30:
45:
2285:
287: 6667100, filed in 2002, describes how to process expanded graphite to achieve a graphite thickness of one hundred-thousandth of an inch (0.25 nm). The key to success was high-throughput visual recognition of graphene on a properly chosen substrate that provides a small but noticeable optical contrast.
231:
One of the first patents pertaining to the production of graphene was filed in
October 2002 and granted in 2006. It detailed one of the first large scale graphene production processes. Two years later, in 2004 Geim and Novoselov extracted single-atom-thick crystallites from bulk graphite. They pulled
227:
Initial attempts to make atomically thin graphitic films employed exfoliation techniques similar to the drawing method. Multilayer samples down to 10 nm in thickness were obtained. Earlier researchers tried to isolate graphene starting with intercalated compounds, producing very thin graphitic
1203:
This paper reports graphitic flakes that give an additional contrast equivalent of down to ≈0.4 nm or 3 atomic layers of amorphous carbon. This was the best possible resolution for 1960 TEMs. However, neither then nor today it is possible to argue how many layers were in those flakes. Now we
1204:
know that the TEM contrast of graphene most strongly depends on focusing conditions. For example, it is impossible to distinguish between suspended monolayer and multilayer graphene by their TEM contrasts, and the only known way is to analyse relative intensities of various diffraction spots.
349:
operates a graphene powder production facility. By 2017, 13 years after creation of the first laboratory graphene electronic device, an integrated graphene electronics chip was produced commercially and marketed to pharmaceutical researchers by
Nanomedical Diagnostics in San Diego.
182:
Single layers of graphite were observed by TEM within bulk materials, in particular inside soot obtained by chemical exfoliation. Efforts to make thin films of graphite by mechanical exfoliation started in 1990, but nothing thinner than 50 to 100 layers was produced before 2004.
164:(TEM). Researchers occasionally observed thin graphitic flakes ("few-layer graphene") and possibly even individual layers. An early, detailed study on few-layer graphite dates to 1962 when Boehm reported producing monolayer flakes of reduced graphene oxide.
159:
The earliest TEM images of few-layer graphite were published by G. Ruess and F. Vogt in 1948. Later, single graphene layers were observed directly by electron microscopy. Before 2004 intercalated graphite compounds were studied under a
1273:
1369:
Following discussions with colleagues, Andre and Kostya adopted a method that researchers in surface science were using –using simple
Sellotape to peel away layers of graphite to expose a clean surface for study under the
859:
Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K.; Morozov, S. V.; Jiang, D.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Grigorieva, I. V.; Dubonos, S. V.; Firsov, A. A. (2005). "Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene".
1295:
Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K.; Morozov, S. V.; Jiang, D.; Zhang, Y.; Dubonos, S. V.; Grigorieva, I. V.; Firsov, A. A. (22 October 2004). "Electric Field Effect in
Atomically Thin Carbon Films".
542:
1657:
1639:
228:
fragments (possibly monolayers). Neither of the earlier observations was sufficient to launch the "graphene gold rush" that awaited macroscopic samples of extracted atomic planes.
2031:
669:
167:
Starting in the 1970s single layers of graphite were grown epitaxially on top of other materials. This "epitaxial graphene" consists of a single-atom-thick hexagonal lattice of
2095:
1768:
2130:
1812:
1572:
1164:
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1846:
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1734:
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carbon atoms, as in free-standing graphene. However, significant charge transfers from the substrate to the epitaxial graphene, and in some cases, the
1382:
Kopelevich, Y.; Torres, J.; Da Silva, R.; Mrowka, F.; Kempa, H.; Esquinazi, P. (2003). "Reentrant
Metallic Behavior of Graphite in the Quantum Limit".
1795:
136:
in 1947 as a starting point for understanding the electronic properties of 3D graphite. The emergent massless Dirac equation was first pointed out by
2105:
2019:
282:
107:
2240:
2166:
1679:
342:
commercial manufacturers, Applied
Graphene Materials and Thomas Swan Limited (with Trinity College, Dublin researchers), began manufacturing. In
2161:
819:
DiVincenzo, D. P.; Mele, E. J. (1984). "Self-Consistent
Effective Mass Theory for Intralayer Screening in Graphite Intercalation Compounds".
