History of circumcision - Knowledge (XXG)

2260:"The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians— two of the oldest surviving forms of Christianity— retain many of the features of early Christianity, including male circumcision. Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of Christianity... Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose the practice, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership and participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Christians should practice circumcision since Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice." 875: 1811:. In 1855, he published a study in which he compared the rate of contraction of venereal disease amongst the gentile and Jewish population of London. Although his manipulation and usage of the data has since been shown to have been flawed (the protection that Jews appear to have are more likely due to cultural factors), his study appeared to demonstrate that circumcised men were significantly less vulnerable to such disease. (A 2006 systematic review concluded that the evidence "strongly indicates that circumcised men are at lower risk of 1105: 191: 1379:(1135–1204) insisted that faith should be the only reason for circumcision. He recognised that it was "a very hard thing" to have done to oneself but that it was done to "quell all the impulses of matter" and "perfect what is defective morally." Sages at the time had recognised that the foreskin heightened sexual pleasure. Maimonides reasoned that the bleeding and loss of protective covering rendered the penis weakened and in so doing had the effect of reducing a man's 773: 392: 1797: 1396: 72: 871:(c. 2400 BCE). In the oldest written account, by an Egyptian named Uha, in the 23rd century BCE, he describes a mass rite and boasts of his ability to stoically endure the pain: "When I was , together with one hundred and twenty men ... there was none thereof who hit out, there was none thereof who was hit, and there was none thereof who scratched and there was none thereof who was scratched." 1673: 416: 31: 133: 1828:(1890), where he contended that the foreskin "... constitutes a harbour for filth, and is a constant source of irritation. It conduces to masturbation, and adds to the difficulties of sexual continence. It increases the risk of syphilis in early life, and of cancer in the aged." As can be seen, he was also a convert to the idea that circumcision would prevent 1762:. Motivations and explanations for circumcision and its origin being motivated by health benefits thus followed and became the norm. This is evidenced in the same entry, stating that "in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its considerable extension among other than Jewish children ... for reasons of health" (11th edition, Vol. 6). 1939:. Sayre circumcised the boy, and within a few weeks, he recovered from his paralysis. After several additional incidents in which circumcision also appeared effective in treating paralyzed joints, Sayre began to promote circumcision as a powerful orthopedic remedy. Sayre's prominence within the medical profession allowed him to reach a wide audience. 2101:, circumcision was largely unknown before the establishment of the United States trusteeship in 1945 and the spread of American influence. More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised at an average age of 12 years, which makes South Korea a unique case. However circumcision rates are now declining in South Korea. 1935:, became a prominent advocate for circumcision in America. In 1870, he examined a five-year-old boy who was unable to straighten his legs, and whose condition had so far defied treatment. Upon noting that the boy's genitals were inflamed, Sayre hypothesized that chronic irritation of the boy's foreskin had paralyzed his knees via 1606:"the best of Your property" and guard their threatened foreskins(!). It was an extraordinary outpouring of popular beliefs about sex, fears about masculinity and misconceptions about Jews, but also a striking indication of how central to their sexual identity men considered their foreskins at that time. (R.Darby) 2112:, described as "a model of perceptive and pungent writing." It revealed that for the years 1942–1947, about 16 children per year in England and Wales had died because of circumcision, a rate of about 1 per 6000 circumcisions. The article had an influential impact on medical practice and public opinion. 573:

Darby describes these theories as "conflicting", and states that "the only point of agreement among proponents of the various theories is that promoting good health had nothing to do with it." Freud believed that circumcision allows senior men to constrain the incestuous desires of their juniors, and

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and so should be done as a way to increase the nation's population. He also noted that circumcision should be performed as an effective means to reduce sexual pleasure: "The legislators thought good to dock the organ which ministers to such intercourse thus making circumcision the symbol of excision

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issued during that council stated that circumcision was merely unnecessary for Christians; El-Hout and Khauli, however, regard it as condemnation of the procedure. The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision, as the church has a policy of

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A 13th-century French disciple of Maimonides, Isaac ben Yediah, claimed that circumcision was an effective way of reducing a woman's sexual desire. With a non-circumcised man, he said, she always orgasms first and so his sexual appetite is never fulfilled, but with a circumcised man she receives no

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Similar trends have operated in Canada, (where public medical insurance is universal, and where private insurance does not replicate services already paid from the public purse) individual provincial health insurance plans began delisting non-therapeutic circumcision in the 1980s. Manitoba was the

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published in 1876, discusses the practice as a religious rite among Jews, Muslims, the ancient Egyptians and tribal peoples in various parts of the world. The author of the entry rejected sanitary explanations of the procedure in favour of a religious one: "like other body mutilations ... of

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claimed the rite in ancient Egypt to be a mark of passage from childhood to adulthood. He mentions that the alteration of the body and ritual were supposed to give access to ancient mysteries reserved solely for the initiated (See also Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis 1.15). The content of those

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had not only enabled physicians to combat many of the postoperative complications of surgery, but had made the wider public deeply suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions. Accordingly, the smegma that collects under the foreskin was viewed as unhealthy, and circumcision readily accepted as good

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likely has ancient roots among several ethnic groups in sub-equatorial Africa, Egypt, and Arabia, though the specific form and extent of circumcision has varied. Ritual male circumcision is known to have been practiced by South Sea Islanders, Aboriginal peoples of Australia, Sumatrans, and some

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The rite was performed by priests in a public ceremony using a stone blade. It is thought to have been more popular among the upper echelons of the society, although it was not universal and those lower down the social order are known to have had the procedure done. On the other hand, medical

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and other general anaesthetics to perform minor surgeries. Also, several mechanically aided circumcision techniques, forerunners of modern clamp-based circumcision methods, were first published in the medical literature of the 1890s, allowing surgeons to perform circumcisions more safely and

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In 1929, the entry is much reduced in size and consists merely of a brief description of the operation, which is "done as a preventive measure in the infant" and "performed chiefly for purposes of cleanliness". Readers are then referred to the entries for 'Mutilation' and 'Deformation' for a

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or other Phoenician settlements in Africa, even although it would have added to the colourful Punic stereotype entertained in Roman literature. Other authors believe Phoenicians abandoned the practice at some point, although it might have not fully died out, as proved by Philo's record.

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It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North

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According to Hodges, ancient Greek aesthetics of the human form considered circumcision a mutilation of a previously perfectly shaped organ. Greek artwork of the period portrayed penises as covered by the foreskin (sometimes in exquisite detail), except in the portrayal of

2094:. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, 72% in 1950, 85% in 1975 and 60% in 2000. 734:; while most of these groups practiced a form of circumcision that involved partial excision, the ethnic group, identified by Agatharchides as the "Colobi" ("the mutilated"), were indicated to have practiced a form of circumcision that involved total excision. 4371:

Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among

1502:"His disciples said to him, "is circumcision useful or not?" He said to them, "If it were useful, their father would produce children already circumcised from their mother. Rather, the true circumcision in spirit has become profitable in every respect."" SV 1366:

Jew named Eleazar on the grounds that it was one thing to read the Law and another thing to practice it. Despite his mother Helen and Ananias's fear of the consequences, Josephus said that God looked after Izates and his reign was peaceful and blessed.

1253:. In one of these, the skin of the penile shaft was loosened by cutting in around the base of the glans. The skin was then stretched over the glans and allowed to heal, giving the appearance of an uncircumcised penis. This was possible because the 4449:

However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Indonesian archipelago, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of

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However, during 1866, Baker Brown began to receive negative feedback from within the medical profession from doctors who opposed the use of clitoridectomies and questioned the validity of Baker Brown's claims of success. An article appeared in

1777:. Sexually-transmitted diseases were rampant in societies of this era and a cause of death prior to the advent of antibiotics in the 20th century. A second motivation was the belief circumcision could lessen sexual urges and reduce the ease of 1132:. Those who were not circumcised were to be "cut off" from their people. Covenants in biblical times were often sealed by severing an animal, with the implication that the party who breaks the covenant will suffer a similar fate. In Hebrew, 1314:(20 BCE – 50 CE) defended Jewish circumcision on several grounds, including health, cleanliness and fertility. He also thought that circumcision should be done as early as possible as it would not be as likely to be done by someone's own 4461:"The United States proved to be the exception to this trend; in the early 21st century most boys there continued to be circumcised shortly after birth, at least in cases where there were no compelling reasons for delay." 918:, writing in the 5th century BCE, wrote that the Egyptians did not find the outcome to be aesthetically pleasing but that they "practise circumcision for the sake of cleanliness, considering it better to be cleanly than comely." 641:; more specifically, while possibly dating much earlier than 10,000 BP, rock art walls from the Bubaline Period have been dated between 9200 BP and 5500 BP. The cultural practice of circumcision may have spread from the Central 1942:

