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diffusion and spread of the ideas, rather than the impossibility of carrying them out. However, the story of resuscitation does not stop in the early 1970s. Major advances have continued. In 1980 the first program to train EMTs to perform defibrillation began in King County, Washington, and similar programs spread throughout the United States. This training required 10 hours, and in the first demonstration project, survival from ventricular fibrillation increased from 7% to 26%. In 1984 the first program with fire fighter EMTs using automated external defibrillators (AEDs) also began in King County, Washington. The use of AEDs simplified the training of EMTs and thus allowed the procedure to spread more rapidly throughout communities. Automated external defibrillators require considerably less training time compared to manual defibrillators since the EMT does not have to interpret the cardiac rhythm.
74:
952:; their findings on 312 patients covered a 15-month period. Half the patients had myocardial infarction and there were no deaths during transportation. Of ground-breaking importance was the information on 10 patients who had cardiac arrest. All had ventricular fibrillation; six arrests occurred after the arrival of the MCCU, and four occurred shortly before arrival of the ambulance. All 10 patients were resuscitated and admitted to the hospital. Five were subsequently discharged alive. The article has historical importance because it served to stimulate pre-hospital emergency cardiac care programs throughout the world.
514:(1924 – 2003) — also an anesthesiologist — and persuaded him to join the effort to convince the world that ventilating the lungs with expired air was effective as part of a resuscitative technique. Safar performed further experiments on human volunteers, comparing Silvester's method with the Holger Nielsen method and the mouth-to-mouth method of artificial ventilation. By 1957, the experiments of Elam and Safar had conclusively demonstrated that the mouth-to-mouth method was superior to these older methods of artificial ventilation.
846:(1921 – 2021). Lown devised a defibrillator that utilized direct current instead of alternating current. A capacitor stored the energy until it was released in one massive jolt to the chest wall. The availability of new, small capacitors considerably reduced the size and weight of external defibrillators, which could now be easily brought to victims in a wide range of environments. By 1963, hospitals were beginning to design mobile resuscitation carts equipped with these portable external defibrillators.
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321:
465:, it seems to have fallen out of favor in the late 19th century with the widespread adoption of Silvester's method (the chest-pressure and arm-lift technique). Silvester's method remained the most widespread method of resuscitation from its description in 1858 until the first decade of the 20th century, when some other innovative approaches to the problem of sudden death gained some recognition. For example, certain
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217:, Scotland who had been apparently dead for 30 to 45 minutes. The patient recovered and returned to work a few days later. This case — which was witnessed by a crowd of nearly 400 people — is considered to be the first modern documented account of successful CPR in an adult. Tossach published an account of this case in 1744. English physician
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This then allows them to be transported to specialist centres where the cause of their cardiac arrest (a blocked coronary artery for example) can be addressed. So called 'ECMO-CPR' may yet further revolutionize the way in which CPR is delivered. Trials of pre-hospital ECMO-CPR in France and
Australia have been promising.
295:). Following the successes of these organizations, similar organizations soon sprang up in many large cities in Europe and the United States, all with the goal of successfully resuscitating victims of sudden death or cardiac arrest. These rescue societies of the 18th century were the precursors of today's
232:(SRDP). The SRDP recommended a range of resuscitation techniques, including mouth-to-mouth ventilation, warming the victim, removing water from the lungs by positioning the victim's head at a lower position than the feet and applying manual pressure to the abdomen, stimulating the victim by means such as
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in 1956, in which his external defibrillator was employed to successfully stop ventricular fibrillation eleven times in four different patients. Since direct current batteries and capacitor technology both powerful enough to do the job and portable enough for practical use did not exist at that time,
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panel comprising many eminent authorities on methods of artificial respiration was convened on March 8, 1957. After carefully considering the evidence available at that time, the opinion of the panel was unanimous that — for infants and small children — the mouth-to-mouth method was preferable to the
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The first person successfully resuscitated using this technique was recalled by Jude: "She was rather an obese female who … went into cardiac arrest as a result of flurothane anesthetic. This woman had no blood pressure, no pulse, and ordinarily, we would have opened up her chest. Instead, since we
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thereby completely restored to life and health". Curry performed experimental work on external defibrillation in small animals, and even described two successful cases of human resuscitation by this means. He used two electrodes — one above the right clavicle and the other over the lower left chest.
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In 1981 a program to provide telephone instructions in CPR began in King County, Washington. This program used the emergency dispatchers to give instant directions while the fire department EMT personnel were in route to the scene. This demonstration project increased the rate of bystander-provided
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and deliver either a defibrillatory current or a pacing pulse, as indicated by the internal logic circuit. The device was produced by the
Cardiac Resuscitator Corporation and marketed as the "Heart-Aid". It was designed for temporary use by laypeople in emergency situations before professional care
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By 1966, CPR was being taught to laypeople as well as professionals, but with disappointing results. Fewer than 50% of people were able to pass a CPR performance evaluation three months after receiving standardized training in CPR, and the results of cardiac resuscitation attempts initiated outside
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In 1792, English physician James Curry (1763 – 1819) noted that the important difference between absolute death and apparent death was that in the former, "the vital principle is completely extinguished", while in the latter "it only lies dormant, and may again be roused into action, and the person
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conference on CPR in 1966. Over 30 national organizations were represented at this conference. The 1966 conference resulted in the formulation of the first national guidelines for the implementation of CPR. Safar's mnemonic was trimmed back to "A-B-C-D", with "D" representing "Definitive therapy".
