History of responsa in Judaism

172: 325:. Despite difficulties that hampered the irregular communications of the period, Jews who lived even in most distant countries sent their inquiries concerning religion and law to these officials in Babylonia. It was common for Jews outside of Babylon to ask to be sent a section of the Talmud along with “its explanation” or to ask the scholars in Babylon to settle Jewish arguments for which they could not find any precedent. The length of a responsum from this period can span from less than a sentence to a large book. Many of the responsa are still being studied today in the Cairo Genizah. In the yeshiva during this time period, students and scholars would discuss these halakhic questions during kallah and then the head of the yeshiva would announce his decision and the leaders in the yeshiva would sign it. Another type of responsa were those that were more time-sensitive, so the gaon usually responded to them right away and with many different sections in order to answer multiple questions that were posed. Later Geonim also referred to the responsa and commentaries of earlier Geonim when writing responsa. 1316:. The CJLS is the body that sets halakhic policy. There are 25 voting members on the committee who determine whether or not to enact a specific responsa. The responsa are written after a member of the Rabbinic Assembly or the Conservative movement in general poses a question about Halakha. A responsa is deemed approved when at least 6 member of the committee vote to approve it. Despite the fact that CJLS makes decisions about the rulings of responsa, which stands as the decisions for the entirety of the Conservative Movement, individual rabbis can still make their own decision about how to rule on specific circumstances within their communities. In the 387:

noteworthy is the divergence between the French and the Spanish school in the twelfth century, the second half of this period. For the most part the rulings of this period receive their basis or their confirmation from a passage in the Talmud, and in this motivation the difference between the French and the Spanish exegesis of the Talmud is clearly shown. The Spanish school was the more logical, and strove for brevity and lucidity in the deduction of its rulings from the Talmud, while the French school was more dialectic, and frequently gave full play to casuistry at the expense of clearness.

229:). Even when reluctance to write down rulings became obsolete, letters of a legal nature might be written only in cases where laws might likewise be reduced to writing. While the rule prevailed that no laws should be written, no communications of legal content were made by means of letters. Questions were usually communicated orally, or proposed to the academy by a teacher, who transmitted the answer and decision by word of mouth. The rarity of letters on legal problems in the Tannaitic era (the period the Mishnah covers) may be seen from a passage in the 560:, 1798), in which are included in great part the responsa of Solomon ben Adret. To him came questions from the most distant communities. His responsa number about three thousand, and in content are partly practical and partly devoted to exegesis, ethics, and religious philosophy. The exegetic rulings interpreted difficult passages of the bible, the Talmud, and the works of older authors, while the practical responsa comprised decisions as to the ritual, civil and marital law, communal relations, and the contemporary political affairs of the Jews. 139: 156: 411:. His decisions are written in Hebrew, without formulas either of introduction or of conclusion, although an interesting phrase that is peculiar to him, and was apparently invented by him occurs once: "I, the undersigned, was asked whether ... thus have I heard from my teachers, and thus is my own opinion likewise inclined,..." the ruling being followed by the signature "Solomon b. Isaac", without any concluding formula ( 3099: 1009:", afford a glimpse of the plight of the German Jews of the time. The responsa of Menahem Mendel Krochmal appeared posthumously; the most noteworthy of his rulings is one (No. 2) in which he decided in favor of universal suffrage in the community, making no distinction between rich and poor, taxed and untaxed, learned and ignorant, but giving all an equal share in the choice of the rabbi, the 595:, but since both names signify 'magnificent', the double nomenclature is explained." In responsum No. 395 he describes his abolition of several superstitious customs, one of which was to kill an old cock, and to hang its head at the door on the occasion of the birth of a boy. Particularly noteworthy is responsum No. 548, in which he gives a decision regarding a marvelous child at 2722: 195: 124:

of letters. Responsa literature spans 1700 years and there are even responsa being developed based on questions posed today. The development of responsa literature can be divided into six periods: the Tannaitic Period, the Geonic Period, the First Rabbinic Epoch, the Second Rabbinic Epoch, the Third Rabbinic Epoch, and the Fourth Rabbinic Epoch.