As more practitioners tried circumcision as a treatment for otherwise intractable medical conditions, sometimes achieving positive results, the list of ailments reputed to be treatable through circumcision grew. By the 1890s,

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also had some Jews who no longer circumcised and some Greeks (called Proselytes or Judaizers) who did, (along with a few Nabataean Arabs Judaized by Hasmoneans, Ethiopians, and the rare Egyptian priest). According to the

2011:, but also physically and mentally unhealthy, stimulating the foreskin to produce the host of maladies of which it was suspected. In this climate, circumcision could be employed as a means of discouraging masturbation. 1096:. It has been also interpreted, however, that up to that point they actually practiced a different kind of genital cutting such as preputioplasty or superincision (dorsal slit) that was later replaced by circumcision. 2062:, were both circumcised in boyhood due to parents' concern about their masturbatory habits. Some mainstream pediatric manuals continued to recommend circumcision as a deterrent against masturbation until the 1950s. 321:

ritual, was a common practice among the Aboriginal peoples of Australia and most Pacific islanders at first contact with Western travellers. It is still practiced in the traditional way by some of the population.

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are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons. Today male circumcision is commonly practiced in many predominantly

3357: 2939: 1062:. Herodotus also reports, however, that "the Phoenicians, when they come to have commerce with the Greeks, cease to follow the Egyptians in this custom, and allow their children to remain uncircumcised." 1361:

to embrace the Jewish religion, decided to get circumcised so as to follow Jewish law. Despite being reticent for fear of reprisals from his non-Jewish subjects he was eventually persuaded to do it by a

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Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.

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final province to delist non-therapeutic circumcision, which occurred in 2005. The practice has also declined to about nine per cent of newborn boys in Australia and is almost unknown in New Zealand.

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and Catholic practices, the Catholic Church condemned the observance of circumcision as a moral sin and ordered against its practice in the Council of Basel-Florence in 1442. According to UNAIDS, the

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Archaeological or further literary records do not support that circumcision was truly widespread among Semites. In the case of the Phoenicians, it has been proposed that Herodotus and successors like

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in the home. It has been suggested that once a critical mass of infants were being circumcised in the hospital, circumcision became a class marker of those wealthy enough to afford a hospital birth.

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king, prohibited male circumcision due to concerns that young circumcised men might be less interested in joining as warriors in the military force he was amassing and uniting in the region of

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meaning to seal a covenant translates literally as "cut a covenant". It is presumed by Jewish scholars that the removal of the foreskin symbolically represents such a sealing of the covenant.

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in December, which was favourable towards Baker Brown's work but suggested that Baker Brown had treated women of unsound mind. He was also accused of performing clitoridectomies without the

1164:. Negative evaluations of the aesthetic outcome of the procedure may have led to a decline in the incidence of circumcision among many peoples that had previously practiced it throughout 1457:

7:19 and then increasingly turned against the practice, accusing those who promoted circumcision of wanting to make a good showing in the flesh and boasting or glorying in the flesh in

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Hodges FM (Fall 2001). "The ideal prepuce in ancient Greece and Rome: male genital aesthetics and their relation to lipodermos, circumcision, foreskin restoration, and the kynodesme".

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and compete in sporting events. Techniques for restoring the appearance of an uncircumcised penis were known by the 2nd century BCE. In one such technique, a copper weight (called the

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mediates the tension inherent in the father-son relationship and generational succession. Youth are symbolically castrated, or feminized, but also blessed with masculine fruitfulness.

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Although it is mostly common and required in male newborns with Moslem or Jewish backgrounds, certain Christian-dominant countries such as the United States also practice it commonly.

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Now if a man can be circumcised on the sabbath so that the Law of Moses is not broken, why are you angry with me for making a man whole and complete on a sabbath? ( Jerusalem Bible)

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Widespread adoption of the practice as surgical procedure occurred under the growing belief in the Anglophone medical community of its efficacy in reducing the risk of contracting

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historian Frederick Hodges argues there is evidence against the purported prevalence of circumcision in Egypt, proposing it was limited to priests, functionaries and some workers.

800:. Instead, it would have involved excising a triangular section, or alternately just creating a longitudinal incision, in the dorsal face of the foreskin. In modern terms, this is 1288:

would suck the blood from the circumcision wound with his mouth to remove what was believed to be bad excess blood. As it actually increases the likelihood of infections such as

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observed that "Christendom practically holds circumcision in horror". However, starting in the last half of the 19th century, circumcision became common among Christians in the

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he wrote: "I am inclined to believe that may often accomplish much, both in breaking the habit as an immediate result, and in diminishing the temptation to it subsequently."

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Specific medical arguments aside, several hypotheses have been raised in explaining the public's acceptance of infant circumcision as preventive medicine. The success of the

1296:, modern day mohels use a glass tube placed over the infant's penis for suction of the blood. In many Jewish ritual circumcisions this step of Metzitzah has been eliminated. 1766:

discussion of circumcision in its religious context, showing a continued negative evaluation for the practice, reflecting limited use and rarity among the general populace.

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According to studies, the Egyptian rite performed at the age of puberty, did not involve the amputation of an annular piece of the foreskin as in the modern Jewish rite of

3935:"How Helene the Queen of Adiabene and her son Izates, embraced the Jewish religion; and how Helene supplied the poor with corn, when there was a great famine at Jerusalem" 1914:

for carrying out the operations without consent. Baker Brown's ideas were more accepted in the United States, where, from the 1860s, the operation was being used to cure

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This passage has been seen as a comment on the Rabbinic belief that circumcision heals the penis (Jerusalem Bible, note to John 7:23) or as a criticism of circumcision.

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In 1949, a lack of consensus in the medical community as to whether circumcision carried with it any notable health benefit motivated the United Kingdom's newly formed

2806: 4218: 3554: 4474: 2970: 5575: 2015:, a popular parenting book of the 1890s, recommended infant circumcision for precisely this purpose. (However, a survey of 1410 men in the United States in 1992, 1416: 5500: 1441:

spoke against requiring circumcision in Gentile converts and the Council ruled that circumcision was not necessary. However, Acts 16 and many references in the

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Patrologiæ cursus completus, seu bibliotheca universalis, integra, uniformis, commoda, oeconomica, Omnium SS. Patrium, Doctorum scriptoriumque, eccliasticorum

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and making sex less pleasurable. He also warned that it is "hard for a woman with whom an uncircumcised man has had sexual intercourse to separate from him."

637:, engraved rock art with masked bowmen, which feature male circumcision and may be a scene involving ritual, have been dated to earlier than 6000 BP amid the 3260:

The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme

3132: 2775: 1042:, the 'Syrians of Canaan', and "the Syrians who dwell about the rivers Thermodon and Parthenius, as well as their neighbours the Macronians and Macrones". 1203:

described a court proceeding (from "my youth") in which a ninety-year-old man was stripped naked before the court to determine whether he was evading the

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cutting himself, the blood creating two minor guardian deities. The Egyptologist Emmanuel vicomte de Rougé interpreted this as an act of circumcision.

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Negative evaluation of circumcision as an unnecessary or culturally-bound practice was the norm for much of the 19th century. On circumcision in the

1222:, he forced them to become circumcised and convert to Judaism, but their ancestors the Edomites had practiced circumcision in pre-Hellenistic times. 2779: 2457:

male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.

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ordered circumcision of everyone who committed atrocities against the civilian population. The practice, on the other hand, is customary among the

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founded the London Surgical Home for Women in 1858, where he worked on advancing surgical procedures. In 1866, Baker Brown described the use of

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referred to circumcision as a "singular mutilation" practised only by Jews and Turks and as "a painful and often dangerous rite" ... (R. Darby)

582: 3329: 2909: 2312: 1843: 812:). This is supported by artworks and statues showing foreskins, some of which present an incision on the glans, not an annular circumcision. 4078: 1568: 1140:

might not have been circumcised; one of his sons was not, nor were some of his followers while traveling through the desert. Moses's wife

839: 4108: 2136: 1449:, who was said to be directly responsible for one man's circumcision in Acts 16:1–3 and who appeared to praise Jewish circumcision in 2520:

Morrison J (January 1967). "The origins of the practices of circumcision and subincision among the Aboriginal peoples of Australia".