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The use of mouth-to-mouth ventilation (rescue breathing) had been taught to laypeople as early as 1958, but many physicians felt that closed-chest cardiac resuscitation (chest compressions) should only be taught to physicians, dentists, nurses and emergency rescue squads. In 1962, CPR was formally
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CPR as it is practiced today (the combination of mouth-to-mouth ventilation with chest compressions) made its debut in
September 1960, when the two teams of researchers (Kouwenhoven/Jude/Knickerbocker, and Safar/Elam/Escarraga) presented their findings at the annual meeting of the Maryland Medical
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In 1775, Danish physician Peter
Christian Abildgaard conducted experiments on electrical shock on animals. He found that applying an electric shock to the head of a hen rendered it apparently lifeless, but that it could be revived by applying another shock to the chest. He repeated this experiment
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Further advanced technologies to supplement CPR are being tested. These include the use of drones to deliver defibrillators to patients undergoing CPR outside hospital, as well as placing patients in whom CPR is ongoing but cardiac rhythm cannot be restored onto heart-lung bypass (ECMO) machines.
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By the early 1970s CPR, defibrillation, and a rapid means to provide prehospital care were all in place. The structure to resuscitate sudden death victims had been built and was proving successful. That most of the world did not have this structure in place in the 1970s was largely due to lack of
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described the use of sternal compression at a rate of twelve times a minute to successfully resuscitate three patients who had no carotid pulse and no audible heart sounds. In these three cases, the chest compressions appear to have served primarily as a means for the inhalation of ammonia from a
376:, and their arms are raised above their head to aid inhalation and then pressed against their chest to aid exhalation, with this sequence repeated several times per minute. Silvester's method received a great deal of attention, and was advocated by many prominent physicians of that era, including
663:, American Red Cross, and the Industrial Medical Association, but with the caveat that it should be applied only by carefully trained personnel, and training should not at that time be extended to the general public. In 1965, these organizations issued a revised statement reaffirming this view.
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While the cessation of respiration is an obvious sign of sudden death, the cessation of circulation — and particularly the rhythm of the heart — is not as easy to detect. For this reason, the appreciation of artificial circulation as a key factor in resuscitation lagged considerably behind the
775:
Other recommendations that emerged from this conference encouraged practice with training mannequins, but continued to discourage the teaching of CPR to laypeople. Of interest, both
Silvester's and Holger Nielsen's methods were still recommended as alternatives to mouth-to-mouth ventilation.
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The
American Heart Association uses a metaphor of four links in a chain to describe the elements of successful resuscitation. These links are early access (recognizing cardiac arrest and calling 911), early CPR, early defibrillation, and early advanced care (such as medications, endotracheal
2931:"A reappraisal of mouth-to-mouth ventilation during bystander-initiated cardiopulmonary resuscitation. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Ventilation Working Group of the Basic Life Support and Pediatric Life Support Subcommittees, American Heart Association"
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had to be solved outside the hospital, not in the emergency room or the coronary care unit. Pantridge's solution was to develop the world's first mobile coronary care unit, or MCCU. He staffed it with an ambulance driver, a physician, and a nurse.
407:— was the first to describe the successful resuscitation of a patient using external cardiac massage. Maass became the first proponent of external chest compression as an effective means of assisting circulation, rather than ventilation alone.
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the earliest external defibrillators utilized alternating current and were run from line voltage. These AC defibrillators were very large and heavy, primarily because they contained a transformer to step up the line voltage from
622:. The duration of chest compressions varied from less than 1 minute to 65 minutes. Fourteen of the 20 patients (70%) survived and were discharged from the hospital. The authors concluded that chest compression can be useful as a
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weren’t in the operating room, we applied external cardiac massage. Her blood pressure and pulse came back at once. We didn’t have to open her chest. They went ahead and did the operation on her, and she recovered completely."
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The
Kouwenhoven/Jude/Knickerbocker team however believed that not only rescue breathing but also closed-chest cardiac resuscitation could and should be taught to laypeople. They produced an 11-minute training film called
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could be administered. The Heart-Aid utilized a plastic airway with an embedded electrode. An electrical current was transmitted from the capacitor, through the plastic airway device, to an electrode placed over the
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862:. There was also a breath detector, which was a safeguard to prevent shocking people who were breathing. It included printed instructions and diagrams for the rescuer to properly apply the electrodes, as well as a
553:, which was distributed throughout the United States. Organizations such as the American Red Cross began to provide training at local chapters in the proper administration of artificial respiration. The familiar "
264:. In Hamburg, an ordinance was passed in 1769 which allowed notices to be read in churches describing how to use these methods to rescue people who were drowned, strangled, frozen, or overcome by noxious gases.
184:. He determined that "the motion of the lungs without fresh air" contributed nothing to the life of the animal, but rather it was the continuous supply of fresh air that was necessary to preserve life.
484:(1866 – 1955). The Shafer method and the Holger Nielsen technique were both manual methods, similar to Silvester's method except that the victim was laid in the prone instead of the supine position.
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Society in Ocean City, Maryland. They presented convincing data to show that chest compression alone did not provide effective ventilation; it was necessary to include mouth-to-mouth ventilation.
445:
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687:, which represented the sequence of steps in CPR: Airway, Breathing, and Circulation. These films were used in CPR classes and viewed by millions of students, many of whom were laypeople.
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CPR by 50%. Dispatcher-assisted CPR is now standard care for dispatcher centers throughout the United States and in other countries such as Israel, Great
Britain, Sweden, and Norway.
601:. Further experimentation on dogs addressed such questions as the ideal location, rate, and force of chest compressions. Armed with this information, the group began human trials.
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method and the Holger
Nielsen technique. The technique of mouth-to-mouth ventilation would not come back into favor until the late 1950s, after its "accidental rediscovery" by
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has been used for centuries as an element of CPR, but it fell out of favor in the late 19th century with the widespread adoption of manual resuscitative techniques such as the
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obvious need for artificial respiration. Although closed chest massage had been described in 1892 by
Friedrich Maass, its benefit was not widely recognized until the 1960s.