674:, Asher responded (No. 68, 10) that according to Talmudic law no arrests could be made for debt, even in cases where the debtor had pledged his own person, although, on the other hand, he noted that it was the custom of the communities in Spain to imprison one who had failed to pay his quota of the royal tax until he should discharge his debt. 1508: 287:. By the end of the third century the correspondence between Israel and Babylonia had become more active, and the responsa from the one to the other had become far more numerous. These rulings from rabbis in Israel seem to have been regarded as authoritative and demanding obedience; and the threat was made to Rabbi 918:; the responsa of these scholars throw a flood of light on the condition of the Jews of the period, who evidently took high rank in Poland and were not unfamiliar with military arts, since they offered their services to the duke or to the prince on the outbreak of a war (comp. responsum. No. 43 of Meir Lublin). 493:, 1622). Particularly noteworthy is his injunction that Jewish law obligates Jews to follow the laws of the land, i.e., to follow the laws of the secular government in which a Jewish community found itself living. This ruling is based on the Talmudic saying: "The law of the land is valid" (ib. responsum No. 50). 632:

a new corpus of unedited responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg under the title "Sefer Sha'are Teshubot Maharam". Maharam, famously, rules that a man may not hit his wife, "since, he may not hit another man, despite not owing him honour, whereas he owes her honour...". The special interest of Meïr's responsa

123:

literature, particularly the codes. Formulation of responsa, or she'elot ve-t'shuvot, which literally translates to questions and answers, generally involve an individual or group asking either teachers, rabbis, or heads of yeshivot about halakhah (Jewish law) and the party responding via an exchange

1234:

While many of the responsa throughout history have been written down and can be found in various books or anthologies, a lot of responsa today can be found on online databases such as The Global Jewish Database (The Responsa Project) at Bar-Ilan University. The Schechter Institute's website also has

328:

Later in the geonic period (from the mid-tenth to mid-eleventh centuries), their supremacy suffered, as the study of the Talmud received care in other lands. The inhabitants of these regions gradually began to submit their questions to the heads of the schools of their own countries. Eventually they

1282:

experienced a day/night cycle approximately every ninety minutes. Thus, Ramon asked whether he should keep the Sabbath according to Earth time, or mark it once every seven day/night cycles (ten and a half hours). And if according to Earth time, then what location on Earth should this be based upon?

703:

The period of the Achronim, or the Third Rabbinic Epoch includes response of Italian, Turkish, German, and Polish rabbis. Given the political climate and various persecutions the Jews were experiencing throughout this time period, the majority of these responsa were written in response to questions

681:

were published at Constantinople in 1546-47 as "She'elot u-Teshuvot". These responsa contain many disquisitions illustrative of the conditions of the times, including rulings on marriage and marital relations in the case of Jews who had been forcibly baptized, as well as other decisions relating to

1300:

holds that Orthodoxy has deviated from historical Judaism through excessive concern with recent codifications of Jewish law. Conservative rabbis make a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context.

752:

and exegetic themes, so that there was scarcely a subject of human activity or thought on which the responsa might not expound. Among the Achronim, however, the responsa were restricted almost entirely to legal regulations. Since the pronouncement of judgment was regarded as a religious duty, and

633:

is the picture they give of the condition of the German Jews of his time, and of their sufferings from the caprice of princes and from heavy taxation. The collections of the responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg contain also the rulings of other older and contemporary rabbis of the Franco-German school.

523:

The Second Rabbinic Epoch consists of responsa from Spanish and Frenco-German schools in the 13th and 14th centuries. Nahmanides and R. Solomen ben Adret were two of the big scholars during this period. These responsa were written about a wide range of topics including Talmudic passages, ethics,

259:

period (100 BCE to 200 CE) statements, publications, contributions concerning the calendar, and notifications were the only documents regularly committed to writing. On the other hand, it can not positively be asserted that no ruling at all had been given in writing before the completion of the

1052:

The collection of responsa by Ezekiel Landau, known as "Noda' bi-Yehudah", was esteemed by rabbis and scholars, as distinguished both for its logical discussion and for its independence with regard to the rulings of later authorities as contrasted with its adherence to the writings of earlier

386:

The responsa of the epoch came from various countries, and from schools having different tendencies, thus showing the position and the type of spiritual life in general and of Talmudic learning in particular, since all these factors prevailed in the different countries at the time. Especially

171: 666:", while at the head of every rubric stands a résumé of its contents and a numerical list of the responsa treating of each subject. This arrangement, however, was not the work of Asher himself, but was made probably by one of his pupils, possibly by his son Rabbi 682:

those who had been compelled to accept Christianity (e.g., Nos. 1, 4, 6, 11, 12, 43). Especially interesting are responsa that describe prevailing customs and regulations of the communities of the period, as in No. 158, which contains a noteworthy account of the

382:

school. Even in responsa that are practical in nature, a distinction may be drawn between the two schools. Although these responsa can still be found in significant response anthologies today, they are not as significant as the responsa written during the Geonic

745:, they sought to base their decisions on the older authorities. The field had already been thoroughly worked, and the respondent was consequently obliged to make a careful search for the question asked or one analogous to it, in order to provide an answer. 528:

forms of responsa vanished. On the one hand, the scientific spirit of the Spanish school partially entered the academies of southern France, and, on the other hand, the dialecticism of the French rabbis steadily increased in influence in Spain.