849:, an engraved wall provides an account of Uha, dated to the 23rd century BCE, which indicates that he and others underwent the rite. 81: 5493: 5214: 4670: 4632: 4421: 4393: 4364: 4339: 4009: 3605: 3577: 3520: 3454: 3372: 3292: 3238: 3144: 2450: 2394: 2344: 2232: 2204: 1712: 815:

There is also limited evidence of some individuals with circumcision. The rite may then have changed to circumcision by the time of

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3:2, he is reported as warning Christians to beware the "mutilation". Circumcision was so closely associated with Jewish men that

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Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.

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Pang MG, Kim DS (January 2002). "Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes".

4238: 901: 570:. It has been suggested that the custom of circumcision gave advantages to tribes that practiced it and thus led to its spread. 5528: 2865: 2016: 1770: 1694: 1595: 630: 437: 19: 4195: 2829: 4802: 3670: 2031:, at least among the upper and middle classes, was increasingly under the care of physicians in hospitals rather than with 1267:

that extended beyond the glans. Jewish religious writers denounced such practices as abrogating the covenant of Abraham in

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had all been linked to the foreskin, and many physicians advocated universal circumcision as a preventive health measure.

1911: 1850:(1865), in which he argued that circumcision acted as an effective remedial measure in the prevention of certain cases of 1237:) was hung from the remnants of the circumcised foreskin until, in time, they became sufficiently stretched to cover the 204: 154: 143: 5486: 4478: 1576: 150: 50: 2178:"Male circumcision in the United States: The History, an analysis of the discourse, and a philosophical interpretation" 925:

mysteries are unclear but are likely to be myths, prayers, and incantations central to Egyptian religion. The Egyptian

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Arabs. Circumcision was sufficiently rare among non-Jews that being circumcised was considered conclusive evidence of

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In Egypt, only the priestly caste retained circumcision, and by the 2nd century, the only circumcising groups in the

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Morris, B. J.; Wamai, R. G.; Henebeng, E. B.; Tobian, A. A.; Klausner, J. D.; Banerjee, J.; Hankins, C. A. (2016).

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Customary in some Coptic and other churches, indicating that it has been regionally normative since ancient times:

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of the time, who spread the fear that Jewish emancipation meant universal circumcision. Men were urged to protect:

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Ancient Egyptian carved scene of circumcision, from the inner northern wall of the Temple of Khonspekhrod at the

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is completely removed. However, in ancient Egypt and elsewhere in Africa, only part of the foreskin was removed.

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Afsari M, Beasley SW, Maoate K, Heckert K (March 2002). "Attitudes of Pacific parents to circumcision of boys".

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In John's Gospel 7:23 Jesus is reported as giving this response to those who criticized him for healing on the

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Dr. Benjamin Mandel speaks at the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, December 2007.

4540:"Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1818:

Hutchinson was a notable leader in the campaign for medical circumcision for the next fifty years, publishing

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Decline in circumcision in the English-speaking world began in the postwar period. The British paediatrician

1744:, circumcision began to be promoted for various ailments as a medical intervention. In the 1910 entry of the 5449: 2116: 2039: 1824: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1530: 5611: 4692: 4462: 3397: 2151: 2120: 1999: 1785: 1741: 1611: 1549: 1242: 673:

and depict male circumcised genitalia, have been dated between the 7th century CE and the 8th century CE.

619: 357:(circumcision), and punished those who performed it, as well as the infants who underwent it, with death. 338: 333:

has traditionally been practised on males on the eighth day after birth (after the First Temple era). The

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The first medical doctor to advocate for the adoption of circumcision was the eminent English physician,

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to circumcise himself, his household and his slaves as an everlasting covenant in their flesh, see also

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Darby RJ (February 2003). "Medical history and medical practice: persistent myths about the foreskin".

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Europeans, with the exception of the Jews, did not practice circumcision. A rare exception occurred in

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has been thought to be the oldest documentary evidence of the rite, the most ancient depiction being a

4149: 3720: 2267:; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is practiced by Coptic Christians." 2119:

to remove infant circumcision from its list of covered services. Since then, circumcision has been an

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Treatment without consent: law, psychiatry and the treatment of mentally disordered people since 1845

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Incomplete Circumcision in Egypt and Edom: Jeremiah (9:24-25) in the Light of Josephus and Jonckheere

3008: 2141: 1980: 1936: 1426: 1422: 1246: 969: 718:" ethnic groups practiced circumcision; these groups may have resided along the African coast of the 353:, where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of 4400:

Neonatal circumcision is the general practice among Jews, Christians, and many, but not all Muslims.

3709: 5616: 2336: 2055: 1976: 1808: 1800: 1733: 1358: 1144: 995: 979: 887: 4001: 3780: 349:, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek 5403: 5255: 4871: 4280: 4255:

Slosar JP, O'Brien D (2003). "The ethics of neonatal male circumcision: a Catholic perspective".

3757: 3548: 3420: 3378: 3335: 3309: 3190: 3110: 3071: 3063: 3024: 2962: 2915: 2889: 2757: 2709: 2545: 1932: 1839: 1557: 1354: 1275:. During the 2nd century, the procedure of circumcision changed in order to become irreversible. 1254: 1188: 1129: 1059: 646: 314: 280: 5285: 4828:"Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes" 3811:

Rubin JP (July 1980). "Celsus' decircumcision operation: medical and historical implications".

2264: 772: 5247: 5210: 5102: 5063: 4974: 4922: 4863: 4666: 4628: 4569: 4440: 4417: 4389: 4360: 4335: 4272: 4128: 4061: 4005: 3828: 3749: 3601: 3573: 3516: 3450: 3368: 3325: 3288: 3234: 3140: 2954: 2905: 2861: 2821: 2749: 2701: 2657: 2572: 2537: 2502: 2446: 2418: 2390: 2340: 2308: 2284: 2228: 2200: 1865: 1755: 1561: 1466: 1307:, and punished those who performed it – as well as the infants who underwent it – with death. 1293: 965: 953: 682: 517: 284: 1473:

3:20) or conversely Christians who were circumcised were referred to as Jewish Christians or

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Paul, Josephus, and the Judean Nationalistic and Imperialistic Policy of Forced Circumcision

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Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian

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On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females

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Prescription for medical use by these societies led to biomedicalization of circumcision as

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and among many Christian communities. The United States and the Philippines are the largest

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for more than 9000 years. By 300 CE, male initiation and male circumcision had ceased among

487: 391: 276: 5351: 2365:"Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" 1229:. This was mainly for social and economic benefits and also so that they could exercise in 3479: 2413:

Marck J (1997). "Aspects of male circumcision in sub-equatorial African culture history".

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These increasingly common medical beliefs were even applied to females. The controversial

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The Guide of the Perplexed. Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Shlomo Pines

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as a means of differentiating a circumcising group from their non-circumcising neighbors;

5290: 5151: 3995: 3012: 2609: 912:) depicts either an erect organ, which may or may not be circumcised in representation. 92: 5058: 5033: 5018: 4993: 4969: 4944: 4917: 4890: 4564: 4539: 4329: 4325: 3282: 2745: 2697: 2652: 2635: 2533: 2497: 2470: 2071: 1869: 1446: 1438: 1404: 1003: 921: 801: 701: 5098: 4836:, Volume 89: Pages 48–54, January 2002, archived at the Circumcision Reference Library 4026: 1796: 1395: 1387:

pleasure and hardly ever orgasms "because of the great heat and fire burning in her."

5652: 5444: 4859: 4173: 3824: 3593: 3194: 3186: 3171:"Female Circumcision as a Rite de Passage in Egypt—Continuity through the Millennia?" 3114: 3075: 3028: 2966: 2919: 2713: 2285:"Circumcision in the Early Christian Church: The Controversy That Shaped a Continent" 2075: 1929: 1656: 1615: 1588: 1581: 1515: 1454: 1380: 1215: 1093: 1043: 987: 879: 852: 835: 809: 789: 707: 693: 586: 403: 318: 292: 5259: 4875: 4284: 3797:(lit., "cut short") to circumcised men at least in poetic contexts, e.g. at Horace, 3761: 3424: 3382: 3339: 2761: 2549: 5509: 5413: 5393: 5372: 5203:"In Praise of German Ritual: Modern Medicine and the Defense of Ancient Traditions" 5082: 3972: 3444: 3020: 2443:

Spirituality and Religion Within the Culture of Medicine: From Evidence to Practice

2091: 2004: 1952: 1889: 1829: 1778: 1430: 1289: 1204: 1172: 1066: 727: 670: 666: 594: 578: 530: 513: 469: 395: 256: 96: 4766: 3934: 2046:

as a local anaesthetic made it easier for doctors without expertise in the use of

4656: 4618: 3847: 3321: 2901: 2855: 2304: 1910:

or knowledge of his patients or their families. In 1867 he was expelled from the

1651:

have high circumcision rates, while Christian communities in the United Kingdom,

1050:, tells the origin of circumcision as part of a myth, according to which the god 4806: 4716: 4519:

Hutchinson J (1855). "On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis".

