Partner. In October 1991 the division was sold to
943:
878:
The software companies Infologic and Data Inform were bought by DN in 1986, while ND and Fjellanger Widerøe established the
415:
1973:
NORD-50 is a 32 bit special purpose computer designed to be a slave processor to the general purpose NORD-l0/S computer.
907:
303:
2729:
182:
263:
going to the bank. The development work started while the trio were working at NDRE, which was cooperating with the
961:
organizational structure were announced and all ND employees had to apply for the new jobs. Several functions were
521:
247:
Bjørge was responsible for hardware, Skår for software and Konrad-Mohn for sales. The company's first computer was
313:(CEO), was appointed chairman of the board in June 1968. This created some conflict of interest, as Kongsberg CEO
280:
Norsk Data shares were issued in May 1968, bringing the share capital to NOK 894,000. New investors included
3136:
524:, but delays caused the system to not be ordered until 1984, in which more than half the system was delivered by
918:
3039:
560:
An important contract was signed in the aftermath of Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium ordering the
2997:
767:. Such bonuses were only paid in good years and for the best years was equal to the salary. The company was a
196:
As there was time between SAM 2 was completed and it had to be in Tromsø, the designers took it on a tour to
816:
764:
310:
252:
267:
and Kongsberg. Preliminary work was therefore sent to both organizations to allow them to build computers.
3034:
2063:
823:
423:
90:
had been completely ported and made available, and the following year a 150-terminal system connected via
302:
freight vessel—on 16 June 1969. This was the world's first such on-ship computer, which both featured an
903:
784:
780:
452:
126:
3207:
285:
255:(MIPS) and would sell for a few hundred thousand krone. To secure a bank guarantee for the first loan,
593:
issue and promised a large grant to the industry if it merged, but Norsk Data stood on its rejection.
3141:
2927:
2859:
2774:
2757:
2713:
2696:
934:
708:
617:
561:
517:
314:
3238:
3049:
2990:
1007:
received 25 percent of their claims and the new company became owned by the two largest creditors,
1000:
993:
950:
892:
791:
697:
477:
463:
137:
508:
and required remote terminals in Bergen and Trondheim. In 1976 Norsk Data won a contract with the
3192:
565:
190:
3197:
162:
57:, ND started delivering computers to Norwegian institutions. By 1972 the company had developed
3212:
3146:
2969:
2950:
922:
860:
787:
was NOK 9 million in 1977, NOK 20 million in 1980 and NOK 4.5 billion in 1985.
686:
665:
208:
158:
54:
34:
3151:
3090:
3202:
2354:
589:
326:
319:
299:
61:
3166:
435:
was launched as a further development of Sintran II which included Nord-TSS and introduced
3126:
1008:
981:
656:
306:
and an automated machine room. By 1973, Norsk Data had delivered 105 units to Norcontrol.
118:
547:
136:
market which started to dominate in the late 1980s. The company's share value halved on
2755:
Olsen, Claude Roland (14 March 1992). "Technovision solgt til amerikansk dataselskap".
711:
project, which took delivery of twenty-seven ND-100 and -500 units. Development of the
541:
467:
436:
276:
256:
3232:
966:
811:
613:
601:
493:
356:
2711:
Borrevik, Line Noer (4 February 1992). "ND-Comtec legges ned – ingen ville overta".
3156:
3121:
768:
505:
186:
166:
107:
72:
30:
3217:
798:
640:
189:. SAM 2 was the first in Europe and among the first three in the world which used
38:
3176:
3029:
2910:
2893:
2876:
2842:
2825:
2791:
2679:
962:
879:
859:
As an increasing number of customers asked for open standard solutions, such as
849:
776:
760:
748:
649:
532:
513:
432:
391:
260:
848:
industry-specific software was combined with that all software development was
3013:
1012:
985:
835:
831:
signed an agreement where the latter would distribute ND computers in France.
723:
634:
473:
346:
26:
18:
752:
727:
569:
553:
459:
384:
220:
201:
78:
The international break-through came with the 1973 delivery of computers to
629:
secured a NOK 25-million advance did the company stop being a burden.