1301:

With this information they believe that can better understand a proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today. Like Orthodoxy, there is no one legal body that speaks for all Jews in their religious community.

1044:

The Responsa of Meir Eisenstadt, titled "Panim Me'irot" contains one "particularly interesting" ruling, in which he stigmatizes as presumptuous arrogance the practice of ostentatiously wearing white garments in the fashion of the

720:

rabbis. This period is the richest in the responsa literature. It would therefore be impossible to enumerate all the collections; this section presents a survey of the chief representatives of each century and country.

571:" (Leghorn, 1654), contains 405; part three (ib. 1778) contains 445; part four (Salonica, 1803) contains 330; and part five (Leghorn, 1805) contains 298. Other responsa by him are included in the aforementioned " 1150:, as is now the case in all Reform and even in many Orthodox synagogues, but was then interdicted as an innovation. In another responsum he debated whether a Jewish sculptor was permitted by his religion to 213:). Works devoted especially to responsa first appear in the post-Talmudic period. Many responsa have been lost, but those extant number hundreds of thousands, in almost a thousand known collections. 2834: 1543:

Responsal literature as a whole has as yet found no literary historian; single periods have been discussed while others have been entirely neglected, the works on these separate epochs including:

826:(No. 198). Particularly interesting is the responsum (No. 197) devoted to the problem whether Jews might so disguise themselves as to escape recognition in countries where they were absolutely 237:

secretly dispatched a messenger with an answer to a question; for if he desired to keep his decision secret, he would probably have sent a letter had such replies been customary at that time.

272:

had in great part disappeared, the responsa literature began to appear, traces being preserved in the Talmud. Often questions were settled by a single letter, as was later the case with the

937:

when threatened with death, considering the question in detail, and determines the cases in which a Jew may thus save his life and the contingencies in which he should rather choose death.

1274:

Contemporary responsa deal with both traditional questions and phenomena associated with modern social, religious, medical and technological developments. For example, Israeli astronaut

933:("Radbaz"). The responsa of Radbaz, in particular, are characterized by lucidity and strict logic. One noteworthy example discusses whether a Jew may abjure his religion and accept 1064:

In this period, many responsa deal with problems taken from modern experience. Responsa have been inspired or necessitated by economic growth, social movements, and advances in

789:, which had been in vogue since the mid-fifteenth century in Talmud study, forced its way into responsa literature as well. The responsa are remarkable for the hair-splitting 729:

These rulings are different from those of the previous periods in the nature of the problems presented, in the method of treatment, and in the arrangement of subject-matter.

599:, who had originally been idiotic, but later frequently fell into trances during which he composed works whose contents he declared had been communicated to him by an angel. 2433: 345:

The period of the rishonim, or the First Rabbinic Epoch, primarily consists of the writings from 11th and 12th century Spanish and French schools. With the decline of the

1599: 329:

virtually ceased sending questions to Babylonian Geonim, so that during this period responsa of eminent rabbis of other lands appeared side by side with geonic rulings.

818:", comprises 354 decisions, which are important as describing many characteristic features of the time. Several of them (Nos. 341-346) discuss the apportionment of the 1160:

discussed the problem of the transfer of a corpse from one place of burial to another. In another responsum he replied in the affirmative to a question sent him from

748:

Previously, the questions had covered many departments of knowledge, both sacred and profane, being concerned with ethical and philosophical problems as well as with

845:", likewise contain many interesting allusions to contemporary conditions, as in the case of No. 71, which discusses the problem whether the Jews might attend races. 506:. The responsa of ibn Migash include both practical decisions and explanations of difficult passages in the Mishnah and the Talmud, the first group being written in 349:

in the first half of the eleventh century, it ceased to be seen as the central spiritual authority for Jews worldwide. From then on, questions were sent to the

579:

and the other books of the Bible, he replied as follows (i., No. 12): "A change in phraseology without an alteration of meaning is not surprising. Even in the

2671: 3124: 2711: 1068:, which wrought sweeping changes in the lives and living conditions of the Jews in different countries, as well as within Judaic streams; e.g., those of 276:, who exchanged a series of responsa. The replies were signed by pupils and colleagues, so that, strictly speaking, the responsa were issued by a board. 221:

No responsa are known to exist from before the Mishnah (200 CE); it is doubtful whether any were written before this period. A tradition held that no

1022:

In the eighteenth century the rabbis of various countries contributed to responsa literature, but the most important were still the Polish scholars.

1206:

In addition to the collections of responsa already mentioned, important examples of responsa literature in the nineteenth century include: the "

2963: 1283:

The rabbis concluded that he was to celebrate the Sabbath in accordance with Earth time, based on the place of his departure, Cape Canaveral.