824:(1911 – 1999) of the external defibrillator — a device that could externally defibrillate the heart through the closed chest. Zoll published a report of his experience in
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intubation) The early paramedic programs were all designed to provide CPR, defibrillation, and advanced care quickly enough to resuscitate patients in cardiac arrest.
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rocking method, back-pressure arm-lift, and other manual methods. Based on this recommendation, the mouth-to-mouth ventilation technique was endorsed that year by the
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was first advanced in the 1970s by Archibald Diack (1907 – 1993), a surgeon in Portland, Oregon. Diack and his team developed a portable unit that could diagnose an
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The mostly forgotten technique of mouth-to-mouth ventilation finally came back into favor in the mid-20th century, beginning with its "accidental rediscovery" by
614:, the Johns Hopkins team reported their findings on 20 cases of in-hospital cardiac arrest. Many of these patients had experienced cardiac arrest as a result of
240:. Within four years of its founding, the SRDP claimed to have saved over 150 patients by using these methods. By 1773, similar organizations had been formed in
73:
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in 1961, in which they demonstrated the new technique of CPR in various settings and stressed the importance of "Air and Circulation". The following year,
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Ad Hoc Committee on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation of the Division of Medical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council (1966).
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in 1767. Impressed by the accomplishments of these organizations, he returned to London where in 1774 he and a group of prominent citizens (including
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176:’s hypothesis that death would ensue if the lungs ceased to expand and contract. His test subject was a dog in which he made cuts in the chest wall,
1868:"Artificial respiration by mouth-to-mask method, a study of the respiratory gas exchange of paralyzed patients ventilated by operator's expired air"
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480:(1850 – 1935) in 1904. That in turn was replaced by the Holger Nielsen technique, first described in 1932 by Danish triple Olympic medallist
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3087:(scientific documentary film comparing Silvester's method with Holger Nielsen method and mouth-to-mouth method of artificial ventilation by
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of hospitals were dismal. In response to requests from the American Red Cross for the establishment of better training methods for CPR, the
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165:(cardiac and respiratory insufficiency), which involved moving the victim's arms and expanding and compressing the left side of the chest.
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human volunteers to demonstrate that this technique could effectively maintain adequate levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
213:. For example, in 1732, Scottish surgeon William A. Tossach used mouth-to-mouth resuscitation to resuscitate James Blair, a coal miner in
1944:
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Diack, AW; Welborn, WS; Rullman, RG; Walter, CW (1979). "An automatic cardiac resuscitator for emergency treatment of cardiac arrest".
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1940:"A comparison of the mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-airway methods of artificial respiration with the chest-pressure arm-lift methods"
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turned his attention to this vexing problem of heart attacks and sudden cardiac death. He believed the problem of death from acute
357:(1828 – 1908) soon noted several important shortcomings inherent in Hall's technique. Chief among these were 1) that the resulting
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Becker, L. B.; Berg, R. A.; Pepe, P. E.; Idris, A. H.; Aufderheide, T. P.; Barnes, T. A.; Stratton, S. J.; Chandra, N. C. (1997).
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345:(1790 – 1857) described a new method of providing artificial ventilation of the lungs, which involved rolling the victim from the
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several times on the same test subject, successfully resuscitating it each time. The hen even laid an egg a couple of days later.
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were quite small, 2) that repeatedly rolling a lifeless body from prone to lateral was likely to cause significant injury to the
813:(1894 – 1971) reported the first successful internal defibrillation of the human heart. To accomplish this, the chest had to be
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597:— noticed that by forcefully applying the paddles to the chest of the canine test subject, they could achieve a pulse in the
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1311:"An account of an experiment made by Mr. Hook, of preserving animals alive by blowing through their lungs with bellows"
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The true physiological method of restoring persons apparently drowned or dead, and of resuscitating stillborn children
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Although the use of mouth-to-mouth ventilation as a resuscitative technique dates back virtually to the beginning of
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499:— resorted to mouth-to-mouth ventilation on many occasions to successfully rescue paralyzed patients when their
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failed. Based on this experience, Elam and his team performed a series of experiments in the early 1950s using
557:" training mannequin was introduced in Norway and the United States in 1961. Designed by Norwegian doll maker
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130:. This is the first instance of resurrection of the dead recorded in the Bible. In the second Book of Kings,
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1608:"Observations on some of the dangers of chloroform in surgical practice, and a successful mode of treatment"
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chip to give verbal instructions to the rescuer. By the late 1980s, the small company had been purchased by
585:(who were unaware of Maass' experience and publication) made an accidental discovery while studying cardiac
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1427:"The Remarkable Dr. Abildgaard and Countershock: The Bicentennial of His Electrical Experiments on Animals"
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870:, and other manufacturers soon entered the field. Current models use electrode pads attached to the chest.
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reported the use of external cardiac massage to resuscitate cats after chloroform-induced cardiac arrest.
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1120:"Description of a simple and efficient method of performing artificial respiration in the human subject"
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1565:"A new method of resuscitating stillborn children and of restoring persons apparently dead or drowned"
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In 1858, Silvester proposed a new method of artificial ventilation in which the victim is laid in the
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200:, consisting of a smoking pipe attached to a pig's bladder, with a cone for insertion into the rectum
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839:. They were mounted on wheels and pushed down the hallway from one part of the hospital to another.
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2590:(1966). "Teaching and testing lay and paramedical personnel in cardiopulmonary resuscitation".
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The first organized effort to respond to sudden death was in 1767, when a group of citizens in
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followed suit in 1958. That year, Elam served as a medical adviser on the instructional film
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2717:"Termination of ventricular fibrillation in man by externally applied electric countershock"
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28:(c. 2686 – c. 2181 BC). However, it was not until the 18th century that credible reports of
1337:"Observations on the recovery of a man dead in appearance by distending the lungs with air"
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An account of some societies at Amsterdam and Hamburgh for the recovery of drowned persons
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2759:"New method for terminating cardiac arrhythmias. Use of synchronized capacitor discharge"
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221:(1712 - 1780) discussed Tossach’s experience in a paper he published the following year.