978:
Zhang, Y.; Tan, Y. W.; Stormer, H. L.; Kim, P. (2005). "Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry's phase in graphene".
2173:
1918:
1885:
1665:
264:
electrically isolated the graphene and weakly interacted with it, providing nearly charge-neutral graphene layers. The silicon beneath the
2230:
1071:
Meyer, J.; Geim, A. K.; Katsnelson, M. I.; Novoselov, K. S.; Booth, T. J.; Roth, S. (2007). "The structure of suspended graphene sheets".
2263:
1598:
2036:
1933:
1908:
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1783:
2113:
1824:
1714:
161:
1364:
410:
Boehm, H. P.; Clauss, A.; Fischer, G. O.; Hofmann, U. (1 July 1962). "Das
Adsorptionsverhalten sehr dünner Kohlenstoff-Folien".
316:
in 2005. Before these experiments other researchers had looked for the quantum Hall effect and Dirac fermions in bulk graphite.
2069:
2007:
1841:
1807:
216:
1938:
1836:
1518:
1488:
1576:
2245:
2026:
1992:
1945:
1214:
Oshima, C.; Nagashima, A. (1997). "Ultra-thin epitaxial films of graphite and hexagonal boron nitride on solid surfaces".
1179:
29:
335:
was announced to support applied research and development in partnership with other research organizations and industry.
2014:
1987:
1965:
1923:
1819:
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2258:
2041:
2002:
1950:
1707:
332:
2118:
1980:
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94:
and his co-workers for the experimental discovery of graphene in 1962; while it had been explored theoretically by
2225:
2194:
2074:
1970:
1865:
1041:
2250:
2123:
2079:
1997:
1975:
1829:
338:
Commercialization of graphene proceeded rapidly once commercial scale production was demonstrated. In 2014 two
466:
Boehm, H.P; Setton, R; Stumpp, E (1986). "Nomenclature and terminology of graphite intercalation compounds".
2156:
1858:
1800:
1778:
1124:
60:, a tool that was used for the exfolitation of single-layer graphene from graphite in 2004. Donated to the
320:
303:
137:
2151:
2146:
1957:
1756:
346:
591:
276:
could be used as a "back gate" electrode to vary the charge density in the graphene over a wide range.
1435:
Luk'yanchuk, Igor A.; Kopelevich, Yakov (2004). "Phase
Analysis of Quantum Oscillations in Graphite".
1751:
1492:
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69:
33:
2204:
1255:
696:
291:
153:
111:
912:
Gusynin, V. P.; Sharapov, S. G. (2005). "Unconventional
Integer Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene".
200:
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1391:
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1304:
1080:
1021:
987:
955:
921:
868:
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730:
569:
339:
122:
1599:"Global breakthrough: Irish scientists discover how to mass produce 'wonder material' graphene"
319:
Geim and Novoselov received awards for their pioneering research on graphene, notably the 2010
125:. It was studied in detail by Kohlschütter and Haenni in 1918, who described the properties of
2309:
2270:
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1875:
1853:
1743:
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1417:
1338:
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91:
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370:
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1005:
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141:
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44:
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1094:
1001:
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832:
797:
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641:
555:
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386:
179:
of graphene, which significantly alters the electronic structure of epitaxial graphene.
2235:
1897:
1175:
145:
115:
57:
2303:
770:
479:
299:
133:
95:
1235:
959:
1350:
1039:
Ruess, G.; Vogt, F. (1948). "Höchstlamellarer Kohlenstoff aus Graphitoxyhydroxyd".