1309: 205:

The responsa of the first five centuries are not contained in special works; they are scattered through the writings of both Talmuds (the

321:

schools were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim, the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in

780:, so that many of the responsa were arranged according to these two works, while among the later scholars this practice became the rule. 1251:

decisions and policies are formulated and communicated. Notable collections of Responsa published in the 20th Century include those by

670:. From the responsa of Rabbi Asher may be gleaned many curious customs of the Spanish communities. To a question addressed to him from 753:

since in most countries the Jews were unwilling to submit to a non-Jewish court, legal questions formed a large part of the responsa.

2968: 704:

concerning legal matters. This section covers responsa written during fifteenth to the eighteenth century, and includes responsa of

116:). The codes themselves contain the rules for ordinary incidents of life. The responsa literature covers all these topics and more. 119:

The mode, style and subject matter have changed as a function of the travels of the Jewish people and of the development of other

3009: 2437: 2649: 930: 956:

In the seventeenth century rabbis of various countries prepared responsa, but the Polish scholars were in the great majority.

3086: 2704: 783:

Earlier responsa had been so lucid that the reader could easily follow them. Among the Achronim this changed completely, for

2948: 1215: 605: 379: 662:

in 1607. This collection of responsa is arranged according to 108 subjects, each of which has a special chapter, called "

2994: 353:

of one's own or a neighboring country. Thus, inquiries sent during this period to Babylonia were rare and exceptional.

2928: 2684: 295:, that a letter would be brought from "the West" (i.e., Israel) to annul his decision. The same experience befell and 861:

Especially important in the responsal literature of this century were the Turkish rabbis, among whom the chief were

2639: 2593: 983: 514:, while the greater portion of the second category was composed by the author himself in the Talmudic Hebrew idiom. 2607: 2107: 2083: 1079:

The movements for the reform of Judaism evoked many responsa in reply to questions concerning the location of the

616:, 1557) with 315 responsa, while another corpus, which contained 1,022 responsa, appeared under the same title at 3129: 3103: 2984: 2918: 2844: 2778: 2697: 2953: 2943: 2773: 279:

With the beginning of the third century of the common era, responsa begin to frequently appear in letters from

378:

scholars are noteworthy for the untrammeled scientific spirit that permeates them, far more than those of the

1650: 2938: 2882: 2752: 2164: 1668: 1526: 1264: 998: 994: 941: 890: 426:

in 1780, under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot ha-RIF" (Rabbi Isaac Alfasi). These decisions were written in

3134: 2892: 2768: 1010: 886: 308: 2652:(OLD copy, from web.archive.org, since apparently the original is no longer on the web, at the same URL). 3071: 1292: 1223: 1175: 1157: 1002: 961: 362:

The questions were not all practical. Many were theoretical, concerning the correct interpretation of a

2131: 1939: 2214: 2059: 2035: 2011: 1987: 1751: 1685: 1571:, 1865. The responsa by European and American rabbis to problems arising in America are summarized by 575:". A few examples of his decisions may be given. When asked concerning many discrepancies between the 548:

Very few responsa by Nahmanides have been preserved. Those that exist are contained in a work titled "

3004: 2865: 2656: 1727: 1663: 1297: 1151: 1098: 596: 468: 1521: 1168:

might be changed into a synagogue. He was one of the first to permit the use of machinery in baking

822:

and the assessments, while others are concerned with the attitude to be observed toward a repentant

583:

apparent discrepancies of this kind are found, so that one of the sons of Simeon is called Zohar in

268:

Immediately after the completion of the Mishnah, when the prohibition or reluctance against writing

2159: 1321: 1313: 576: 164: 83: 31: 1511: One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 3081: 3061: 2661: 1367: 1260: 1109: 882: 524:

religious philosophy, and more. In this period the difference between the Spanish and the Franco-

464: 453: 3066: 2897: 2345: 1845: 1775: 1702: 1560: 1165: 678: 647: 542: 538: 499: 449: 288: 206: 138: 1870: 1182:, which the laws of Hungary permitted between Jews and non-Jews, and he debated also whether 397:

The chief representative of the French school in the eleventh century was Solomon ben Isaac (

2958: 2933: 2923: 2726: 2467: 1572: 1244: 926: 804: 762: 643: 210: 67: 186:, concerning the status of translated works of Torah, in response to a question from Rabbi 3030: 2887: 2747: 1317: 1252: 1034: 870: 767: 683: 667: 658:

in 1517 under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot", while an enlarged edition was published at

511: 507: 431: 427: 59: 155: 3025: 2999: 2870: 2839: 2742: 2644: 2155: 1544: 1517: 1183: 1179: 1069: 1038: 907: 874: 866: 772: 713: 655: 525: 284: 187: 148: 760:

sequence was almost entirely lacking. The responsa of the Achronim had as models the "