181:(NDRE). The computer was ordered in 1966 for analysis of satellite data at
153:
866:
779:, to be listed on a foreign stock exchange. The company was listed on the
596:
132:
Despite late attempts to develop Ndix, ND never succeeded at entering the
3131:
3095:
3059:
1004:
772:
678:
652:
605:
585:
501:
110:
103:
83:
329:(OS). This was highly inefficient and ND decided to launch a common OS.
226:
3171:
3105:
3085:
2823:
Hellstrøm, Ulf P. (11 February 1993). "Rekordresultat for ND-selskap".
2808:
2789:
Hansen, Lars Ditlev (27 August 1992). "Norsk Data selger ND DataShop".
1016:
736:
712:
486:
440:
407:
390:
Bo Lewendal was hired in 1970 and was set to lead the development of a
330:
142:
122:
58:
82:
and the company soon had half their sales abroad. Two years later the
3100:
3080:
3075:
930:
926:
807:
693:
682:
661:
536:
380:
371:
367:
334:
248:
231:
212:
197:
114:
68:
65:
50:
644:
A Tandberg keyboard and monitor tailor-made for Norsk Data and Notis
402:
275:
and the Chr. Michelsen Institute. Norsk Data and Kongsberg signed a
251:, which was a further development of SAM 2. It offered 0.5 million
3161:
917:
865:
828:
797:
742:
639:
626:
595:
472:
419:
401:
345:
225:
152:
17:
2677:
Pedersen, Hugo (20 February 1992). "NDs minus ble 810 millioer".
853:
834:
The company peaked its financial performance in 1986. That year
731:
720:
701:
362:
The company was saved by a NOK 6-million contract with the
290:
The first Nord-1 was inaugurated on 21 May 1968 and sent to the
133:
99:
95:
91:
79:
2986:
1923:
1921:
949:
The financial problems were cause by a lack of focus on single
2772:
Jensen, Thor Christian (21 July 1992). "Alfheim tar over ND".
2064:"No Unix Market for Norsk, but Brings in Samson the Vaxkiller"
2028:
2026:
1732:
1730:
525:
2982:
719:
The company's Samson architecture ND-5000 machines employed
439:, which was launched with a new generation of hardware, the
2891:
Ziolko, Janina (30 December 1993). "Comma setter punktum".
2874:"Ber om gjeldsforhandlinger: Norsk Data til skifteretten".
2694:
Otterdal, Magne (4 February 1992). "ND på bunn i Europa".
2035:"Taking strength from the chip design competitors ignored"
2058:
2056:
480:
where Norsk Data had offices throughout most of the 1970s
350:
Norsk Data employee working at a Nord-20 computer in 1971
775:. Norsk Data became the second Norwegian company, after
696:, started in 1978 and had so fundamental changes to the
414:
ND bid sixty percent lower than the prototype supplyer,
395:
eighty-seven other suppliers to win a contract with the
41:
and Per Bjørge, three computer engineers working at the
806:
The company started the process of being listed on the
53:
computer to Norcontrol. Initially in competition with
1019:-owned TDK. Comma was sold to Telenor in March 1995.
608:
terminals, as they were bundled with ND minicomputers
87:
557:
the following year, but sales were slow after that.
325:
Originally every user of the Nord-1 coded their own
129:—having increased fifty-fold between 1977 and 1985.
3185:
3114:
3068:
3020:
98:based XMSG and a flight simulator backbone for the
1523:
1521:
1343:
1341:
1158:. Vol. 10, no. 7. July 1977. p. 36
1092:
1090:
692:Development of the successor to the Nord-50, the
370:. This configuration was claimed to be the first
169:which made up the NDRE's digital division in 1962
2806:Ekanger, Merethe (16 September 1992). "Comma".
102:were delivered. In 1978 Norsk Data both bought
1963:. Norsk Data AS. November 1977. pp. I-I-I
1774:"Ad hoc marketing plan pays off at Norsk Data"
802:Norsk Data's head offices at Skullerud in Oslo
259:was taken out on the three founders, with the
157:Per Bugge-Asperheim, Svein Strøm, Per Klevan,
2998:
2914:(in Norwegian). 24 December 1993. p. 11.