1025:
307:
149:
61:
17:
1526:
1466:
1413:
943:
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in graphene, which provided direct evidence of graphene's theoretically predicted
152:
precisely at the Dirac point. This level is responsible for the anomalous integer
1621:
1496:
1699:
625:
587:
343:
249:
248:) on a silicon wafer in a process called either micromechanical cleavage or the
1125:"Discussion on graphene's early history and Boehm's 1962 isolation of graphene"
1640:"Meet the first lady of graphene, turning harmful gases into the wonder stuff"
450:
290:
The cleavage technique led directly to the first observation of the anomalous
176:
83:
65:
53:
37:
1334:
840:
682:
613:
Friedrich, W (1913). "Eine neue Interferenzerscheinung bei Röntgenstrahlen".
431:
423:
1658:"Cambridge Nanosystems opens new factory for commercial graphene production"
1326:
172:
1474:
1421:
1342:
1110:
1017:
951:
898:
805:
725:
700:
649:
564:
537:
148:. Semenoff emphasized the occurrence in a magnetic field of an electronic
121:
The structure of graphite was identified in 1916 by the related method of
1449:
1396:
1309:
1085:
992:
926:
873:
168:
82:
was first unambiguously produced and identified in 2004, by the group of
78:
49:
1102:
1009:
890:
129:. Its structure was determined from single-crystal diffraction in 1924.
1054:
762:
573:
741:
Hassel, O; Mack, H (1924). "Über die Kristallstruktur des Graphits".
734:
664:
1519:"New £60m Engineering Innovation Centre to be based in Manchester"
665:"Zur Kenntnis des Graphitischen Kohlenstoffs und der Graphitsäure"
43:
28:
1525:. The University of Manchester. 10 September 2014. Archived from
1261:... bits of graphene are undoubtedly present in every pencil mark
592:"Interferenz an regellos orientierten Teilchen im Röntgenlicht I"
1703:
1550:"Graphene maker aims to build British, billion-pound venture"
232:
graphene layers from graphite and transferred them onto thin
98:
in 1947. Boehm et al. introduced the term graphene in 1986.
1573:"Consett firm Thomas Swan sees export success with grapheme"
1163:
Boehm, H. P.; Clauss, A.; Fischer, G.; Hofmann, U. (1962).
543:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
1622:"Next Silicon Valleys: Why Cambridge is a start-up city"
1165:"Surface Properties of Extremely Thin Graphite Lamellae"
784:
Wallace, P. R. (1947). "The Band Theory of Graphite".
854:
852:
850:
1680:"Graphene biosensors – finally a commercial reality"
2218:
2182:
2139:
2088:
2052:
1896:
1742:
973:
971:
969:
670:Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie
628:(1917). "A New Method of X-ray Crystal Analysis".
412:Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie
302:. The effect was reported by Geim's group and by
40:(right) at a 2010 Nobel Prize press conference
1715:
1172:Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Carbon
132:The theory of graphene was first explored by
8:
1722:
1708:
1700:
1158:
1156:
1066:
1064:
175:of the substrate atoms hybridize with the
1448:
1395:
1308:
1084:
991:
925:
872:
724:
563:
520:
394:
364:
362:
1548:Burn-Callander, Rebecca (1 July 2014).
358:
461:
459:
446:
444:
442:
1143:"Many Pioneers in Graphene Discovery"
663:Kohlschütter, V.; Haenni, P. (1919).
7:
2174:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
1495:, UK. 5 October 2010. Archived from
195:was introduced in 1986 by chemists
1489:"Graphene pioneers bag Nobel prize"
1249:Geim, A. K.; Kim, P. (April 2008).
538:"On the Atomic Weight of Graphite"
522:10.1088/0031-8949/2012/T146/014003
396:10.1088/0031-8949/2012/T146/014003
207:. It is a combination of the word
25:
2284:
2283:
217:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
162:transmission electron microscope
1601:. The Journal.ie. 20 April 2014
1571:Gibson, Robert (10 June 2014).
1274:"United States Patent: 7071258"
114:structure of thermally reduced
1664:. 16 June 2015. Archived from
1:
1620:Hope, Katie (24 March 2014).