3118: 3056: 2875: 2666: 2579: 1512: 1279: 1161: 1129: 1102: 911: 375: 179: 113: 374:

passage in the Talmud. In their discussion of theoretical problems, the responsa of

3076: 1256: 1117: 1086: 979: 968: 893:(No. 75, pp. 136b-137a), and the question of the covering of the head and the 851: 838: 827: 808: 709: 705: 419: 407: 17: 604:

The chief representative of the German school in the thirteenth century was Rabbi

533:

The chief representatives of the Spanish responsa in the thirteenth century were

2824: 2794: 2462: 1680: 1139: 1124:, including the problems of the cessation of all labor in the fields during the 1113: 1027: 945: 922: 915: 878: 862: 777: 757: 717: 625: 445: 199: 993:

The principal Polish rabbis of the seventeenth century who wrote responsa were

1645: 1343: 1275: 1195: 1065: 855: 592: 588: 584: 580: 534: 503: 478:", are partly exegetic in character and partly devoted to practical decisions. 226: 160: 2675:. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–176. 2349: 1849: 1706: 608:. Many of his responsa have been preserved, the oldest collection being the " 1580: 1268: 1191: 1147: 1121: 1094: 790: 735: 698: 498:

The chief representatives of the Spanish school in the twelfth century were

292: 280: 234: 194: 90:, but not necessarily in content, from Rabbinic commentaries devoted to the 2721: 444:

The chief representatives of the French school of the twelfth century were

1633: 2902: 2809: 2804: 2551: 1235:

six volumes of Conservative responsa written by the Rabbinical Assembly.

1187: 1046: 823: 741: 481:

The responsa of Abraham ben David are included in the collection titled "

340: 296: 91: 79: 45: 2689: 2660: 563:

The responsa of Solomon ben Adret fall into five parts. The first part (

3035: 2819: 2814: 2524: 2201: 1628: 1568: 1333: 1308:, Conservative Judaism has two law committees: In the USA there is the 1248: 1199: 1073: 894: 621: 613: 564: 557: 423: 370: 364: 322: 318: 256: 250: 246: 230: 108: 99: 50: 35: 2989: 2829: 1565:

Entwurf einer Geschichte der Literatur der Nachtalmudischen Responsen

1552: 1169: 1125: 1090: 831: 785: 671: 659: 629: 617: 553: 490: 346: 314: 273: 143: 133: 103: 95: 55: 2634: 803:

The most important German respondents of the fifteenth century were

2679: 2339: 1841: 1372:

A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism

940:

The only important Italian respondent of the sixteenth century was

885:

may be compelled by the provincial court to give his Jewish wife a

830:. He was lenient in cases of widows who lacked a divorce document ( 2799: 1348: 1338: 934: 819: 398: 350: 170: 154: 137: 850:

In Italy the chief representatives of the fifteenth century were

2860: 1081: 1030:, whose responsa form the collection titled "She'elot Ya'abetz". 422:, who left many responsa, an entire collection being printed at 2693: 2316: 2270: 2238: 2186: 1963: 1916: 1893: 1820: 1799: 1549:

Briefe und Responsen aus der Vorgaonäischen Jüdischen Literatur

906:

The chief Polish representatives of the sixteenth century were

2564: 971:, whose decisions appeared at Venice in 1702 under the title " 2537: 2509: 2293: 1696: 642:

The principal representatives of the fourteenth century were

960:

The chief German representative of responsal literature was

897:

in the case of a married woman (No. 35, pp. 94 et seq.)

739:

saw themselves as no longer having the independence of the

1577:

The Development of Jewish Casuistic Literature in America

1112:

had occasioned many responsa on questions connected with

793:

that characterizes them, and often robs them of lucidity.

620:

in 1608. A collection of unedited responsa was issued at

418:

The leader of the Spanish school in the same century was

463:" as well as in the works of other authorities, such as 401:), and many of his responsa have been preserved in the " 2434:"The Matzah Baking Machine: A 19th-century controversy" 1593: 1591: 1589: 1146:" might be removed from the center and placed near the 1001:. The decisions of the former, which were published at 2160:"Isserlein (Isserlin), Israel Ben Pethahiah Ashkenazi" 1049:, while the general custom was to wear black clothing. 474:

The responsa of Eliezer ben Nathan, contained in his "

967:

Among the Italian respondents the most important was

814:

The collection of the responsa of Israel Isserlein, "

1557:

Einleitung in die Responsen der Babylonischen Geonen

434:

at an early date, being extant only in this version.