965:, while the internal parts were organized as
925:in the foreground were in 1991 replacing the
747:ND's European sales operations were based at
8:
2968:(in Norwegian). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
2863:(in Norwegian). 18 February 1993. p. 6.
819:brought in NOK 400 million in capital.
623:Industrial Development Corporation of Norway
49:. ND's first contract was the delivery of a
2846:(in Norwegian). 8 February 1993. p. 3.
177:2 (SAM 2), a minicomputer developed at the
125:and was Norway's second-largest company by
3005:
2991:
2983:
999:ND started debt settlement proceedings at
621:company, the last part being owned by the
397:European Organization for Nuclear Research
2931:(in Norwegian). 24 March 1995. p. 5.
2730:"Norwegian software firm to acquire Atex"
2355:"UNIX® development history at Norsk Data"
707:A major contract with the ND-500 was the
520:. ND started working on a system for the
273:Central Institute for Industrial Research
2880:(in Norwegian). 12 May 1993. p. 27.
2537:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2495:
2493:
2420:
2418:
2399:
2397:
2150:
2148:
2146:
179:Norwegian Defence Research Establishment
43:Norwegian Defence Research Establishment
2116:"A year off — to get back to the start"
1603:
1601:
1599:
1580:
1578:
1556:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1027:
173:Norsk Data grew out of the development
1930:"Norsk success with 'mainframe' minis"
1568:
1566:
1511:
1509:
1391:
1389:
1331:
1329:
1175:
1173:
1137:
1135:
1125:
1123:
822:Norsk Data started a cooperation with
45:which had just built the minicomputer
1104:
1102:
1035:
1033:
1031:
29:(ND) was a Norwegian manufacturer of
7:
2908:"Landet rundt TBK overtar Dolphin".
2090:"Norsk adds two models to mini line"
870:Tandberg-built ND keyboard for Notis
2840:"Norsk Data tatt vekk fra børsen".
2728:Rosenberg, Jim (17 December 1994).
600:Norsk Data was a major customer of
568:, as only two other manufacturers,
165:, Asbjørn Horn, Olav Landsverk and
364:Norwegian Meteorological Institute
282:Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri
175:Simulation for Automatic Machinery
14:
2949:. Oslo: J. M. Stenersens Forlag.
2353:Steine, Tor Olav (January 1989).
1928:Lamond, Fred (10 November 1977).
1156:Scandinavian Canadian Businessman
535:software for the ND platform for
500:The Central Institute ported the
292:Norwegian Institute of Technology
2945:Heradstveit, Per Øyvind (1985).
1738:"Nords in bid for US simulators"
574:Systems Engineering Laboratories
458:The first sale in Sweden was to
22:Corporate logo from 1976 to 1992
2033:Cane, Alan (19 February 1987).
933:computers in the background at
265:Institute for Energy Technology
3249:History of companies of Norway
1957:NORD 50 Functional Description
1772:Jones, Keith (13 March 1980).
1:
3254:History of computing hardware
3244:History of computer companies
2925:"Norges største IT-bedrift".
2070:. 6 September 1986. p. 3
1934:Computer Weekly International
1744:. 10 November 1977. p. 1
1742:Computer Weekly International
531:Data Logic developed in 1975
416:Digital Equipment Corporation
2947:Norsk Data – A Success Story
908:computer-aided manufacturing
304:automatic radar plotting aid
2897:(in Norwegian). p. 18.
2829:(in Norwegian). p. 32.
2812:(in Norwegian). p. 13.
2795:(in Norwegian). p. 44.
2761:(in Norwegian). p. 11.
2683:(in Norwegian). p. 30.
2122:. 4 August 1983. p. 12
3270:
2778:(in Norwegian). p. 6.
2717:(in Norwegian). p. 6.
2700:(in Norwegian). p. 6.