3911: 2098: 2083: 1992: 1925: 1919: 1672: 1640: 1619: 1434: 1238: 1226: 1211: 1165: 1074: 932: 805: 757: 723: 715: 697: 690: 602: 415: 376: 342: 300: 296: 5202: 4717:"From ritual to science: the medical transformation of circumcision in America" 4268: 4234: 1610:

These negative attitudes remained well into the 19th century. English explorer

1429:

15 addressed the issue of whether circumcision was required of new converts to

601:

from the Paleolithic era, circumcision may have been practiced as early as the

5580: 5408: 4907: 4827: 3866: 3231:

Yahweh and Moses in Conflict: The Role of Exodus 4:24-26 in the Book of Exodus

3106: 2487: 2047: 2028: 1972: 1960: 1862: 1636: 1572: 1523: 1470: 1376: 1259: 1176: 1073:

for them, as Biblical sources describe Phoenicians and other peoples like the

1055: 999: 961: 949: 864: 860: 827: 797: 503: 354: 330: 268: 5120: 4094: 3695:

Popovsky M (2010). "Circumcision". In Leeming DA, Madden K, Marlan S (eds.).

3496: 2958: 1922:, and in young girls what was called "rebellion" or "unfeminine aggression". 1848:

Circumcision as a Remedial Measure in Certain Cases of Epilepsy, Chorea, etc.

5398: 4960: 4662: 4624: 4555: 4386:

Essential Case Studies in Public Health: Putting Public Health Into Practice

4049: 2263:"The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in 2079: 1902: 1881: 1812: 1788:

societies during the 20th century, with the exception of the United States.

1485:, who were predominant; however, it is an oversimplification as 1st-century 1477:. These terms (circumcised/uncircumcised) are generally interpreted to mean 1474: 1344: 1332: 1315: 1300: 1192: 1161: 1039: 1027: 915: 816: 737: 590: 399: 364: 360: 5251: 5067: 4978: 4926: 4867: 4573: 4276: 4065: 3753: 2825: 2753: 2661: 2576: 2506: 2471:"Estimation of country-specific and global prevalence of male circumcision" 2422: 5173: 5106: 5009: 3832: 3745: 2705: 2541: 2038:

During the same time period, circumcision was becoming easier to perform.

472:

is not known with certainty. It has been variously proposed that it began

5268: 4732: 2684:

Immerman RS, Mackey WC (1997). "A biocultural analysis of circumcision".

2386: 2024: 1988: 1984: 1964: 1956: 1915: 1877: 1873: 1851: 1774: 1599: 1264: 1141: 1085: 1078: 1035: 567: 559: 541: 372: 346: 307: 5049: 4154:(in Latin). apud Garnier fratres et J.-P. Migne successores. p. 10. 3416: 2857:

The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite

2177: 566:

Removing the foreskin can prevent or treat a medical condition known as

5423: 5377: 4500:

Epstein E (1874). "Have the Jews any Immunity from Certain Diseases?".

4463:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/circumcision-ritual-surgical-procedure

3067: 2043: 2032: 1907: 1697: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1644: 1363: 1340: 1184: 1180: 1125: 1031: 991: 868: 846: 731: 719: 634: 440: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 368: 326: 288: 5291:

VIDEO – Male Circumcision: History, Ethics and Surgical Considerations

4310: 4050:"Male and female genital alteration: a collision course with the law?" 3137:

Daily Life of Women: An Encyclopedia from Ancient Times to the Present

2182:

College of Liberal Arts & Social Sciences Theses and Dissertations

972:

a scene is depicted with one brother appearing to circumcise himself.

764:

and might be more interested in seeking opportunities for having sex.

5439: 3885: 3170: 2860:(illustrated ed.). University Press of New England. p. 44. 2292: 2211:

Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze

2087: 1968: 1944: 1855: 1759: 1652: 1648: 1482: 1323: 1278:

Later during the Talmudic period (500–625 CE) a third step, known as

1272: 1219: 1051: 941: 711: 686: 642: 555: 3964:. Vol. III. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. 1963. p. 609. 3497:

Clement of Alexandria, 'Stromata, Book I, Chapter 15'; NewAdvent.org

3059: 2996: 5301: 4767:"Using Male Circumcision to Understand Social Norms as Multipliers" 4747: 4357:

The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective

4088: 4086: 5367: 3513:

The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties

1885: 1795: 1784:

Circumcision rose in incidence before falling in most Western and

1495: 1319: 1311: 1284: 1157: 1137: 1092:

were uncircumcised until being forcefully converted to Judaism by

983: 945: 873: 856: 831: 781: 771: 753: 741: 685:

that is part of male initiations, is estimated to have existed in

548: 534: 390: 380: 272: 4331:

Circumcision: A history of the world's most controversial surgery

3365:

Circumcision: A History Of The World's Most Controversial Surgery

3284:

Circumcision: A history of the world's most controversial surgery

2239:

Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.

291:, and some tribes in East and Southern Africa; as well as in the 4832: 2123:

to parents, and the proportion of circumcised men is around 9%.

1478: 1257:

defined in the Bible was a relatively minor circumcision; named

1089: 1070: 878:

Depiction of the rite (incision or potentially circumcision) in

650: 264: 5482: 5478: 5305: 2997:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules" 2890:"Why Circumcision: From Prehistory to the Twenty-First Century" 1077:

as uncircumcised. Roman authors do not mention circumcision in

1030:

reported that circumcision is only practiced by the Egyptians,

986:

indicated that female circumcision was also a common custom in

5270:

History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present

5034:"James spence medallist, 1976 douglas montagu temple gairdner" 2008: 2003:

penile hygiene. Secondly, moral sentiment of the day regarded

1666: 1353:

in Jewish Antiquities book 20, chapter 2 records the story of

1225:

Some Jews tried to hide their circumcision status, as told in

1121: 834:, the rite has been dated to at least as early as 6000 BCE in 409: 184: 126: 65: 24: 4805:. Circumcision Statistics of the 20th Century. Archived from 3262:. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, volume 57, p. 375-405 2287:. In Bolnick, David A.; Koyle, Martin; Yosha, Assaf (eds.). 4307:"A short history of the world's most controversial surgery" 2896:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 243–259. 1896:, he gave a 70 per cent success rate using this treatment. 935: 496:

as an aid to hygiene where regular bathing was impractical;

4151:

Historia rebellionis Paulli adversus Wambam Gothorum Regem

2807:"The riddle of the sands: circumcision, history, and myth" 1803:

was the first prominent medical advocate for circumcision.

2054:

Born in the United Kingdom during the late 19th century,

2023:

likely to report masturbating at least once a month.) As

1210:

Cultural pressures to circumcise operated throughout the

1110:

Regensburg Pentateuch, Israel Museum, Jerusalem (c. 1300)

523:

as a means of increasing a man's attractiveness to women;

502:

as a means of humiliating enemies and slaves by symbolic

363:, writing in the 5th century BCE, lists first of all the 2436: 2434: 2432: 4538:

Weiss HA, Thomas SL, Munabi SK, Hayes RJ (April 2006).

3645: 2225:

Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide

1445:

show that the practice was not immediately eliminated.

1327:

of excessive and superfluous pleasure." There was also

5209:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 222–233. 4174:"Eccumenical Council of Florence and Council of Basel" 1469:

were referred to as "those of the circumcision" (e.g.