3049: 3018: 2977: 2911: 2853: 2787: 2761: 2735: 2685:

Topical index of non-binding Reform Jewish responsa

978:Of the Turkish authorities the most prominent were 567:, 1539) contains 1,255 responsa; part two, titled " 921:The chief Turkish respondents of this period were 260:Mishnah: certain exceptions were doubtless made. 459:The responsa of Rabbi Tam are contained in his " 1033:Among the many noteworthy Polish scholars are 2964:Union of Orthodox Hebrew Congregations (UOHC) 2705: 1060:Nineteenth century to early twentieth century 877:. The responsa of Moses Alashkar (printed at 8: 2594:"Shabbat in Space: The Legacy of Ilan Ramon" 1247:, responsa remain a primary channel whereby 990:", were published at Constantinople in 1718. 1324:of the local branch, the Masorti movement. 654:The responsa of the RoSH first appeared at 2712: 2698: 2690: 1598:Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred (2007). 1304:When defined narrowly as the Conservative 1278:noted that, while orbiting the Earth, the 1502: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1400: 2680:Masorti and Conservative Jewish responsa 2650:The Responsa of Professor Louis Ginzberg 1398: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1380: 1026:The chief representative of Germany was 193: 2969:International Rabbinic Fellowship (IRF) 2640:"Sages of Ashkenaz" Responsa collection 2608:"Committee on Jewish Law and Standards" 1360: 1135:Following are representative examples: 770:and, after the sixteenth century, the 1310:Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 1099:the seating of men and women together 7: 2949:Rabbinical Council of America (RCA) 1178:passed judgment on the question of 2436:. MyJewishLearning. Archived from 225:(law) should be written down (see 78:), spans a period of 1,700 years. 36:Halakha § Codes of Jewish law 25: 3125:Rabbinic legal texts and responsa 2158:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 1541:Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography: 1520:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 27:Religious legal rulings by rabbis 3098: 3097: 3082:Rabbinic authority / Da'as Torah 2720: 2596:. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. 2592:Zvi Konikov (January 31, 2008). 1506: 944:, whose responsa were edited at 537:(Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman), Rabbi 2490:ib. ii., Przemysl, 1895, No. 31 2168:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls 1530:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls 450:Abraham ben David of Posquières 82:constitute a special class of 1: 2635:The Bar Ilan Responsa project 2447:. Jewish Publication Society. 1216:Abraham Samuel Benjamin Sofer 686:after the death of a kinsman. 606:Meir ben Baruch of Rothenburg 454:Eliezer ben Nathan of Mayence 299:and another, unnamed, judge. 1239:Responsa of Orthodox Judaism 74:, usually shortened to שו"ת 2929:Central Rabbinical Congress 1210:" of Abraham Te'omim, the " 881:in 1554) discuss whether a 430:, and were translated into 3151: 2866:United Torah Judaism (UTJ) 1374:, Burt Franklin: New York. 1290: 986:, whose responsa, titled " 696: 510:and later translated into 338: 317:period (650–1250 CE), the 306: 244: 131: 29: 3095: 2985:Agudath Israel of America 2662:"Hebrew Literature" 1230:Twentieth century–present 1005:in 1683 under the title " 980:Joseph ben Moses di Trani 291:, head of the Academy of 2944:Moetzet Chachmei HaTorah 2845:Orthodox Jewish outreach 2468: 2215: 2132: 2108: 2084: 2060: 2036: 2012: 1988: 1965:תשובות רבינו יצחק בר ששת 1964: 1940: 1871: 1776: 1752: 1728: 1370:& Box, G. H. (1920) 648:Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat 2939:Moetzes Gedolei HaTorah 2672:Encyclopædia Britannica 2645:Orthodox Responsa Index 2432:Philip Goodman (1993). 2165:The Jewish Encyclopedia 1527:The Jewish Encyclopedia 1265:Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg 1142:discussed whether the " 999:Menahem Mendel Krochmal 995:Aaron Samuel Kaidanover 942:Menahem Azariah da Fano 895:concealment of the hair 2893:Noam (political party) 2539:כתב סופר חלק אורח חיים 684:seven days of mourning 351:rabbinical authorities 309:Responsa of the Geonim 202: 198:Responsa of "Maharam" 191: 168: 159:Collected Responsa of 152: 30:See related articles: 3072:Torah im Derech Eretz 2657:Cowley, Arthur Ernest 1604:Encyclopaedia Judaica 1522:"She'elot U-Teshubot" 1293:Conservative responsa 1287:Conservative responsa 1224:Isaac Elhanan Spektor 1158:Joseph Saul Nathanson 1108:Jewish settlement in 1003:Frankfort-on-the-Main 962:Jair Hayyim Bacharach 624:in 1860, and in 1891 197: 174: 158: 141: 112:(the codes of Jewish 3005:World Agudath Israel 2445:A Passover Anthology 2440:on February 4, 2009. 1298:Conservative Judaism 1091:covering of the head 1089:accompaniments, the 1013:, and the president. 677:The 518 responsa of 469:Mordechai ben Hillel 415:, pp. 434–435). 233:, which states that 2883:National Union (NU) 2612:Rabbinical Assembly 1368:Oesterley, W. O. E. 1314:Rabbinical Assembly 1152:carve human figures 1105:in the vernacular. 