522:National Insurance Service
309:Ibb Høivold, Norcontrol's
3137:Nord Programming Language
3040:Dolphin Server Technology
2964:Steine, Tor Olav (1992).
2096:. 17 May 1979. p. 64
944:Dolphin Server Technology
512:to manage their fleet of
510:Norwegian State Railways
183:Tromsø Satellite Station
817:initial public offering
771:and only paid marginal
311:chief executive officer
284:(NEBB), Habberstad and
253:instructions per second
3035:Dietz Computer Systems
2734:Editor & Publisher
938:
871:
824:Dietz Computer Systems
803:
756:
645:
609:
481:
411:
351:
235:
170:
23:
921:
904:computer-aided design
869:
801:
785:market capitalization
781:London Stock Exchange
746:
643:
599:
476:
405:
349:
298:—a newly constructed
229:
156:
127:market capitalization
21:
3142:Norsk Data Assembler
2966:Fenomenet Norsk Data
935:Joint European Torus
914:Spin-offs and finale
709:Joint European Torus
562:F-16 Fighting Falcon
518:Swedish Armed Forces
464:nuclear power plants
342:Internationalization
315:Jens Christian Hauge
271:were ordered by the
1001:Oslo District Court
996:effective 1 April.
792:market segmentation
698:system architecture
648:Development of the
462:in 1974 to control
191:integrated circuits
939:
923:Personal computers
872:
861:personal computers
804:
757:
646:
610:
482:
447:Market orientation
412:
352:
286:Tharald Brøvig Jr.
236:
171:
24:
3226:
3225:
3213:Lars Monrad-Krohn
3208:Kolbjørn Johansen
2928:Dagens Næringsliv
2860:Dagens Næringsliv
2775:Dagens Næringsliv
2758:Dagens Næringsliv
2714:Dagens Næringsliv
2697:Dagens Næringsliv
1011:(70 percent) and
687:superminicomputer
333:was developed at
159:Lars Monrad-Krohn
106:and launched its
35:Lars Monrad-Krohn
3261:
3203:Erik Engebretsen
3007:
3000:
2993:
2984:
2979:
2960:
2933:
2932:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2736:. pp. 32–33
2725:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2691:
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2665:
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2647:
2641:
2638:
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2605:
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2596:
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2500:
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2449:
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2413:
2410:
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2335:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2289:Heradstveit: 177
2287:
2281:
2280:Heradstveit: 175
2278:
2272:
2271:Heradstveit: 174
2269:
2263:
2262:Heradstveit: 155
2260:
2254:
2253:Heradstveit: 154
2251:
2245:
2244:Heradstveit: 153
2242:
2236:
2235:Heradstveit: 152
2233:
2227:
2226:Heradstveit: 151
2224:
2218:
2215:
2209:
2206:
2200:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2182:
2181:Heradstveit: 145
2179:
2173:
2172:Heradstveit: 138
2170:
2164:
2163:Heradstveit: 140
2161:
2155:
2154:Heradstveit: 149
2152:
2141:
2140:Heradstveit: 188
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2112:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2060:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2030:
2021:
2018:
2012:
2011:Heradstveit: 170
2009:
2003:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1962:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1925:
1916:
1915:Heradstveit: 160
1913:
1907:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1862:
1861:Heradstveit: 120
1859:
1853:
1852:Heradstveit: 117
1850:
1844:
1843:Heradstveit: 116
1841:
1835:
1834:Heradstveit: 113
1832:
1826:
1825:Heradstveit: 112
1823:
1817:
1816:Heradstveit: 111
1814:
1808:
1807:Heradstveit: 108
1805:
1799:
1798:Heradstveit: 107
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1769:
1763:
1762:Heradstveit: 134
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1734:
1725:
1724:Heradstveit: 131
1722:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1689:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1671:
1670:Heradstveit: 129
1668:
1662:
1661:Heradstveit: 128
1659:
1653:
1652:Heradstveit: 106
1650:
1644:
1641:
1635:
1632:
1626:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1608:
1607:Heradstveit: 104
1605:
1594:
1593:Heradstveit: 105
1591:
1585:
1584:Heradstveit: 161
1582:
1573:
1570:
1561:
1560:Heradstveit: 102
1558:
1549:
1548:Heradstveit: 101
1546:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1516:
1513:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1483:
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1474:
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1456:
1450:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1393:
1384:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1365:Heradstveit: 148
1363:
1357:
1354:
1348:
1345:
1336:
1333:
1324:
1321:
1315:
1312:
1306:
1303:
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1082:
1076:
1073:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1046:
1040:
1037:
590:Elektrisk Bureau
327:operating system
320:hydroelectricity
300:Wilh. Wilhelmsen
62:operating system
3269:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3260:
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3258:
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2180:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2125:
2123:
2120:Computer Weekly
2114:
2113:
2109:
2099:
2097:
2094:Computer Weekly
2088:
2087:
2083:
2073:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2044:
2042:
2039:Financial Times
2032:
2031:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1966:
1964:
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1778:Computer Weekly
1771:
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1757:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1564:
1559:
1552:
1547:
1540:
1536:Heradstveit: 99
1535:
1531:
1527:Heradstveit: 94
1526:
1519:
1514:
1507:
1503:Heradstveit: 92
1502:
1498:
1494:Heradstveit: 93
1493:
1489:
1485:Heradstveit: 87
1484:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:Heradstveit: 91
1466:
1462:
1458:Heradstveit: 84
1457:
1453:
1449:Heradstveit: 83
1448:
1444:
1440:Heradstveit: 80
1439:
1435:
1431:Heradstveit: 78
1430:
1426:
1422:Heradstveit: 77
1421:
1417:
1413:Heradstveit: 74
1412:
1408:
1404:Heradstveit: 73
1403:
1399:
1395:Heradstveit: 72
1394:
1387:
1383:Heradstveit: 71
1382:
1378:
1374:Heradstveit: 70
1373:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:Heradstveit: 69
1346:
1339:
1335:Heradstveit: 68
1334:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:Heradstveit: 63
1295:
1291:
1287:Heradstveit: 60
1286:
1282:
1278:Heradstveit: 59
1277:
1273:
1269:Heradstveit: 57
1268:
1264:
1260:Heradstveit: 56
1259:
1255:
1251:Heradstveit: 52
1250:
1246:
1242:Heradstveit: 50
1241:
1237:
1233:Heradstveit: 54
1232:
1228:
1224:Heradstveit: 53
1223:
1219:
1215:Heradstveit: 55
1214:
1210:
1206:Heradstveit: 48
1205:
1201:
1197:Heradstveit: 46
1196:
1192:
1188:Heradstveit: 45
1187:
1183:
1179:Heradstveit: 43
1178:
1171:
1161:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1141:Heradstveit: 47
1140:
1133:
1129:Heradstveit: 41
1128:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1108:Heradstveit: 40
1107:
1100:
1096:Heradstveit: 39
1095:
1088:
1084:Heradstveit: 38
1083:
1079:
1075:Heradstveit: 36
1074:
1070:
1066:Heradstveit: 35
1065:
1061:
1057:Heradstveit: 34
1056:
1052:
1048:Heradstveit: 29
1047:
1043:
1039:Heradstveit: 33
1038:
1029:
1025:
1009:Den norske Bank
988:in March 1992.
982:Siemens Nixdorf
951:market segments
916:
893:19 October 1987
845:
675:
664:. At first the
657:word processing
582:
449:
344:
245:
151:
138:19 October 1987
119:Norwegian krone
12:
11:
5:
3267:
3265:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3231:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3026:
3024:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3010:
3009:
3002:
2995:
2987:
2981:
2980:
2974:
2961:
2955:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2934:
2917:
2900:
2883:
2866:
2857:"Selger FOS".