1575:. The Journal. Archived from
1523:www.graphene.manchester.ac.uk
1467:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.166402
1414:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.156402
944:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.146801
480:10.1016/0008-6223(86)90126-0
2096:Cosmic microwave background
701:"The Structure of Graphite"
333:National Graphene Institute
310:, whose papers appeared in
110:became aware of the highly
2326:
453:. Encyclopaedia Britannica
2279:
1236:10.1088/0953-8984/9/1/004
1216:J. Phys.: Condens. Matter
615:Physikalische Zeitschrift
596:Physikalische Zeitschrift
1684:www.newelectronics.co.uk
1149:. Aps.org. January 2010.
841:10.1103/PhysRevB.29.1685
683:10.1002/zaac.19191050109
424:10.1002/zaac.19623160303
2231:Chandrasekhar–Eddington
2157:Golden age of cosmology
2089:On specific discoveries
2037:Lorentz transformations
1437:Physical Review Letters
1384:Physical Review Letters
1365:"The Story of Graphene"
1327:10.1126/science.1102896
914:Physical Review Letters
108:Benjamin Collins Brodie
2162:Medieval Islamic world
1905:Computational physics
1847:Variational principles
1774:Electrical engineering
1042:Monatshefte für Chemie
806:10.1103/PhysRev.71.622
743:Zeitschrift für Physik
726:10.1098/rspa.1924.0101
650:10.1103/PhysRev.10.661
590:; Scherrer, P (1916).
565:10.1098/rstl.1859.0013
536:Brodie, B. C. (1859).
321:Nobel Prize in Physics
73:
41:
2152:Golden age of physics
2147:Copernican Revolution
1668:on 23 September 2015.
1147:Letters to the Editor
495:"Graphene Prehistory"
371:"Graphene prehistory"
347:Cambridge Nanosystems
90:, though they credit
47:
32:
2255:Relativity priority
2110:Subatomic particles
2070:Loop quantum gravity
2059:Quantum information
2008:Quantum field theory
1808:Gravitational theory
1493:Institute of Physics
493:Geim, A. K. (2012).
127:graphite oxide paper
88:Konstantin Novoselov
70:Konstantin Novoselov
34:Konstantin Novoselov
2219:Scientific disputes
2205:Via Panisperna boys
2106:Gravitational waves
2053:Recent developments
1784:Maxwell's equations
1459:2004PhRvL..93p6402L
1406:2003PhRvL..90o6402K
1319:2004Sci...306..666N
1256:Scientific American
1251:"Carbon Wonderland"
1228:1997JPCM....9....1O
1103:10.1038/nature05545
1095:2007Natur.446...60M
1010:10.1038/nature04235
1002:2005Natur.438..201Z
936:2005PhRvL..95n6801G
891:10.1038/nature04233
883:2005Natur.438..197N
833:1984PhRvB..29.1685D
798:1947PhRv...71..622W
755:1924ZPhy...25..317H
717:1924RSPSA.106..749B
642:1917PhRv...10..661H
556:1859RSPT..149..249B
513:2012PhST..146a4003G
387:2012PhST..146a4003G
292:quantum Hall effect
154:quantum Hall effect
18:History of graphene
2264:General relativity
2259:Special relativity
2200:Oxford Calculators
2027:Special relativity
1946:General relativity
1731:History of physics
1646:. 6 December 2014.
1276:. US Patent Office
1055:10.1007/BF01141527
763:10.1007/BF01327534
705:Proc. R. Soc. Lond
369:Geim, A K (2012).
340:North East England
138:Gordon W. Semenoff
123:powder diffraction
74:
42:
2297:
2296:
2271:Transfermium Wars
2190:Harvard Computers
2015:Subatomic physics
1988:Quantum mechanics
1924:Superconductivity
1915:Condensed matter
1744:Classical physics
1552:. Daily Telegraph
1529:on 9 October 2014
1499:on 8 October 2010
1303:(5696): 666–669.
986:(7065): 201–204.
867:(7065): 197–200.