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In 1959, Elam (together with Danish anaesthetist Henning Ruben, the co-inventor of the
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114:, God breathed life into the nostrils of the first man. Later - according to the first
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The team reported the initial results of their program in the August 5, 1967 issue of
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3063:(instructional film demonstrating the Schafer method of artificial ventilation, 1927)
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1050:. Vol. 5, Part 2. London and Edinburgh: T.W. and T. Ruddimans. pp. 605–8.
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3011:"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation: history, current practice, and future direction"
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2453:"The closed chest method of cardiopulmonary resuscitation: benefits and hazards"
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Illustration of the Holger Nielsen method of resuscitation. Denmark, circa 1955.
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1984:"From Back-Pressure Arm-Lift to Mouth-to-Mouth, Control of Airway, and Beyond"
1912:(Motion picture). Washington, DC: Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. 1957
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1844:"The triple Olympic medallist who invented handball and the forerunner to CPR"
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Illustration of Silvester's method of performing artificial respiration. From
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Pulse of life: the story of artificial respiration and artificial circulation
2494:"The closed chest method of cardiopulmonary resuscitation: revised statement"
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2092:"Mouth-to-mouth versus manual artificial respiration for children and adults"
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include CPR (consisting of ventilation of the lungs and chest compressions),
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1521:"On apparent death from drowning, and the means to be employed for recovery"
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As early as the 1930s, it was known that small electric shocks could induce
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809:, and that more powerful shocks could reverse this fibrillation. In 1947,
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2575:(Motion picture). Santa Monica, California: Pyramid Film Producers. 1962.
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Beck's groundbreaking work was eclipsed in 1955, with the development by
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103:
1595:. London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington. pp. 116–18.
1592:
The surgeon's handbook on the treatment of wounded in war: a prize essay
2673:"Ventricular fibrillation of long duration abolished by electric shock"
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Foley GE; Lazarus H; Farber S; Uzman BG; Boone BA; McCarthy RE (1965).
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908: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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G—Gauge (evaluate and treat the underlying cause of the cardiac arrest)
558:
466:
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241:
127:
1670:"Die Methode der Wiederbelebung bei Herzten nach Chloroformeinathmung"
1525:
Popular Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, Suffocation etc
1503:
Popular Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, Suffocation etc
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Popular Observations on Apparent Death from Drowning, Suffocation etc
473:) were being used with some degree of success in Japan at that time.
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Significant advances in resuscitation were made in Europe during the
143:
131:
119:
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542:, which demonstrated and publicized this new life-saving technique.
2090:
Gordon, AS; Frye CW; Gittelson L; Sadove MS; Beattie EJ Jr (1958).
2029:"Symposium on mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (expired air inflation)"
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Dadmehr, M; Bahrami, M; Eftekhar, B; Ashraf, H; Ahangar, H (2018).
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2555:(Motion picture). Roslyn Heights, New York: Visual Projects, Ltd.
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was recommended within 30 minutes for victims that show signs of
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561:, "Resusci Anne" featured a lifelike face that was based on the
2069:"Artificial Respiration Technic for Infants and Small Children"
1843:
1499:"Apparent death from blows, falls, and the stroke of lightning"
1044:"Man dead in appearance recovered by distending lungs with air"
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of gastric contents was unacceptably high using Hall's method.
1189:"Rediscovery of expired air methods for emergency ventilation"
877:
679:. For the film, Gordon and Adams devised the easy-to-remember
65:(the means to bring these techniques to the patient quickly).
690:
By 1964, Safar had expanded the "A-B-C" mnemonic to include:
626:
until an external defibrillator can be brought to the scene.
353:(expiratory) position at a rate of sixteen times per minute.
1527:. Northampton: W. Birdsall & T. Burnham. pp. 56–58.
1505:. Northampton: W. Birdsall & T. Burnham. pp. 79–84.
817:
and the defibrillator paddles placed directly on the heart.
3079:(instructional film produced by the Danish Red Cross, 1952)
2966:"Modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation—not so new after all"
476:
The Shafer method became popular after it was described by
1998:(1 ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 266–75.
1483:. Northampton: W. Birdsall & T. Burnham. pp. 1–5.
675:
and David Adams produced a 26-minute training film called
419:
Illustration of the Schäfer method of resuscitation, from
2220:. Wexford, Pennsylvania: Sudden Cardiac Arrest Foundation
1341:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1315:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1203:(1 ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 263–5.
326:
The surgeon's handbook on the treatment of wounded in war
275:
at that time, having just earned his medical degree from
99:(her slain brother and husband) with the breath of life.
1540:"The Marshall Hall method in the treatment of asphyxia"
1477:"On the difference between absolute and apparent death"
730:
E—EKG (administer external defibrillation if necessary)
1635:
Archiv für Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie
1381:
Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned
630:
The combined use of ventilation and chest compressions
403:
In 1892, Friedrich Maass — a surgical resident at the
289:
Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned
1698:"Dr. Friedrich Maass: 100th Anniversary of "New" CPR"
1631:"Ueber wiederbelebung nach vergiftungen und asphyxie"
755:
I—Intensive Care Unit (administer chest compressions)
733:
F—Fluids (administer intravenous fluids as necessary)
3009:
Cooper, J. A.; Cooper, J. D.; Cooper, J. M. (2006).
78:
Elijah Resuscitating the Son of the Widow of Sarepta
3076:
Artificial respiration by the Holger Nielsen method
2250:. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University
2244:"A Dying Dog, a Slow Elevator, and 50 Years of CPR"
1811:"Artificial respiration: the Holger Nielsen method"
1267:"Chest compression for syncope in medieval Persia"
393:sponge held close to the nostrils of the patient.