2849:
2832:
2815:
2798:
2781:
2764:
2747:
2720:
2703:
2686:
2669:
2660:
2651:
2642:
2633:
2624:
2615:
2606:
2597:
2588:
2579:
2570:
2561:
2552:
2543:
2531:
2519:
2510:
2501:
2489:
2480:
2471:
2462:
2453:
2444:
2435:
2426:
2414:
2405:
2393:
2384:
2375:
2345:
2336:
2327:
2318:
2309:
2300:
2291:
2282:
2273:
2264:
2255:
2246:
2237:
2228:
2219:
2210:
2201:
2192:
2183:
2174:
2165:
2156:
2142:
2133:
2107:
2081:
2052:
2022:
2013:
2004:
1995:
1986:
1977:
1947:
1917:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1764:
1755:
1726:
1717:
1708:
1699:
1690:
1681:
1672:
1663:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1627:
1618:
1609:
1595:
1586:
1574:
1562:
1550:
1538:
1529:
1517:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1460:
1451:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1385:
1376:
1367:
1358:
1349:
1337:
1325:
1316:
1307:
1298:
1289:
1280:
1271:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1226:
1217:
1208:
1199:
1190:
1181:
1169:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1110:
1098:
1086:
1077:
1068:
1059:
1050:
1041:
1026:
1024:
1021:
967:business units
915:
912:
844:
841:
726:fabricated by
674:
671:
581:
578:
542:Arbeiderbladet
468:vendor lock-in
448:
445:
437:virtual memory
357:profit margins
343:
340:
277:market sharing
257:life insurance
244:
241:
150:
147:
86:program Sibas
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3266:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3069:Minicomputers
3067:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3050:Økernsenteret
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3003:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2977:
2975:82-00-21501-6
2971:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2956:82-7201-044-5
2952:
2948:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2930:
2929:
2921:
2918:
2913:
2912:
2904:
2901:
2896:
2895:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2878:
2870:
2867:
2862:
2861:
2853:
2850:
2845:
2844:
2836:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2819:
2816:
2811:
2810:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2793:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2776:
2768:
2765:
2760:
2759:
2751:
2748:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2716:
2715:
2707:
2704:
2699:
2698:
2690:
2687:
2682:
2681:
2673:
2670:
2664:
2661:
2655:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2574:
2571:
2565:
2562:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2379:
2376:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2346:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2304:
2301:
2295:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2277:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2187:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2160:
2157:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2082:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2040:
2036:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2017:
2014:
2008:
2005:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1959:
1958:
1951:
1948:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1846:
1840:
1837:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1756:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1622:
1619:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1401:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1311:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1272:
1266:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1203:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1111:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1042:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