821:Physical Review B
327:Commercialization
197:Hanns-Peter Boehm
92:Hanns-Peter Boehm
16:(Redirected from
2317:
2287:
2286:
2210:Women in physics
1962:Nuclear physics
1886:Perpetual motion
1820:Material science
1764:Electromagnetism
1724:
1717:
1710:
1701:
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1538:
1536:
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1515:
1509:
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1506:
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1485:
1479:
1478:
1452:
1450:cond-mat/0402058
1432:
1426:
1425:
1399:
1397:cond-mat/0209406
1379:
1373:
1372:
1367:. October 2014.
1361:
1355:
1354:
1312:
1310:cond-mat/0410550
1292:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1270:
1264:
1263:
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1240:
1239:
1211:
1205:
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1194:
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1190:
1185:on 13 April 2016
1184:
1178:. Archived from
1169:
1160:
1151:
1150:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1131:. 16 March 2017.
1121:
1115:
1114:
1088:
1086:cond-mat/0701379
1068:
1059:
1058:
1049:(3–4): 222–242.
1036:
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1029:
995:
993:cond-mat/0509355
975:
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963:
929:
927:cond-mat/0506575
909:
903:
902:
876:
874:cond-mat/0509330
856:
845:
844:
827:(4): 1685–1694.
816:
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809:
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738:
728:
711:(740): 749–773.
693:
687:
686:
660:
654:
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622:
610:
604:
603:
584:
578:
577:
567:
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526:
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490:
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483:
463:
454:
448:
437:
435:
418:(3–4): 119–127.
407:
401:
400:
398:
366:
286:
285:
281:
275:
274:
273:
263:
262:
261:
247:
246:
245:
142:David DiVincenzo
64:in Stockholm by
21:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2275:
2246:Joule–von Mayer
2214:
2178:
2135:
2084:
2048:
1939:Big Bang theory
1892:
1791:Fluid mechanics
1738:
1728:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1644:Telegraph.co.uk
1638:
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1633:
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1602:
1597:
1596:
1592:
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1580:
1579:on 12 July 2014
1570:
1569:
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1079:(7131): 60–63.
1070:
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1037:
1033:
977:
976:
967:
911:
910:
906:
858:
857:
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786:Physical Review
783:
782:
778:
740:
739:
695:
694:
690:
662:
661:
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624:
623:
612:
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586:
585:
581:
535:
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500:Physica Scripta
492:
491:
487:
465:
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449:
440:
409:
408:
404:
375:Physica Scripta
368:
367:
360:
356:
329:
283:
277:
272:
269:
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267:
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260:
257:
256:
255:
253:
252:technique. The
244:
241:
240:
239:
237:
234:silicon dioxide
225:
215:, referring to
211:and the suffix
205:Eberhard Stumpp
189:
104:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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2323:
2321:
2313:
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2280:
2277:
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2267:
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2251:Shapley–Curtis
2248:
2243:
2241:Leibniz–Newton
2238:
2236:Galileo affair
2233:
2228:
2222:
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2207:
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2133:
2131:Speed of light
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2098:
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2083:
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2077:
2075:Nanotechnology
2072:
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2011:
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2000:
1995:
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1973:
1968:
1960:
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1953:
1943:
1942:
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1936:
1928:
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1913:
1912:
1911:
1902:
1900:
1898:Modern physics
1894:
1893:
1891:
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1866:Thermodynamics
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1662:Cambridge News
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1480:
1443:(16): 166402.
1427:
1390:(15): 156402.
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1176:Pergamon Press
1152:
1134:
1116:
1060:
1031:
965:
920:(14): 146801.
904:
846:
811:
792:(9): 622–634.
776:
749:(1): 317–337.
688:
677:(1): 121–144.
655:
636:(6): 661–696.
605:
579:
528:
485:
455:
438:
402:
357:
355:
352:
328:
325:
300:Dirac fermions
270:
258:
242:
224:
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188:
185:
146:Eugene J. Mele
116:graphite oxide
103:
100:
58:tape dispenser
24:
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2080:String theory
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1830:Metamaterials
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1129:Graphene-Info
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1092:
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1045:(in German).