122:(the disciple and protégé of Elijah) resuscitated
748:within 30 minutes for victims that show signs of
2413:"Cardiac resuscitation through the intact chest"
2144:(Motion picture). Chicago: Chicago Film Archives
2134:Lewis and Marguerite Herman (directors) (1958).
992:"Artificial respiration: the history of an idea"
53:The modern elements of resuscitation for sudden
2872:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2764:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2678:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2634:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2310:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2097:The Journal of the American Medical Association
2034:The Journal of the American Medical Association
1088:
1086:
611:The Journal of the American Medical Association
449:Demonstration of mouth-to-mouth ventilation by
271:(1736 – 1818) was living and practicing in the
87:The earliest references to CPR can be found in
2352:"Community-wide cardiopulmonary resuscitation"
1425:Driscol, TE; Ratnoff, OD; Nygaard, OF (1975).
1356:
1354:
618:, and three patients were documented to be in
1805:
1803:
1157:
1155:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1037:
1035:
703:C—Circulation (administer chest compressions)
161:, described his approach to the treatment of
8:
2829:
2827:
2342:
2340:
2237:
2235:
1073:The American Journal of the Medical Sciences
2790:Israel, JS; McCulla, K; Dobkin, AB (1963).
2390:"Cardiac resuscitation without thoracotomy"
2129:
2127:
985:
983:
981:
230:Society for the Recovery of Drowned Persons
32:began to appear in the medical literature.
2792:"A Cart for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation"
1691:
1689:
1687:
1179:
1177:
1162:Nielsen, H (1932). "En oplivningsmetode".
1059:
1057:
549:) wrote an instructional booklet entitled
365:and face, and finally 3) that the risk of
3026:
2989:
2807:
2509:
2468:
2428:
2172:American Association of Industrial Nurses
1996:Advances in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
1770:
1282:
1201:Advances in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
1135:
1099:. London: John Churchill. pp. 17–18.
1015:
924:Learn how and when to remove this message
2970:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
1069:"Asphyxia, its rationale and its remedy"
18:history of cardiopulmonary resuscitation
2271:"1957: CPR and the First Defibrillator"
977:
20:(CPR) can be traced as far back as the
3093:Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
2904:"Rescue breathing and cardiac massage"
842:The portability problem was solved by
700:B—Breathing (provide rescue breathing)
2865:GORDON AS; FAINER DC; IVY AC (1950).
2757:; Amarasingham, R; Neuman, J (1962).
642:of CPR. Note that even at that time,
196:A device for the administration of a
172:performed an experiment that refuted
7:
3084:Respiratory resuscitation techniques
2796:Canadian Medical Association Journal
1909:Respiratory Resuscitation Techniques
1745:"Jiu-Jitsu Methods of Resuscitation"
906:adding citations to reliable sources
234:rectal fumigation with tobacco smoke
2721:The New England Journal of Medicine
2715:; Linenthal, AJ; Gibson, W (1956).
2356:Journal of the Iowa Medical Society
1945:The New England Journal of Medicine
1873:The New England Journal of Medicine
827:The New England Journal of Medicine
589:in dogs. The team — which included
3107:served as a medical adviser, 1958)
2908:New York State Journal of Medicine
2671:; Pritchard, WH; Feil, HS (1947).
581:In 1958, a team of researchers at
359:inspiratory and expiratory volumes
14:
3135:served as medical director, 1975)
3123:, Guy Knickerbocker, et al, 1961)
3028:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.610907
2691:10.1001/jama.1947.62890150005007a
2541:NE Meltzer, D Benson, SC Franco,
2215:"A death mask to help save lives"
2110:10.1001/jama.1958.72990200011008a
2073:U.S. Armed Forces Medical Journal
1612:British Journal of Dental Science
495:epidemic in Minnesota, Elam — an
491:(1918 - 1995). In 1946, during a
2885:10.1001/jama.1950.62920170009009
2647:10.1001/jama.1966.03110170084023
2606:10.1213/00000539-196607000-00017
2411:Rivkin, LM; Gardner, RE (1962).
2323:10.1001/jama.1960.03020280004002
2047:10.1001/jama.1958.72990200008008
1674:Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift
882:
851:automated external defibrillator
110:. For example, according to the
102:Other early references from the
42:method, Silvester's method, the
2629:"Cardiopulmonary resuscitation"
1866:; Brown, ES; Elder, JD (1954).
1124:Medico-Chirurgical Transactions
1048:Medical Essays and Observations
893:needs additional citations for
3115:(instructional film on CPR by
3068:Respiratory and cardiac arrest
2394:Maryland State Medical Journal
2305:"Closed-chest cardiac massage"
1400:About the Royal Humane Society
608:In a 1960 landmark article in
396:In 1877, Rudolph Boehm at the
157:, a physician in 15th century
142:, this time in the village of
1:
3149:Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
3131:(instructional film in which
3103:(instructional film in which
1829:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)94687-7
478:Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer
421:Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911
388:In 1868, John D. Hill of the
140:another apparently dead child
30:cardiopulmonary resuscitation
2388:; Knickerbocker, GG (1960).
2303:; Knickerbocker, GG (1960).
2275:Digital Library and Archives
2004:10.1007/978-1-4612-6338-8_41
1209:10.1007/978-1-4612-6338-8_40
768:National Academy of Sciences
536:American Medical Association
441:Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
136:mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
2733:10.1056/NEJM195604192541601
1958:10.1056/NEJM195804032581401
1886:10.1056/NEJM195405062501801
1431:Annals of Internal Medicine
563:death mask of a French girl
505:pharmacologically paralyzed
469:techniques (referred to as
341:In 1856, English physician
89:ancient Egyptian literature
3180:
2593:Anesthesia & Analgesia
2184:10.1177/216507995900701005
1842:Hamilton, B (2019-01-27).