997:
995:
994:Merkantildata
989:
987:
983:
978:
974:
970:
968:
964:
958:
954:
952:
947:
945:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
913:
911:
909:
905:
900:
896:
894:
888:
884:
881:
876:
868:
864:
862:
857:
855:
851:
842:
840:
837:
832:
830:
825:
820:
818:
813:
809:
800:
796:
793:
788:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
754:
750:
745:
741:
738:
733:
729:
725:
722:
717:
714:
710:
705:
703:
699:
695:
690:
688:
684:
680:
672:
670:
667:
663:
658:
654:
651:
642:
638:
636:
630:
628:
624:
619:
615:
614:Tandberg Data
607:
603:
602:Tandberg Data
598:
594:
591:
587:
579:
577:
575:
571:
567:
563:
558:
556:
555:
550:
549:
544:
543:
538:
534:
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
495:
494:Norsk Tipping
490:
488:
479:
478:Økernsenteret
475:
471:
469:
465:
461:
456:
454:
446:
444:
442:
438:
434:
428:
425:
421:
417:
409:
404:
400:
398:
393:
388:
386:
382:
376:
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
348:
341:
339:
336:
332:
328:
323:
321:
316:
312:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
288:
287:
283:
278:
274:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
242:
240:
233:
228:
224:
222:
216:
214:
210:
205:
203:
199:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
168:
164:
160:
155:
149:Establishment
148:
146:
144:
139:
135:
130:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
76:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
31:minicomputers
28:
20:
16:
3021:
2965:
2946:
2939:Bibliography
2926:
2920:
2909:
2903:
2892:
2886:
2875:
2869:
2858:
2852:
2841:
2835:
2824:
2818:
2807:
2801:
2790:
2784:
2773:
2767:
2756:
2750:
2738:. Retrieved
2733:
2723:
2712:
2706:
2695:
2689:
2678:
2672:
2663:
2654:
2645:
2636:
2627:
2618:
2609:
2600:
2591:
2582:
2573:
2564:
2555:
2546:
2513:
2504:
2483:
2474:
2465:
2456:
2447:
2438:
2429:
2408:
2387:
2378:
2366:. Retrieved
2364:. p. 16
2361:
2348:
2339:
2330:
2321:
2312:
2303:
2294:
2285:
2276:
2267:
2258:
2249:
2240:
2231:
2222:
2213:
2204:
2195:
2186:
2177:
2168:
2159:
2136:
2124:. Retrieved
2119:
2110:
2098:. Retrieved
2093:
2084:
2072:. Retrieved
2067:
2043:. Retrieved
2041:. p. 12
2038:
2016:
2007:
1998:
1989:
1980:
1972:
1965:. Retrieved
1956:
1950:
1938:. Retrieved
1936:. p. 31
1933:
1911:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1782:. Retrieved
1780:. p. 18
1777:
1767:
1758:
1746:. Retrieved
1741:
1720:
1711:
1702:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1630:
1621:
1612:
1589:
1532:
1499:
1490:
1481:
1472:
1463:
1454:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1409:
1400:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1352:
1319:
1310:
1301:
1292:
1283:
1274:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1238:
1229:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1184:
1160:. Retrieved
1155:
1152:"Norsk Data"
1146:
1113:
1080:
1071:
1062:
1053:
1044:
998:
990:
979:
975:
971:
959:
955:
948:
940:
901:
897:
889:
885:
877:
873:
858:
846:
833:
821:
810:exchange in
805:
789:
769:growth stock
758:
718:
706:
691:
676:
647:
631:
611:
583:
559:
552:
548:Østlendingen
546:
540:
530:
514:goods wagons
506:Vinmonopolet
499:
491:
483:
457:
450:
429:
413:
389:
377:
361:
353:
324:
308:
295:
289:
269:
246:
237:
234:minicomputer
217:
206:
195:
187:Yngvar Lundh
172:
167:Yngvar Lundh
131:
108:office suite
77:
73:time sharing
25:
15:
3193:Tor Alfheim
3177:Sintran III
3030:Benham Park
2911:Aftenposten
2894:Aftenposten
2877:Aftenposten
2843:Aftenposten
2826:Aftenposten
2792:Aftenposten
2680:Aftenposten