952:Seventeenth century 843:She'elot u-Teshuvot 828:forbidden to reside 610:She'elot u-Teshubot 577:books of Chronicles 573:She'elot u-Teshuvot 550:She'elot u-Teshubot 165:Bar-Ilan University 84:rabbinic literature 32:Rabbinic literature 18:History of Responsa 2188:שו"ת מוהר"י מברונא 1261:Eliezer Waldenberg 1190:, and whether the 1018:Eighteenth century 925:, Joseph ibn Leb, 638:Fourteenth century 569:Sefer Toledot Olam 519:Thirteenth century 465:Meir of Rothenburg 203: 192: 169: 153: 3112: 3111: 3067:Religious Zionism 2954:Agudas HaRabbonim 2898:Jerusalem Faction 2779:Hasidic dynasties 2422:ib. iii., No. 373 1643:Talmud, tractate 1561:Zecharias Frankel 1166:Protestant church 1164:asking whether a 902:Sixteenth century 816:Terumat ha-Deshen 798:Fifteenth century 679:Isaac ben Sheshet 543:Nissim ben Reuben 539:Solomon ben Adret 500:Joseph ibn Migash 471:, "the Mordecai". 289:Judah ben Ezekiel 207:Babylonian Talmud 80:Rabbinic responsa 64:She'elot Utshuvot 58:: שאלות ותשובות, 16:(Redirected from 3142: 3130:Rabbinic Judaism 3106: 3101: 3100: 2959:United Synagogue 2934:Iggud HaRabbonim 2924:Edah HaChareidis 2729: 2728:Orthodox Judaism 2724: 2714: 2707: 2700: 2691: 2676: 2664: 2622: 2621: 2619: 2618: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2561: 2555: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2534: 2528: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2506: 2500: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2441: 2429: 2423: 2420: 2414: 2407: 2401: 2394: 2388: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2313: 2307: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2267: 2261: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2211: 2205: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2104: 2098: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2032: 2026: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1960: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1913: 1907: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1880: 1867: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1796: 1790: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1748: 1742: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1693: 1687: 1676: 1670: 1659: 1653: 1641: 1635: 1625: 1619: 1618: 1616: 1615: 1595: 1584: 1573:J. D. Eisenstein 1538: 1536: 1535: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1375: 1365: 1245:Orthodox Judaism 1243:In contemporary 1208:Ḥesed le-Abraham 1186:may be used for 927:Samuel of Modena 891:Jewish procedure 837:The responsa of 805:Israel Isserlein 644:Asher ben Jehiel 392:Eleventh century 217:Pre-Mishnaic era 211:Jerusalem Talmud 72:Sheilos Utshuvos 21: 3150: 3149: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3140: 3139: 3115: 3114: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3091: 3045: 3031:Mishnah Berurah 3014: 2973: 2907: 2888:The Jewish Home 2849: 2783: 2757: 2731: 2727: 2718: 2655: 2631: 2626: 2625: 2616: 2614: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2571: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2544: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2516: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2470: 2466: 2465:, 1901, No. 29 2456: 2452: 2443: 2442:Reprinted from 2431: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2411:Sho'el u-Meshib 2408: 2404: 2395: 2391: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2354: 2352: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2323: 2321: 2315: 2314: 2310: 2300: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2269: 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1378: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1330: 1318:State of Israel 1295: 1289: 1253:Moshe Feinstein 1241: 1232: 1198:may be used on 1184:electric lights 1176:Isaac Schmelkes 1128:and the use of 1126:Sabbatical year 1062: 1035:Meir Eisenstadt 1020: 1007:Emunat Shemu'el 984:Jacob Alfandari 954: 931:David abi Zimra 904: 887:bill of divorce 871:Elijah Mizrachi 867:Levi ben Chabib 800: 768:Jacob ben Asher 727: 725:Characteristics 701: 695: 640: 591:, and Zerah in 521: 483:Tummat Yesharim 461:Sefer ha-Yashar 441: 439:Twelfth century 394: 359: 357:Characteristics 343: 337: 311: 305: 266: 253: 245:Main articles: 243: 219: 136: 130: 86:, differing in 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3148: 3146: 3138: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3117: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3096: 3093: 3092: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3026:Shulchan Aruch 3022: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3002: 3000:Orthodox Union 2997: 2992: 2987: 2981: 2979: 2975: 2974: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2915: 2913: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2871:Agudat Yisrael 2863: 2857: 2855: 2851: 2850: 2848: 2847: 2842: 2840:Chinuch Atzmai 2837: 2835:Torah Umesorah 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2784: 2782: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2765: 2763: 