1046:, a purportedly ancient Phoenician writer recorded by 306:

As practiced in Judaism and in the United States, the

5175:

Incidence and prevalence of circumcision in Australia

3939:

Antiquities of the Jews – Book XX, Chapter 2, verse 4

1357:

who having been persuaded by a Jewish merchant named

367:

being the oldest people practicing circumcision then

153:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are 5148:"Public Service Health Care Plan Bulletin Number 17" 5083:"Circumcision. The uniquely American medical enigma" 4309:. Circumcision Information Australia. Archived from 2326: 2324: 2271:, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001–05. 1781:, referred to as 'self-pollution' and 'self-abuse'. 1647:, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and 1054:

circumcised himself and his allies to atone for his

893: 499:

as a means of marking those of higher social status;

5630: 5599: 5563: 5537: 5516: 4945:"The fate of the foreskin, a study of circumcision" 4603:"On circumcision as a preventive of masturbation", 4388:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 23–24. 3624:. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones. 11 131-155 1635:in the world to extensively practice circumcision. 526:

as a demonstration of one's ability to endure pain;

5178:, Circumcision Information Australia, January 1913 4196:"Male Circumcision: context, criteria and culture" 3515:. University of California Press. pp. 39–49. 1411:) early Christians soon dispensed with the ritual. 4176:. EWTN Global Catholic Television Network Library 3646:"7. Cutting Covenants | Religious Studies Center" 1832:, a great Victorian concern. In an 1893 article, 1006:and has been dated to 163 BCE, indicated that an 4359:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 61. 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 1564:Churches, and also some other African churches. 4994:"The Fate of the Foreskin (letter of response)" 2727: 2725: 2723: 1834:On circumcision as a preventive of masturbation 1179:, Jewish Christians, Egyptian priests, and the 681:Prior to 300 CE, male circumcision, which is a 5121:"Circumcision, the ultimate parenting dilemma" 4097:. Circumcision Information and Resource Pages. 3126: 3124: 3089:Atherton, John H.; Milan, Kalous (July 1970). 1876:, as a cure for several conditions, including 1417:Circumcision controversy in early Christianity 5494: 5317: 4891:"Decline in male circumcision in South Korea" 3541:Circumcision: History, Scope, and Aim: Part I 3214:. Journal of Biblical Literature 118 497-505. 2888:Cox, Guy; Morris, Brian J. (1 January 2012). 2475:National Center for Biotechnology Information 1453:3:2, said that circumcision didn't matter in 542:rare natural occurrence of a missing foreskin 8: 3438: 3436: 3434: 2445:. Oxford University Press. pp. 97–101. 964:was circumcised by Egyptian priests, as was 4938: 4936: 3783:. Ancient History Sourcebook at fordham.edu 3572:. Princeton University Press. p. 507. 3553:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 3351: 3349: 2933: 2931: 2929: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2247: 1737:the nature of a representative sacrifice". 1663:Rise and fall in the English-speaking world 1506:Parallels to Thomas 53 are found in Paul's 577:Circumcision may have been practiced among 59:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5501: 5487: 5479: 5341: 5324: 5310: 5302: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4475:"The crotchets of Sir Jonathan Hutchinson" 4441:"Circumcision protest brought to Florence" 3396:Dobanovački, Dušanka; et al. (2012). 3206: 3204: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3131:Ahmed-Saidi, Christine (7 December 2020). 2674:Alphabet of Ben Sirah, Question #5 (23a–b) 2636:"Aposthia-a motive of circumcision origin" 2199:. Syracuse University Press. p. 150. 1567:As part of an attempted reconciliation of 1282:, began to be practiced. In this step the 897: 830:evidence found on walls and evidence from 398:being performed in central Asia (probably 95:. Please do not remove this message until 5241: 5057: 5017: 4968: 4916: 4906: 4803:"The United States' Circumcision Century" 4563: 4477:. History of Circumcision. Archived from 4250: 4248: 3886:"Philo of Alexandria (20 B.C.E.-50 C.E.)" 3777:(translated and annotated by J. C. Rolfe) 3600:. Yale University Press. pp. 16–17. 3314:An Illustrated Guide to Pediatric Urology 3254: 3252: 3250: 2651: 2496: 2486: 1740:In the latter part of the century in the 1713:Learn how and when to remove this message 1318:. He claimed that the foreskin prevented 740:(5th century BCE) indicated that ancient 649:and toward the east in the region of the 456:Learn how and when to remove this message 244:Learn how and when to remove this message 226:Learn how and when to remove this message 173:Learn how and when to remove this message 115:Learn how and when to remove this message 4889:Kim D, Koo SA, Pang MG (December 2012). 4300: 4298: 4296: 4294: 3506: 3504: 3224: 3222: 3220: 2780:Royal Australasian College of Physicians 2283:Adams, Gregory; Adams, Kristina (2012). 2070:Infant circumcision was taken up in the 1394: 1103: 483:marking a boy's entrance into adulthood; 149:Relevant discussion may be found on the 91:Relevant discussion may be found on the 5224:Dunsmuir WD, Gordon EM (January 1999). 4688:"'Uterine fury' – now sold in chemists" 4217:El-Hout Y, Khauli RB (September 2007). 3890:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3699:. New York: Springer. pp. 153–154. 3697:Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion 3539:Ilia Brondz1, Tahmina Aslanova (2019). 3534: 3532: 2938:Campbell, Alec; Coulson, David (2010). 2168: 1548:, where during the armed campaign king 493:as a means of reducing sexual pleasure; 5146:Treasury Board of Canada secretariat. 4620:Gender and power in Britain, 1640–1990 4416:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 101. 4133:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4126: 3546: 3308:Al-Salem, Ahmed H. (8 November 2016). 2883: 2881: 2879: 2877: 1245:described two surgical techniques for 1022:Circumcision was also adopted by some 5087:The Urologic Clinics of North America 4590:, Vol. II, 1890, p. 15; reprinted in 3941:. Christian Classics Ethereal Library 3398:"Surgery Before Common Era (B.C.E.*)" 1108:Circumcision of Abraham's son Isaac. 7: 5273:. Philadelphia and London: FA Davis. 5243:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1001.x 4095:"The New Testament and Circumcision" 2940:"Big Hippo Site, Oued Afar, Algeria" 2592:"Why Do Jews Circumcise Their Sons?" 2086:, and the English-speaking parts of 1695:adding citations to reliable sources 1407:, depicted in this sculpture at the 438:adding citations to reliable sources 337:records circumcision as part of the 5297:The History of Circumcision website 4771:University of Cincinnati Law Review 4219:"The case for routine circumcision" 4000:. London: Trübner and co. pp. 3848:"Epispasm: circumcision in reverse" 3734:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 2333:The Encyclopedia of World Religions 2197:The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid 1147:when God threatened to kill Moses. 2776:"Policy Statement on Circumcision" 2746:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05137.x 2698:10.1111/j.1467-9744.1976.tb00285.x 2534:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1967.tb21064.x 2370:. World Health Organization. 2007. 2137:Bioethics of neonatal circumcision 2108:published a famous study in 1949, 1598:. It was furiously opposed by the 1299:First Maccabees tells us that the 1255:Abrahamic covenant of circumcision 714:(2nd century BCE) indicated that " 585:migration. As late as 45,000 BCE, 14: 5286:Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision 4257:The American Journal of Bioethics 1844:East London Hospital for Children 40:This article has multiple issues. 5038:Archives of Disease in Childhood 4860:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02545.x 4158:Jacques Paul Migne, ed. (1862). 4027:"Circumcision: A Jewish Inquiry" 3187:10.1163/187416509X12492786609249 2995:Soukopova, Jitka (August 2017). 