1443:10.7326/0003-4819-83-6-878
874:Recent developments in CPR
782:
697:A—Airway (open the airway)
661:American Heart Association
528:United States Armed Forces
438:
297:emergency medical services
112:Genesis creation narrative
63:emergency medical services
36:Mouth-to-mouth ventilation
2248:Hopkins Medicine magazine
1008:10.1017/s0025727300016896
868:Emerson Radio Corporation
764:National Research Council
638:1964 illustration of the
593:, Guy Knickerbocker, and
569:River in the late 1880s.
524:National Research Council
455:11th World Scout Jamboree
2947:10.1161/01.cir.96.6.2102
1763:10.1136/bmj.2.3893.318-a
1284:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy374
620:ventricular fibrillation
583:Johns Hopkins University
291:(which later became the
3128:Pulse of life (revised)
2836:Medical Instrumentation
2511:10.1161/01.CIR.31.5.641
2470:10.1161/01.CIR.26.3.324
2242:Flynn, R (2011-02-18).
1796:. New York. 1910-09-04.
1750:British Medical Journal
1384:. London. pp. 4–5.
807:ventricles of the heart
746:therapeutic hypothermia
644:therapeutic hypothermia
405:University of Göttingen
134:successfully performed
97:Isis resurrected Osiris
3060:Artificial respiration
1787:"Revived by jiu-jitsu"
1714:10.1002/clc.4960141211
1563:Silvester, HR (1858).
1538:Silvester, HR (1858).
1271:European Heart Journal
1093:Silvester, HR (1858).
798:
793:Defibrillator used by
651:
501:mechanical ventilators
458:
435:Artificial ventilation
431:
423:
355:Henry Robert Silvester
337:Artificial ventilation
333:
205:Artificial ventilation
201:
84:
2982:10.1258/jrsm.98.7.327
2641:(4): 138–45, 372–79.
2277:. National EMS Museum
2142:JoAnn Elam Collection
1823:(5843): 437–8. 1935.
1743:Cornwall, JW (1935).
942:myocardial infarction
855:abnormal heart rhythm
792:
744:H—Hypothermia (begin
637:
448:
429:
418:
378:Friedrich von Esmarch
349:(inspiratory) to the
330:Friedrich von Esmarch
323:
195:
155:Burhan-ud-din Kermani
76:
69:Earliest descriptions
2545:, GG Knickerbocker,
1404:Royal Humane Society
1367:. London. p. 4.
902:improve this article
711:D—Drugs (administer
398:University of Dorpat
367:pulmonary aspiration
293:Royal Humane Society
211:Age of Enlightenment
106:can be found in the
93:Old Kingdom of Egypt
3154:History of medicine
3121:William Kouwenhoven
2573:Wellcome Collection
2417:California Medicine
2166:; Ruben, H (1959).
1849:The Copenhagen Post
1702:Clinical Cardiology
1361:Johnson, A (1773).
1164:Ugeskrift for Læger
1042:Tossach, W (1744).
591:William Kouwenhoven
565:who drowned in the
390:Royal Free Hospital
198:tobacco smoke enema
80:, 1819 painting by
3112:Life in your hands
3091:, produced by the
2902:Saland, G (1963).
2552:Life in Your hands
2168:"Rescue Breathing"
1794:The New York Times
1647:10.1007/BF01831354
990:Baker, AB (1971).
799:
717:sodium bicarbonate
669:Life in Your Hands
652:
616:general anesthesia
573:Chest compressions
532:American Red Cross
510:In 1956, Elam met
459:
432:
424:
384:Chest compressions
334:
267:English physician
202:
85:
2079:(6): 851–4. 1957.
2027:Dill, DB (1958).
1934:; Escarraga, LA;
1668:Maass, F (1892).
1629:Boehm, R (1877).
1606:Hill, JD (1868).
1378:Rich, JB (1774).
934:
933:
926:
815:surgically opened
770:convened another
677:The Pulse of Life
559:Asmund S. Laerdal
277:Leiden University
3171:
3100:Rescue breathing
3048:
3030:
3003:
2993:
2964:Hurt, R (2005).
2958:
2923:
2896:
2852:
2851:
2831:
2822:
2821:
2811:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2513:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2472:
2463:(3): 324. 1962.
2449:
2443:
2442:
2432:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2269:Peck, M (2011).
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2239:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2219:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2137:Rescue Breathing
2131:
2122:
2121:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2024:
2018:
2017:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1791:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1696:Taw, RL (1991).
1693:
1682:
1681:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1583:
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1554:
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1392:
1386:
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1375:
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1358:
1349:
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1329:
1323:
1322:
1303:
1297:
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1286:
1262:
1256:
1251:
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1240:
1234:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1181:
1172:
1171:
1159:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1112:
1101:
1100:
1090:
1081:
1080:
1061:
1052:
1051:
1039:
1030:
1029:
1019:
987:
929:
922:
918:
915:
909:
886:
878:
864:speech synthesis
849:The idea for an
838:
834:
750:cerebral hypoxia
721:calcium chloride
659:endorsed by the
648:cerebral hypoxia
551:Rescue Breathing
540:Rescue Breathing
497:anesthesiologist
463:recorded history
451:Dutch Boy Scouts
124:a Phoenician boy
3179:
3178:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3168:
3139:
3138:
3055:
3021:(25): 2839–49.
3008:
2963:
2928:
2901:
2879:(17): 1455–64.
2864:
2861:
2859:Further reading
2856:
2855:
2833:
2832:
2825:
2789:
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2784:
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2540:
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2535:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2451:
2450:
2446:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2386:Kouwenhoven, WB
2380:
2379:
2375:
2346:
2345:
2338:
2297:Kouwenhoven, WB
2295:
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2290:
2280:
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2147:
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2133:
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2089:
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2084:
2067:
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2062:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2014:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1930:
1929:
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1915:
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1901:
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1857:
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1809:
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1780:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1695:
1694:
1685:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1641:(1–2): 68–101.