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331:In 2014, the
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296:Berry's phase
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134:P. R. Wallace
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102:Early history
101:
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96:P. R. Wallace
93:
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76:Single-layer
71:
67:
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52:, a graphene
51:
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2195:The Martians
2100:
1859:Spectroscopy
1801:Aerodynamics
1779:Field theory
1687:. Retrieved
1683:
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1666:the original
1661:
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1593:
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1577:the original
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1527:the original
1522:
1513:
1503:17 September
1501:. Retrieved
1497:the original
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1180:the original
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374:
337:
330:
318:
311:
298:of massless
289:
230:
226:
212:
208:
201:Ralph Setton
192:
190:
181:
166:
158:
150:Landau level
131:
120:
105:
77:
75:
62:Nobel Museum
26:
2119:Higgs boson
1605:20 December
1370:microscope.
1222:(1): 1–20.
550:: 249–259.
344:East Anglia
250:Scotch tape
36:(left) and
2140:By periods
1958:Geophysics
1930:Cosmology
1280:12 January
697:Bernal, JD
507:: 014003.
474:(2): 241.
381:: 014003.
354:References
177:π orbitals
173:d-orbitals
84:Andre Geim
66:Andre Geim
54:transistor
48:A lump of
38:Andre Geim
2183:By groups
2167:Astronomy
2003:Molecules
1837:Mechanics
1752:Astronomy
1533:9 October
1335:0036-8075
771:121157442
630:Phys. Rev
588:Debije, P
432:1521-3749
279:US patent
223:Discovery
191:The term
169:sp-bonded
106:In 1859,
2310:Graphene
2304:Category
2289:Category
2114:timeline
2101:Graphene
2063:timeline
2032:timeline
2020:timeline
1993:timeline
1934:timeline
1919:timeline
1909:timeline
1871:timeline
1842:timeline
1825:timeline
1813:timeline
1796:timeline
1769:timeline
1757:timeline
1735:timeline
1689:9 August
1626:BBC News
1475:15525015
1422:12732058
1343:15499015
1111:17330039
1018:16281031
960:37267733
952:16241680
899:16281030
699:(1924).
626:Hull, AW
451:Graphene
209:graphite
193:graphene
112:lamellar
79:graphene
72:in 2010.
56:, and a
50:graphite
2124:Neutron
1981:Weapons
1966:Fission
1881:Entropy
1583:23 July
1556:24 July
1455:Bibcode
1402:Bibcode
1351:5729649
1315:Bibcode
1297:Science
1224:Bibcode
1091:Bibcode
1026:4424714
998:Bibcode
932:Bibcode
879:Bibcode
829:Bibcode
794:Bibcode
751:Bibcode
713:Bibcode
638:Bibcode
552:Bibcode
509:Bibcode
383:Bibcode
1971:Fusion
1876:Energy
1854:Optics
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574:108699
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468:Carbon
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313:Nature
284:
187:Naming
2042:tests
1998:Atoms
1976:Power
1951:tests
1445:arXiv
1392:arXiv
1347:S2CID
1305:arXiv
1183:(PDF)
1168:(PDF)
1081:arXiv
1022:S2CID
988:arXiv
956:S2CID
922:arXiv
869:arXiv
767:S2CID
735:94336
731:JSTOR
570:JSTOR
308:Zhang
1691:2017
1607:2014
1585:2014
1558:2014
1535:2014
1505:2017
1471:PMID
1418:PMID
1339:PMID
1331:ISSN
1282:2014
1191:2017
1107:PMID
1014:PMID
948:PMID
895:PMID
709:A106
505:T146
428:ISSN
306:and
213:-ene
203:and
144:and
86:and
68:and
1463:doi
1410:doi
1323:doi
1301:306
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1099:doi
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1006:doi
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679:doi
675:105
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560:doi
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