2782:. September 2004. Archived from 2734:The Medical Journal of Australia 2640:Iranian Journal of Public Health 2522:The Medical Journal of Australia 2417:. 7 Suppl (supplement): 337–60. 2042:'s 1885 discovery of hypodermic 2019:found that circumcised men were 1671: 1596:proposal for Jewish emancipation 1343:on the issue of circumcision of 1263:, this involved cutting off the 855:(2345–2181 BCE) tomb artwork in 490:to ensure virility or fertility; 414: 317:, often as part of an intricate 189: 131: 70: 29: 5081:Wallerstein E (February 1985). 4544:Sexually Transmitted Infections 3620:Honora Howell Chapman, (2006). 3042:Brown, Stanley (January 1948). 2814:The New Zealand Medical Journal 2176:Cohen, Jonathan (1 June 2011). 1682:needs additional citations for 1191:and others derogatorily called 1014:, was scheduled to undergo it. 845:At the mastaba of Ankhmahor in 554:as a display of disgust of the 425:needs additional citations for 263:Today it is still practiced by 48:or discuss these issues on the 3443:Herodotus (29 November 2005). 3316:. Springer Cham. p. 480. 3021:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.12.011 2894:Surgical Guide to Circumcision 2383:Encyclopedia of Body Adornment 2289:Surgical Guide to Circumcision 1594:In 1753 in London there was a 1310:The 1st-century Jewish author 1207:placed on Jews and Judaizers. 20:history of female circumcision 1: 5226:"The history of circumcision" 5099:10.1016/S0094-0143(21)00798-9 4502:Medical and Surgical Reporter 3781:"De Vita Caesarum-Domitianus" 3367:. Basic Books. pp. 2–3. 3044:"The Nomoli of Mende Country" 2227:. Rough Guides. p. 147. 2027:proliferated in urban areas, 1912:Obstetrical Society of London 1771:sexually-transmitted diseases 1659:have low circumcision rates. 599:Australian Aboriginal peoples 5207:Medicine and the German Jews 4992:Gairdner D (February 1950). 4943:Gairdner D (December 1949). 4748:"The Ritual of Circumcision" 4594:, 27 September 1890, p. 769. 4550:(2): 101–9, discussion 110. 3969:(translated by Shlomo Pines) 3912:"A Treatise on Circumcision" 3867:"Circumcision: Then and Now" 3825:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4 3793:The Romans applied the term 3598:Hannibal: A Hellenistic Life 3322:10.1007/978-3-319-44182-5_22 3001:Journal of Arid Environments 2902:10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_21 2305:10.1007/978-1-4471-2858-8_26 1633:majority Christian countries 1461:6:11–13. In a later letter, 1214:world: when the Judean king 931:, for example, tells of the 665:, which were created by the 5571:Religious male circumcision 4384:Hunting, Katherine (2012). 3973:"Guide to the Perplexed by" 3871:Many Blessings (volume III) 3233:. Peter Lang. p. 69-. 3210:Richard C. Steiner (1999). 3175:Journal of Egyptian History 3169:Huebner, Sabine R. (2009). 3133:"Family and Community Life" 2331:S. Ellwood, Robert (2008). 1026:living in or around Egypt. 518:proscribed sexual behaviors 512:as a means of discouraging 97:conditions to do so are met 5675: 5044:(2): 85–6. February 1977. 4801:O'Donnell H (April 2001). 4586:"A plea for circumcison", 4269:10.1162/152651603766436306 4235:10.1016/j.jmhg.2007.05.007 4198:. UNAIDS. 26 February 2007 3997:The Guide of the Perplexed 3511:Shaye J. D. Cohen (1999). 3095:Journal of African History 2157:Prevalence of circumcision 2147:Circumcision controversies 1758:and then secondarily as a 1414: 1088:seems to suggest that the 617: 402:, c. 1865–1872. Restored 383:as circumcising cultures. 17: 5600:Ethical and legal aspects 5339: 4908:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1067 4721:Journal of Social History 4686:Vergnani L (9 May 2003). 4607:, Vol. II, 1890, p. 267-9 4521:Medical Times and Gazette 4355:Gruenbaum, Ellen (2015). 4334:. New York: Basic Books. 4148:Julian of Toledo (1862). 3568:Louis H. Feldman (2019). 3287:. New York: Basic Books. 3139:. ABC-CLIO. p. 375. 3107:10.1017/S0021853700010161 2488:10.1186/s12963-016-0073-5 1888:, which he attributed to 1842:, a paediatrician at the 1241:. The 1st-century writer 529:as a male counterpart to 476:as a religious sacrifice; 4955:(4642): 1433–7, illust. 4412:R. Wylie, Kevan (2015). 4093:Glass M (October 2001). 4048:Davis DS (Summer 2001). 3865:Peron JE (Spring 2000). 3446:The History of Herodotus 3356:Gollaher, David (2000). 2441:R. Peteet, John (2017). 2415:Health Transition Review 2110:The fate of the foreskin 1303:forbade the practice of 1249:in his medical treatise 994:, which was part of the 956:practiced circumcision. 840:Ancient Egyptian mummies 752:In the 19th century CE, 744:practiced circumcision. 18:Not to be confused with 4998:British Medical Journal 4961:10.1136/bmj.2.4642.1433 4949:British Medical Journal 4592:British Medical Journal 4556:10.1136/sti.2005.017442 4223:Journal of Men's Health 3975:. University of Chicago 3846:Hall RG (August 1992). 3484:Encyclopædia Britannica 3229:John T. Willis (2010). 2614:The Jewish Encyclopedia 2381:DeMello, Margo (2007). 2223:Jacobs, Daniel (1998). 2117:National Health Service 2040:William Stewart Halsted 1959:, chronic indigestion, 1825:British Medical Journal 1746:Encyclopædia Britannica 1728:Encyclopædia Britannica 1624:Christian denominations 1391:Decline in Christianity 1375:The Jewish philosopher 677:Central and East Africa 544:of an important leader; 533:or the breaking of the 198:Some of this article's 5538:History and prevalence 4693:Times Higher Education 4508:. Philadelphia: 40–41. 3543:. Scientific Research. 3486:(10th ed.). 1902. 3449:. Simon and Schuster. 3358:"The Jewish Tradition" 2634:Amin Ud Din M (2012). 2152:Ethics of circumcision 2000:germ theory of disease 1820:A plea for circumcison 1804: 1742:English-speaking world 1622:countries. Today many 1412: 1243:Aulus Cornelius Celsus 1113: 883: 793: 694:Bantu-speaking peoples 645:, toward the south in 620:Circumcision in Africa 407: 345:stated that under the 5267:Remondino PC (1891). 5010:10.1136/bmj.1.383.439 4789:A Surgical Temptation 4746:Paige KE (May 1978). 3994:Maimonides M (1885). 3746:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119 3258:Frederick M. Hodges, 2805:Darby R (July 2005). 2565:Pacific Health Dialog 1872:, the removal of the 1799: 1641:Anglosphere countries 1637:Christian communities 1618:, especially in some 1587:In the 18th century, 1409:Cathedral of Chartres 1401:Jesus was circumcised 1398: 1145:circumcised their son 1107: 958:Clement of Alexandria 877: 775: 618:Further information: 394: 4715:Gollaher DL (1994). 4414:ABC of Sexual Health 3675:Bible Study Magazine 3671:"Cutting a Covenant" 3281:Gollaher DL (2000). 2299:. pp. 291–298. 2195:Ubayd, Anis (2006). 1981:erectile dysfunction 1691:improve this article 1577:Union with The Copts 1427:Acts of the Apostles 1423:Council of Jerusalem 1247:foreskin restoration 1069:might have mistaken 970:Tale of Two Brothers 434:improve this article 313:Circumcision and/or 142:factual accuracy is 5050:10.1136/adc.52.2.85 4765:Waldeck SE (2003). 4605:Archives of surgery 4588:Archives of Surgery 4162:. pp. 771–774. 3417:10.2298/AOO1202028D 3405:Archive of Oncology 3310:"Male Circumcision" 3013:2017JArEn.143...10S 2337:Infobase Publishing 2056:John Maynard Keynes 1863:obstetrical surgeon 1809:Jonathan Hutchinson 1801:Jonathan Hutchinson 1629:Christian countries 968:. In the Egyptian 952:indicated that the 888:Egyptian hieroglyph 260:Ancient Egyptians. 84:of this article is 5576:Early Christianity 5529:Surgical procedure 5404:Bar or Bat Mitzvah 5345: 5201:Ephron JM (2001). 5154:on 3 November 2007 4733:10.1353/jsh/28.1.5 4665:. pp. 66–69. 4655:Fennell P (1999). 4241:on 2 January 2013. 2976:on 26 October 2022 2121:out-of-pocket cost 2066:Spread and decline 2013:All About the Baby 1933:orthopedic surgeon 1840:Nathaniel Heckford 1805: 1612:Sir Richard Burton 1413: 1403:(according to the 1322:from reaching the 1195:) in Roman courts— 1189:Early Christianity 1130:Abrahamic Covenant 1114: 884: 819:' visit to Egypt. 794: 786:Eighteenth dynasty 647:Sub-Saharan Africa 547:as a way to repel 516:or other socially 408: 339:Abrahamic covenant 281:Ethiopian Orthodox 5646: 5645: 5564:Religious aspects 5476: 5475: 5471: 5470: 5236:(Suppl 1): 1–12. 