1628:
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1605:
1604:
1600:
1585:
1584:
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1562:
1561:
1557:
1537:
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1409:
1407:
1396:"Notable Dates"
1394:
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1359:
1352:
1331:
1330:
1326:
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1264:
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1259:
1254:2 Kings 4:32–35
1252:
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1219:
1183:
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1114:
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1104:
1092:
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1055:
1041:
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1033:
996:Medical History
989:
988:
979:
974:
938:Frank Pantridge
930:
919:
913:
910:
899:
887:
876:
836:
832:
787:
781:
632:
575:
443:
437:
413:
386:
374:supine position
339:
318:
305:
219:John Fothergill
207:
190:
152:
126:in the city of
71:
12:
11:
5:
3177:
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3054:
3053:External links
3051:
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2802:(25): 1284–9.
2782:
2746:
2727:(16): 727–32.
2704:
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2619:
2586:Winchell, SW;
2578:
2558:
2547:WB Kouwenhoven
2533:
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2403:
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2336:
2317:(10): 1064–7.
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2013:978-1461263401
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785:Defibrillation
783:Main article:
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779:Defibrillation
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599:femoral artery
587:defibrillation
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482:Holger Nielsen
439:Main article:
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363:cervical spine
338:
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317:
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304:
303:Defibrillation
301:
287:) founded the
285:Frederick Bull
273:Dutch Republic
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118:- the prophet
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59:defibrillation
55:cardiac arrest
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2685:(15): 985–6.
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2462:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2404:
2400:(10): 712–13.
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2292:
2289:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2216:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:(10): 20–26.
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2130:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2041:(3): 317–19.
2040:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1952:(14): 671–7.
1951:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1911:
1910:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1852:. Copenhagen.
1851:
1850:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1757:(3893): 318.
1756:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1676:(in German).
1675:
1671:
1664:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1637:(in German).
1636:
1632:
1625:
1622:
1618:(145): 355–8.
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1599:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:(6): 878–82.
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1418:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1365:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1333:Fothergill, J
1328:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
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1236:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1166:(in Danish).
1165:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1097:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:(4): 336–51.
1001:
997:
993:
986:
984:
982:
978:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
951:
946:
943:
939:
928:
925:
917:
914:December 2022
907:
903:
897:
896:
891:This section
889:
885:
880:
879:
873:
871:
869:
865:
861:
856:
852:
847:
845:
840:
829:
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823:
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808:
804:
796:
791:
786:
778:
776:
773:
769:
765:
754:
751:
747:
743:
740:
739:
737:
732:
729:
727:as necessary)
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
709:
707:
702:
699:
696:
695:
693:
692:
691:
688:
686:
682:
678:
674:
673:Archer Gordon
670:
664:
662:
656:
649:
645:
641:
636:
629:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
612:
606:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
579:
572:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
515:
513:
508:
506:
502:
498:
494:
493:poliomyelitis
490:
485:
483:
479:
474:
472:
468:
464:
456:
452:
447:
442:
434:
428:
422:
417:
410:
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406:
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399:
394:
391:
383:
381:
379:
375:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:Marshall Hall
336:
331:
327:
322:
315:
313:
309:
302:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
281:William Hawes
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
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231:
227:
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220:
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204:
199:
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187:
185:
183:
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175:
171:
166:
164:
160:
156:
149:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:Book of Kings
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
83:
82:Louis Hersent
79:
75:
68:
66:
64:
60:
56:
51:
49:
45:
41:
40:Marshall Hall
37:
33:
31:
27:
26:ancient Egypt
23:
19:
3127:
3111:
3099:
3083:
3075:
3067:
3059:
3018:
3014:
2973:
2969:
2938:
2934:
2911:
2907:
2876:
2870:
2842:(2): 78–83.
2839:
2835:
2799:
2795:
2785:
2768:
2762:
2749:
2724:
2720:
2707:
2682:
2676:
2663:
2638:
2632:
2622:
2600:(4): 441–9.
2597:
2591:
2581:
2572:
2567:
2561:
2551:
2536:
2504:(5): 641–3.
2501:
2497:
2487:
2460:
2456:
2447:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2397:
2393:
2376:
2359:
2355:
2314:
2308:
2291:
2279:. Retrieved
2274:
2264:
2252:. Retrieved
2247:
2222:. Retrieved
2213:Gordon, AS.
2208:
2175:
2171:
2158:
2146:. Retrieved
2141:
2136:
2104:(3): 320–8.
2101:
2095:
2085:
2076:
2072:
2063:
2038:
2032:
2022:
1995:
1974:
1949:
1943:
1926:
1914:. Retrieved
1908:
1902:
1877:
1871:
1858:
1847:
1837:
1820:
1814:
1793:
1781:
1754:
1748:
1738:
1705:
1701:
1677:
1673:
1663:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1591:
1581:
1575:(81): 576–9.
1572:
1568:
1558:
1549:
1543:
1533:
1524:
1511:
1502:
1489:
1480:
1467:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1408:. Retrieved
1399:
1390:
1380:
1373:
1363:
1344:
1340:
1327:
1318:
1314:
1301:
1274:
1270:
1260:
1249:
1238:
1227:
1200:
1167:
1163:
1127:
1123:
1095:
1076:
1072:
1047:
999:
995:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
935:
920:
911:
900:Please help
895:verification
892:
848:
844:Bernard Lown
841:
825:
819:
803:fibrillation
800:
771:
760:
689:
685:A, B & C
676:
668:
665:
657:
653:
609:
607:
603:
580:
576:
555:Resusci Anne
550:
544:
539:
518:
516:
509:
486:
475:
470:
460:
411:20th century
402:
395:
387:
371:
340:
325:
316:19th century
310:
306:
288:
269:Thomas Cogan
266:
238:bloodletting
229:
223:
208:
188:18th century
170:Robert Hooke
167:
162:
153:
101:
86:
77:
52:
34:
17:
15:
3089:Peter Safar
3015:Circulation
2935:Circulation
2498:Circulation
2457:Circulation
2423:(2): 75–9.