2759: 2758: 2756: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2732: 2719: 2717: 2716: 2709: 2702: 2694: 2688: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2667:Chisholm, Hugh 2653: 2647: 2642: 2637: 2630: 2629:External links 2627: 2624: 2623: 2599: 2584: 2556: 2529: 2501: 2492: 2483: 2450: 2424: 2415: 2413:", i., No. 231 2402: 2389: 2372: 2363: 2331: 2308: 2285: 2262: 2260:Responsa, 4:92 2253: 2230: 2206: 2178: 2147: 2123: 2099: 2075: 2051: 2027: 2003: 1979: 1955: 1931: 1908: 1885: 1862: 1833: 1812: 1791: 1767: 1743: 1719: 1688: 1671: 1654: 1636: 1620: 1585: 1555:, 1886; idem, 1376: 1359: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1329: 1326: 1291:Main article: 1288: 1285: 1240: 1237: 1231: 1228: 1204: 1203: 1180:civil marriage 1173: 1155: 1070:Reform Judaism 1061: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1039:Ezekiel Landau 1031: 1019: 1016: 1015: 1014: 991: 982:(MaHaRIT) and 976: 973:Debar Shemu'el 965: 953: 950: 908:Moses Isserles 903: 900: 899: 898: 875:Moses Alashkar 859: 848: 847: 846: 835: 799: 796: 795: 794: 781: 773:Shulkhan Arukh 754: 746: 726: 723: 697:Main article: 694: 689: 688: 687: 675: 656:Constantinople 639: 636: 635: 634: 602: 601: 600: 561: 520: 517: 516: 515: 496: 495: 494: 479: 472: 440: 437: 436: 435: 416: 393: 390: 389: 388: 384: 358: 355: 339:Main article: 336: 331: 307:Main article: 304: 301: 265: 262: 242: 239: 218: 215: 188:Shlomo Sztencl 149:Iggeret Teiman 142:Title page of 132:Main article: 129: 126: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3147: 3136: 3135:Sifrei Kodesh 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3122: 3120: 3107: 3094: 3088: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3078: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3058: 3057:Torah Judaism 3055: 3054: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3011: 3008: 3006: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2980: 2978:Organizations 2976: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2877: 2876:Degel HaTorah 2874: 2872: 2869: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2769:Orthodox Jews 2767: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2744: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2723: 2715: 2710: 2708: 2703: 2701: 2696: 2695: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2613: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2568: 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1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1665: 1658: 1655: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1624: 1621: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1513:public domain 1503: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1361: 1354: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1322:Vaad Halakhah 1320:there is the 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1299: 1294: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1280:Space Shuttle 1277: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1238: 1236: 1229: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1162:New York City 1159: 1156: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1133: 1132:from Israel. 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1051: 1048: 1043: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 989: 988:Muẓẓal me-Esh 985: 981: 977: 974: 970: 966: 963: 959: 958: 957: 951: 949: 947: 943: 938: 936: 932: 928: 924: 919: 917: 913: 912:Solomon Luria 909: 901: 896: 892: 889:according to 888: 884: 883:converted Jew 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 857: 853: 849: 844: 840: 836: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 812: 810: 806: 802: 801: 797: 792: 788: 787: 782: 779: 775: 774: 769: 765: 764: 763:Arba'ah Turim 759: 755: 751: 747: 744: 743: 738: 737: 732: 731: 730: 724: 722: 719: 715: 711: 707: 700: 693: 690: 685: 680: 676: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 652: 651: 649: 645: 637: 631: 628:published at 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 559: 555: 551: 547: 546: 544: 540: 536: 532: 531: 530: 527: 518: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 492: 488: 484: 480: 477: 473: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457: 455: 451: 447: 443: 442: 438: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 414: 410: 409: 405:" and in the 404: 400: 396: 395: 391: 385: 381: 377: 373: 372: 367: 366: 361: 360: 356: 354: 352: 348: 342: 335: 332: 330: 326: 324: 320: 316: 310: 302: 300: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 277: 275: 271: 264:In the Talmud 263: 261: 258: 252: 248: 240: 238: 236: 235:Rabbi Gamliel 232: 228: 224: 216: 214: 212: 208: 201: 196: 189: 185: 184:Shevet HaLevi 181: 180:Shmuel Wosner 177: 173: 166: 162: 157: 151: 150: 145: 140: 135: 127: 125: 122: 117: 115: 114:religious law 111: 110: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 52: 48: 47: 37: 33: 19: 3102: 3077:Torah Umadda 3050:Philosophies 3040: 3010:Young Israel 2725: 2670: 2615:. 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