5230:BJU International 5004:(4650): 439–440. 4895:BMC Public Health 4848:BJU International 4833:BJU International 4447:. 30 March 2008. 4115:on 13 August 2007 3967:Moses Maimonides 3873:. pp. 41–42. 3331:978-3-319-44182-5 2911:978-1-4471-2858-8 2314:978-1-4471-2857-1 2142:Children's rights 1866:Isaac Baker Brown 1756:medical procedure 1723: 1722: 1715: 1562:Eritrean Orthodox 1467:Jewish Christians 1333:Pharisaic Judaism 1294:venereal diseases 1151:Hellenistic world 966:Thales of Miletus 954:ancient Egyptians 909: 908: 905: 904: 683:cultural practice 605:by these groups. 488:sympathetic magic 466: 465: 458: 299:, as well as the 285:Eritrean Orthodox 277:Coptic Christians 254: 253: 246: 236: 235: 228: 183: 182: 175: 125: 124: 117: 63: 5666: 5503: 5496: 5489: 5480: 5342: 5333:Rites of passage 5326: 5319: 5312: 5303: 5274: 5263: 5245: 5220: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5150:. Archived from 5143: 5137: 5136: 5134: 5132: 5127:. 12 August 2012 5117: 5111: 5110: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5061: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4972: 4940: 4931: 4930: 4920: 4910: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4843: 4837: 4825: 4819: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4809:on 25 April 2018 4798: 4792: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4652: 4639: 4638: 4617:Kent SK (1999). 4614: 4608: 4601: 4595: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4567: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4471: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4445:Associated Press 4437: 4431: 4430: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4302: 4289: 4288: 4252: 4243: 4242: 4237:. Archived from 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4192: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4155: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4111:. Archived from 4105: 4099: 4098: 4090: 4081: 4076: 4070: 4069: 4045: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3965: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3914:. thriceholy.net 3907: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3808: 3802: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3729: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3642: 3636: 3634:Genesis 17:10–14 3631: 3625: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3552: 3544: 3536: 3527: 3526: 3508: 3499: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3476: 3470: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3440: 3429: 3428: 3402: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3362: 3353: 3344: 3343: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3278: 3263: 3256: 3245: 3244: 3226: 3215: 3208: 3199: 3198: 3166: 3151: 3150: 3128: 3119: 3118: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3039: 3033: 3032: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2975: 2969:. Archived from 2944: 2935: 2924: 2923: 2885: 2872: 2871: 2854:Mark EW (2003). 2851: 2845: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2834: 2828:. Archived from 2811: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2786:on 30 March 2022 2772: 2766: 2765: 2729: 2718: 2717: 2681: 2675: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2655: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2606: 2600: 2599: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2560: 2554: 2553: 2517: 2511: 2510: 2500: 2490: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2438: 2427: 2426: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2378: 2372: 2371: 2369: 2361: 2355: 2354: 2328: 2319: 2318: 2280: 2274: 2255: 2242: 2241: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2173: 2106:Douglas Gairdner 2058:and his brother 1977:Bright's disease 1815:and syphilis.") 1792:Medical concerns 1760:religious ritual 1718: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1698: 1675: 1667: 1546:Visigothic Spain 1492:Gospel of Thomas 1381:lustful thoughts 1371:Medieval Judaism 1351:Flavius Josephus 1337:Hillel the Elder 1008:ancient Egyptian 976:Diodorus Siculus 928:Book of the Dead 898: 894: 890:for "penis" (𓂸 663:Nomoli figurines 558:produced by the 461: 454: 450: 447: 441: 418: 410: 341:. The writer of 249: 242: 231: 224: 220: 217: 211: 193: 185: 178: 171: 167: 164: 158: 155:reliably sourced 135: 134: 127: 120: 113: 109: 106: 100: 74: 73: 66: 55: 33: 32: 25: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5665: 5664: 5663: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5642: 5626: 5595: 5559: 5533: 5517:Medical aspects 5512: 5507: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5454: 5428: 5382: 5356: 5335: 5330: 5282: 5277: 5266: 5223: 5217: 5200: 5196: 5194:Further reading 5191: 5190: 5181: 5179: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5145: 5144: 5140: 5130: 5128: 5119: 5118: 5114: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5032: 5031: 5027: 4991: 4990: 4986: 4942: 4941: 4934: 4888: 4887: 4883: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4826: 4822: 4812: 4810: 4800: 4799: 4795: 4786: 4782: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4698: 4696: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4673: 4654: 4653: 4642: 4635: 4627:. p. 189. 4616: 4615: 4611: 4602: 4598: 4585: 4581: 4537: 4536: 4532: 4518: 4517: 4513: 4499: 4498: 4494: 4484: 4482: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4424: 4411: 4410: 4406: 4396: 4383: 4382: 4378: 4367: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4324: 4316: 4314: 4313:on 19 July 2008 4304: 4303: 4292: 4254: 4253: 4246: 4216: 4215: 4211: 4201: 4199: 4194: 4193: 4189: 4179: 4177: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4157: 4147: 4146: 4142: 4125: 4118: 4116: 4109:"Archived copy" 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4073: 4047: 4046: 4042: 4032: 4030: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4012: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3978: 3976: 3966: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3944: 3942: 3932: 3931: 3927: 3917: 3915: 3910:Philo Judaeus. 3909: 3908: 3904: 3894: 3892: 3883: 3882: 3878: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3810: 3809: 3805: 3786: 3784: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3715: 3708: 3704: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3669: 3668: 3664: 3654: 3652: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3628: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3545: 3538: 3537: 3530: 3523: 3510: 3509: 3502: 3495: 3491: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3469:Gollaher (2000) 3468: 3464: 3457: 3442: 3441: 3432: 3400: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3375: 3360: 3355: 3354: 3347: 3332: 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and 1153: 1102: 1048:Philo of Byblos 1024:Semitic peoples 1020: 1018:Semitic peoples 910: 778:Precinct of Mut 770: 762:southern Africa 750: 748:Southern Africa 730:in present-day 679: 659: 639:Bubaline Period 627: 622: 616: 611: 481:rite of passage 462: 451: 445: 442: 431: 419: 389: 335:Book of Genesis 250: 239: 238: 237: 232: 221: 215: 212: 209: 194: 179: 168: 162: 159: 148: 140:This article's 136: 132: 121: 110: 104: 101: 90: 75: 71: 34: 30: 23: 12: 11: 5: 5672: 5670: 5662: 5661: 5651: 5650: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5640: 5634: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5603: 5601: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5541: 5539: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5506: 5505: 5498: 5491: 5483: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5399:Debutante ball 5396: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5359: 5357: 5355: 5354: 5348: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5321: 5314: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5294: 5288: 5281: 5280:External links 5278: 5276: 5275: 5264: 5221: 5215: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5165: 5138: 5112: 5073: 5025: 4984: 4932: 4881: 4838: 4820: 4793: 4780: 4757: 4738: 4706: 4678: 4671: 4640: 4633: 4609: 4596: 4579: 4530: 4511: 4492: 4481:on 2 June 2018 4466: 4454: 4432: 4422: 4404: 4394: 4376: 4365: 4347: 4340: 4323:, a review of 4290: 4244: 4229:(3): 300–305. 