2148:October 22,
1916:October 22,
1232:Genesis 2:7
1116:Schafer, EA
811:Claude Beck
795:Claude Beck
713:epinephrine
512:Peter Safar
228:formed the
182:pericardium
150:Renaissance
95:, in which
3143:Categories
3117:James Jude
3105:James Elam
2771:: 548–55.
2362:: 629–35.
2281:16 October
2254:16 October
2224:17 October
1816:The Lancet
1587:Esmarch, F
1545:The Lancet
1410:16 October
1402:. London:
1243:1 Kings 17
1130:: 609–14.
972:References
950:The Lancet
837:1000 volts
835:to 500 or
738:Phase III
595:James Jude
530:, and the
489:James Elam
48:James Elam
2479:220571179
2200:208181110
2192:0098-6097
1321:: 539–40.
1170:: 1201–3.
936:In 1965,
833:110 volts
822:Paul Zoll
723:, and/or
708:Phase II
226:Amsterdam
178:diaphragm
168:In 1667,
128:Zarephath
3045:42297933
3037:17179033
3000:15994600
2920:14083444
2893:14794366
2818:14098894
2777:13931298
2741:13309666
2713:Zoll, PM
2699:20272528
2669:Beck, CS
2614:71503158
2588:Safar, P
2549:(1961).
2528:42013774
2520:14278052
2439:14492610
2382:Jude, JR
2368:14221073
2350:(1964).
2348:Safar, P
2331:14411374
2164:Elam, JO
2118:13538710
2055:13538709
1994:(eds.).
1992:Elam, JO
1988:Safar, P
1982:(1977).
1980:Elam, JO
1966:13526920
1938:(1958).
1936:Elam, JO
1932:Safar, P
1894:13165893
1864:Elam, JO
1730:32148513
1680:: 265–8.
1655:43813178
1589:(1878).
1519:(1792).
1517:Curry, J
1497:(1792).
1495:Curry, J
1475:(1792).
1473:Curry, J
1459:22153802
1335:(1745).
1309:(1667).
1293:30289519
1199:(eds.).
1197:Elam, JO
1193:Safar, P
1187:(1977).
1185:Elam, JO
1146:20897023
1118:(1904).
1079:: 224–7.
1067:(1856).
694:Phase I
681:mnemonic
547:Ambu bag
104:Iron Age
3095:, 1957)
2991:1168923
2955:9323122
2809:1922284
2755:Lown, B
2655:5223538
2430:1574857
2301:Jude, J
1772:2461172
1722:1841015
1451:1106286
1307:Hook, R
1137:2037067
1065:Hall, M
1026:4944603
1017:1034194
860:sternum
805:in the
797:in 1947
766:of the
467:jujutsu
453:at the
351:lateral
332:, 1878.
242:Hamburg
91:of the
3164:Elisha
3159:Elijah
3043:
3035:
2998:
2988:
2953:
2918:
2891:
2848:431428
2846:
2816:
2806:
2775:
2739:
2697:
2653:
2612:
2543:J Jude
2526:
2518:
2477:
2437:
2427:
2366:
2329:
2198:
2190:
2116:
2053:
2010:
1964:
1892:
1769:
1728:
1720:
1653:
1552:: 616.
1457:
1449:
1406:. 2022
1347:(475).
1291:
1215:
1144:
1134:
1024:
1014:
772:ad hoc
534:. The
519:ad hoc
471:kuatsu
457:, 1963
260:, and
258:Vienna
246:Venice
236:, and
180:, and
163:ghashy
159:Persia
144:Shunem
132:Elisha
120:Elijah
44:Shafer
3041:S2CID
2610:S2CID
2524:S2CID
2475:S2CID
2218:(PDF)
2196:S2CID
1986:. In
1790:(PDF)
1726:S2CID
1651:S2CID
1455:S2CID
1191:. In
567:Seine
347:prone
328:, by
262:Paris
254:Padua
250:Milan
215:Alloa
174:Galen
108:Bible
3033:PMID
2996:PMID
2951:PMID
2916:PMID
2889:PMID
2844:PMID
2814:PMID
2773:PMID
2737:PMID
2695:PMID
2651:PMID
2516:PMID
2435:PMID
2364:PMID
2327:PMID
2283:2022
2256:2022
2226:2022
2188:ISSN
2150:2022
2114:PMID
2051:PMID
2008:ISBN
1962:PMID
1918:2022
1890:PMID
1718:PMID
1447:PMID
1412:2022
1289:PMID
1213:ISBN
1142:PMID
1022:PMID
640:ABCs
283:and
61:and
16:The
3023:doi
3019:114
2986:PMC
2978:doi
2943:doi
2881:doi
2877:144
2804:PMC
2769:182
2729:doi
2725:254
2687:doi
2683:135
2643:doi
2639:198
2602:doi
2506:doi
2465:doi
2425:PMC
2319:doi
2315:173
2180:doi
2106:doi
2102:167
2043:doi
2039:167
2000:doi
1954:doi
1950:258
1882:doi
1878:250
1825:doi
1821:226
1767:PMC
1759:doi
1710:doi
1643:doi
1569:BMJ
1439:doi
1279:doi
1205:doi
1132:PMC
1012:PMC
1004:doi
904:by
683:of
517:An
138:on
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2910:.
2906:.
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2869:.
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2838:.
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2812:.
2800:89
2798:.
2794:.
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2735:.
2723:.
2719:.
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2631:.
2608:.
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2571:.
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2459:.
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2100:.
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1960:.
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1942:.
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