2667:Steine: 198
2658:Steine: 183
2649:Steine: 180
2640:Steine: 179
2631:Steine: 178
2622:Steine: 177
2613:Steine: 174
2604:Steine: 173
2595:Steine: 170
2586:Steine: 168
2577:Steine: 167
2568:Steine: 161
2559:Steine: 169
2550:Steine: 165
2541:Steine: 164
2529:Steine: 159
2517:Steine: 157
2508:Steine: 155
2499:Steine: 163
2487:Steine: 153
2478:Steine: 154
2469:Steine: 152
2460:Steine: 150
2451:Steine: 149
2442:Steine: 148
2433:Steine: 147
2424:Steine: 145
2412:Steine: 146
2403:Steine: 144
2391:Steine: 143
2382:Steine: 141
2343:Steine: 140
2334:Steine: 137
2325:Steine: 135
2217:Steine: 115
2208:Steine: 113
2199:Steine: 110
2190:Steine: 107
2020:Steine: 101
2002:Steine: 100
1643:Steine: 105
1634:Steine: 104
1162:8 September
880:cartography
777:Norsk Hydro
761:Benham Park
749:Benham Park
724:gate arrays
650:office suit
533:typesetting
433:Sintran III
392:timesharing
261:beneficiary
3239:Norsk Data
3233:Categories
3198:Per Bjørge
3014:Norsk Data
2307:Steine: 16
2298:Steine: 11
1993:Steine: 99
1984:Steine: 98
1906:Steine: 92
1897:Steine: 96
1888:Steine: 95
1879:Steine: 94
1870:Steine: 93
1715:Steine: 91
1706:Steine: 85
1697:Steine: 84
1688:Steine: 83
1679:Steine: 89
1625:Steine: 37
1616:Steine: 36
1572:Steine: 35
1515:Steine: 31
1476:Steine: 33
1356:Steine: 26
1323:Steine: 34
1314:Steine: 29
1305:Steine: 27
1117:Steine: 19
1023:References
1013:Fokus Bank
986:Intergraph
963:outsourced
850:outsourced
836:Datamation
618:Parliament
163:Per Bjørge
27:Norsk Data
3218:Rolf Skår
2316:Steine: 5
2126:28 August
2100:24 August
2068:Unigram/X
1967:24 August
1940:24 August
1748:24 August
1005:creditors
773:dividends
755:, England
753:Berkshire
728:LSI Logic
570:Interdata
566:simulator
554:Dagbladet
460:ASEA-Atom
385:Tiki Data
221:Trondheim
209:Kongsberg
202:Trondheim
121:(NOK) in
55:Kongsberg
39:Rolf Skår
3147:Nord-TSS
3115:Software
3096:Nord-100
3060:Tandberg
812:New York
679:Nord-100
606:TDV-2215
586:Tandberg
580:Tandberg
502:database
453:turnover
104:Tandberg
84:database
75:system.
3172:Sintran
3152:Nortext
3106:ND-5000
3091:Nord-50
3086:Nord-10
3022:History
2809:Nordlys
2362:ND News
2074:19 July
2045:24 June
1784:26 June
1017:Telenor
737:PA-RISC
713:ND-5000
635:Kjelsås
487:Furuset
441:Nord-10
408:Nord-10
331:Sintran
143:Telenor
123:revenue
59:Sintran
3186:People
3101:ND-500
3081:Nord-5
3076:Nord-1
2972:
2953:
2740:2 July
2368:6 July
931:ND-500
927:ND-100
808:NASDAQ
694:ND-500
683:VAX-11
662:e-mail
537:Amedia
381:Mycron
372:32-bit
368:Nord-5
335:SINTEF
296:Taimyr
249:Nord-1
243:Nord-1
232:Nord-1
213:Horten
198:Bergen
115:ND-500
71:and a
69:Nord-5
66:32-bit
64:, the
51:Nord-1
3167:Sibas
3162:PLANC
3132:Notis
2358:(PDF)
1961:(PDF)
829:Matra
765:bonus
653:Notis
627:Mobil
424:Dietz
420:Mitra
406:Twin
111:Notis
47:SAM 2
3127:Ndix
3045:FUNN
2970:ISBN
2951:ISBN
2742:2024
2370:2024
2128:2024
2102:2024
2076:2024
2047:2024
1969:2024
1942:2024
1786:2024
1750:2024
1164:2024
929:and
906:and
854:Unix
843:Bust
732:RISC
721:CMOS
702:Cray
677:The
673:Boom
572:and
551:and
422:and
410:unit
383:and
200:and
134:Unix
100:F-16
96:X.25
92:X.21
80:CERN
3157:PED
3122:LED
3055:SAM
751:in
666:QED
604:'s
526:IBM
3235::
2732:.
2534:^
2522:^
2492:^
2417:^
2396:^
2360:.
2145:^
2118:.
2092:.
2066:.
2055:^
2037:.
2025:^
1971:.
1932:.
1920:^
1776:.
1740:.
1729:^
1598:^
1577:^
1565:^
1553:^
1541:^
1520:^
1508:^
1388:^
1340:^
1328:^
1172:^
1154:.
1134:^
1122:^
1101:^
1089:^
1030:^
704:.
588:,
545:,
528:.
387:.
230:A
161:,
145:.
37:,
3006:e
2999:t
2992:v
2978:.
2959:.
2744:.
2372:.
2130:.
2104:.
2078:.
2049:.
1944:.
1788:.
1752:.
1166:.
937:.
94:/
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