4209: 4187: 4165: 4140: 4100: 4082: 4080:Strong's G2699 4071: 4060:(2): 487–570. 4040: 4017: 4010: 3986: 3952: 3925: 3902: 3876: 3857: 3838: 3803: 3767: 3740:(3): 375–405. 3724: 3721:Exodus 4:24–26 3713: 3702: 3687: 3662: 3637: 3626: 3613: 3606: 3585: 3578: 3560: 3528: 3521: 3500: 3489: 3480:"Circumcision" 3471: 3462: 3455: 3430: 3388: 3373: 3345: 3330: 3300: 3293: 3264: 3246: 3239: 3216: 3200: 3181:(1): 156–166. 3152: 3145: 3120: 3101:(3): 303–317. 3081: 3034: 2987: 2925: 2910: 2873: 2866: 2846: 2797: 2767: 2719: 2686:Social Biology 2676: 2667: 2626: 2601: 2582: 2555: 2512: 2461: 2451: 2428: 2405: 2395: 2389:. p. 66. 2373: 2356: 2345: 2339:. p. 95. 2320: 2313: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2269:"circumcision" 2261: 2243: 2233: 2215: 2205: 2187: 2167: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2139: 2132: 2129: 2072:United Kingdom 2067: 2064: 2051:successfully. 1870:clitoridectomy 1793: 1790: 1721: 1720: 1679: 1677: 1670: 1664: 1661: 1608: 1607: 1539: 1538: 1504: 1503: 1447:Paul of Tarsus 1439:James the Just 1405:Gospel of Luke 1392: 1389: 1372: 1369: 1218:conquered the 1152: 1149: 1101: 1100:Judaic culture 1098: 1058:of his father 1019: 1016: 922:David Gollaher 907: 906: 903: 902: 892: 802:preputioplasty 792:, c. 1360 BCE. 769: 766: 749: 746: 724:southern Egypt 702:Central Africa 678: 675: 658: 655: 626: 623: 615: 614:Ancient Africa 612: 610: 607: 589:migrated into 564: 563: 552: 545: 538: 527: 524: 521: 510: 507: 500: 497: 494: 491: 484: 477: 468:The origin of 464: 463: 422: 420: 413: 388: 385: 252: 251: 234: 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813: 811: 810:superincision 807: 803: 799: 791: 790:Amenhotep III 787: 783: 779: 774: 767: 765: 763: 759: 755: 747: 745: 743: 739: 735: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 708:Agatharchides 705: 703: 699: 695: 692: 688: 684: 676: 674: 672: 668: 664: 656: 654: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 624: 621: 613: 609:Ancient world 608: 606: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 587:modern humans 584: 583:Out of Africa 581:prior to the 580: 575: 571: 569: 561: 557: 553: 550: 546: 543: 539: 536: 532: 528: 525: 522: 519: 515: 511: 508: 505: 501: 498: 495: 492: 489: 486:as a form of 485: 482: 478: 475: 474: 473: 471: 460: 457: 449: 446:December 2020 439: 435: 429: 428: 423:This section 421: 417: 412: 411: 405: 404:albumen print 401: 397: 393: 386: 384: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 320: 319:coming of age 316: 311: 309: 304: 302: 298: 294: 293:United States 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 261: 258: 248: 245: 230: 227: 219: 216:December 2022 207: 206: 201: 196: 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Retrieved 5152:the original 5141: 5129:. Retrieved 5124: 5115: 5090: 5086: 5076: 5041: 5037: 5028: 5001: 4997: 4987: 4952: 4948: 4898: 4894: 4884: 4854:(1): 48–54. 4851: 4847: 4841: 4831: 4823: 4811:. Retrieved 4807:the original 4796: 4788: 4783: 4774: 4770: 4760: 4752:Human Nature 4751: 4741: 4724: 4720: 4709: 4697:. Retrieved 4691: 4681: 4657: 4619: 4612: 4604: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4582: 4547: 4543: 4533: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4505: 4501: 4495: 4483:. Retrieved 4479:the original 4469: 4457: 4448: 4435: 4427: 4413: 4407: 4399: 4385: 4379: 4370: 4356: 4350: 4330: 4315:. Retrieved 4311:the original 4263:(2): 62–64. 4260: 4256: 4239:the original 4226: 4222: 4212: 4200:. Retrieved 4190: 4178:. Retrieved 4168: 4159: 4150: 4143: 4117:. Retrieved 4113:the original 4103: 4074: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4031:. Retrieved 4020: 3996: 3989: 3979:25 September 3977:. Retrieved 3968: 3961: 3955: 3945:29 September 3943:. Retrieved 3938: 3928: 3916:. Retrieved 3905: 3893:. 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Beliefnet 3650:rsc.byu.edu 3411:(1–2): 29. 2619:17 December 2099:South Korea 2084:New Zealand 1993:skin cancer 1926:Lewis Sayre 1920:nymphomania 1786:Anglophonic 1748:it stated: 1620:Anglosphere 1494:saying 53, 1463:Philippians 1435:Simon Peter 1355:King Izates 1269:1 Maccabees 1251:De Medicina 1227:1 Maccabees 1212:Hellenistic 1175:were Jews, 1166:Hellenistic 1134:kārat berît 1075:Philistines 1040:Phoenicians 1002:archive at 806:dorsal slit 698:East Africa 691:matrilineal 657:West Africa 631:Oued Djerat 603:Paleolithic 593:. Based on 377:Phoenicians 343:1 Maccabees 315:subincision 301:Philippines 297:South Korea 203:may not be 5550:Prevalence 5434:Initiation 5409:Rumspringa 5182:24 January 4813:17 January 4787:R. Darby, 4372:Christians 4119:8 February 3933:Josephus. 3884:Hillar M. 3779:(c. 110). 3775:Suetonius 2867:1584653078 2790:5 February 2163:References 2048:chloroform 2029:childbirth 1973:bedwetting 1961:rheumatism 1773:, such as 1573:papal bull 1524:Colossians 1471:Colossians 1415:See also: 1377:Maimonides 1345:proselytes 1305:brit milah 1231:gymnasiums 1177:Samaritans 1162:barbarians 1056:castration 1036:Ethiopians 1000:Ptolemaios 962:Pythagoras 950:Alexandria 865:necropolis 861:bas-relief 798:brit milah 742:Ethiopians 716:troglodyte 549:demonesses 504:castration 373:Ethiopians 355:brit milah 269:Samaritans 82:neutrality 45:improve it 5450:Vajrayana 5419:Seclusion 4699:7 October 4663:Routledge 4625:Routledge 4317:7 October 4305:Darby R. 4025:Moss LB. 3680:11 August 3655:11 August 3549:cite book 3195:161573169 3115:241833023 3076:146653906 3029:132225521 2980:27 August 2967:191103812 2959:1120-5679 2920:160513261 2714:143514833 2646:(9): 84. 2590:Gilad E. 2080:Australia 2025:hospitals 1903:The Times 1882:catalepsy 1813:chancroid 1558:Ethiopian 1526:2:11–12. 1520:Galatians 1475:Judaizers 1459:Galatians 1399:Although 1364:Galileean 1316:free will 1301:Seleucids 1280:Metzitzah 1197:Suetonius 1193:Judaizers 1032:Colchians 1028:Herodotus 916:Herodotus 863:from the 826:Based on 817:Herodotus 784:, Egypt. 738:Herodotus 591:Australia 400:Turkestan 369:Colchians 365:Egyptians 361:Herodotus 347:Seleucids 151:talk page 93:talk page 51:talk page 5653:Category 5631:Category 5352:Saṃskāra 5260:32754534 5252:10349408 5131:13 March 5125:BBC News 5068:21032536 4979:15408299 4927:23227923 4901:: 1067. 4876:30235521 4868:11849160 4574:16581731 4527:: 542–3. 4450:passage. 4328:(2000). 4285:38064474 4277:12859824 4129:cite web 4066:11683048 3971:(1963). 3799:Sermones 3762:29580193 3754:11568485 3596:(2019). 3425:53008076 3383:68860890 3340:79015190 3091:"Nomoli" 2826:16027753 2762:31875702 2754:12580747 2662:23193511 2577:12737414 2550:45886476 2507:26933388 2423:10173099 2387:ABC-Clio 2352:America. 2131:See also 2060:Geoffrey 2033:midwives 1989:insanity 1985:syphilis 1965:epilepsy 1957:insomnia 1930:New York 1916:hysteria 1878:epilepsy 1874:clitoris 1852:epilepsy 1846:, wrote 1775:syphilis 1639:in some 1335:between 1329:division 1271:and the 1265:foreskin 1220:Idumeans 1205:head tax 1181:Nabatean 1142:Zipporah 1090:Edomites 1086:Josephus 1079:Carthage 1012:Tathemis 996:Serapeum 828:engraved 568:phimosis 560:foreskin 551:; and/or 351:gymnasia 308:foreskin 205:reliable 144:disputed 86:disputed 5581:Judaism 5545:History 5424:Shinbyu 5378:Baptism 5107:3883617 5059:1546185 5019:2036928 4970:2051968 4918:3526493 4754:: 40–8. 4565:2653870 4485:21 July 4202:8 April 4180:8 April 4033:9 April 3918:9 April 3895:9 April 3854:: 52–7. 3833:6994325 3813:Urology 3801:i.9.70. 3787:9 April 3068:3180463 3009:Bibcode 2839:1 March 2706:9446966 2653:3494220 2596:Haaretz 2542:6018441 2498:4772313 2265:Acts 15 2044:cocaine 2017:Laumann 1949:bladder 1908:consent 1822:in the 1645:Oceania 1531:Sabbath 1433:. Both 1359:Ananias 1341:Shammai 1185:Judaism 1168:times. 1126:Abraham 1118:Genesis 1060:Ouranos 1004:Memphis 992:papyrus 980:Xanthus 933:sun god 869:Saqqara 847:Saqqara 832:mummies 804:and/or 732:Eritrea 720:Red Sea 635:Algeria 387:Origins 381:Syrians 327:Judaism 289:Muslims 5617:Forced 5612:Ethics 5440:Hazing 5258: 5250: 5213: 5105: 5066: 5056: 5016: 4977: 4967: 4925: 4915: 4874: 4866: 4669: 4631: 4572: 4562: 4523:. 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