577:
education. The guidance given to elementary schools was changed in the 1880s to allow Welsh to be taught. Welsh became a grant-earning subject under the payment-by-results scheme during the last few years of its existence, and a small fund was established to allow elementary schools to teach the subject in the 1890s. Some school boards did try to introduce the subject but it was entirely optional. Any such lessons used
English as the medium of instruction and including some Welsh in the curriculum was seen primarily as a way of making it easier for Welsh-speaking children to English . In 1899 to 1900 only 0.8 percent of pupils were taught Welsh as a subject. From 1907 to 1920 educationalist Owen Edwards was in charge of the newly created Welsh Department of the Board of Education. He was in favour of increased use of Welsh in schools, primarily in predominantly Welsh-speaking areas. Since the end of payment by results Edwards had little power to make schools do anything, but there was a gradual, patchy increase in the use of Welsh in the years after his appointment.
419:, but historian Ann Keane gives little evidence of how much impact that had. The 1902 Act had allowed local authorities to create municipal secondary schools outside the network of intermediate schools created after the 1889 Act. This was encouraged by the Welsh department as a way to undermine the Central Welsh Board. From the point of view of the local authorities, it was a simpler way of establishing secondary schools than the system established by the 1889 Act. Edwards disliked the secondary schools' focus on rote learning, exams and lack of lessons in practical skills relevant to the local economy, though he was fighting against the grain of public opinion at the time. The growing numbers of working-class parents making sacrifices to get their children a secondary education wanted them to escape dangerous manual labour, not to be trained for it.
180:
schools in Wales were receiving public funds of which 893 were board schools, 687 were
Anglican schools and 51 were Nonconformist schools. 65% of school places were at board schools which were concentrated to a large extent in urbanised areas. Rural school boards also contributed to the expansion of education, although certain rural school boards were described as being of low standard, sectarian and inactive. At the time of the 1870 Education Act, many school buildings were of poor quality, lacking proper facilities and healthy conditions. The Education department pushed for improvements. Some boards with fewer resources employed local builders to design their new schools but most recruited professional architects. The appearance of schools was a point of pride for boards and varied by locality.
256:. Lower middle-class children (a new group to receive secondary education) along with the most gifted and determined working-class children would attend "second grade" intermediate schools which would take them up to the age of 16. Fees would therefore be kept relatively low for this group and some scholarships provided. Below them would be the "higher grade" or higher elementary schools. These were encouraged by the committee in industrial areas and established by school boards in 1880s. The witnesses spoken to by the committee were mainly middle class, the handful of working-class witnesses spoken to also expressed a strong desire for education but it was hard for middle-class people to imagine that many working-class children would be interested. The committee led to the
527:
647:
563:
significantly higher proportion than in
England, while the rest remained at elementary school until the age of fourteen. However high rates of early dropout from secondary school, which had already been a problem, continued in the difficult economic environment of the 1920s and especially the 1930s. Even though increasing numbers of secondary school places were now free, the additional costs of keeping a child in school as well as the loss of their potential wages meant that there was a strong temptation to leave at the age of fourteen. Very long travel times added to the appeal of this option. For instance, in 1922 it was reported that pupils in
277:
423:
64:
311:. While the schools had been intended primarily for the middle classes, in some areas as many as a third of pupils were of working-class backgrounds. For a long time the main curriculum of a majority of intermediate schools was English, Latin, mathematics, history, geography and French. They were also required to teach singing and marshal-style exercises. The practical and scientific side of the curriculum, though encouraged by the authorities, was largely neglected by schools. Most of the headmasters adopted an ethos for the schools resembling English public schools including
78:
291:
96:
114:
729:
37:. The range of the curriculum and variety of teaching methods expanded over time. Some efforts were made to add more of a Welsh emphasis into teaching; this included a limited introduction of the Welsh language into lessons. The minimum school-leaving age was increased to 14 in 1918. In the interwar period, some children transferred to secondary school at the age of around 11, but most remained at elementary school until the end of their schooling. The
523:. These schools were a new form of quasi-secondary school similar to the higher-grade schools of the late 19th century. Parents and some politicians were sceptical of them, seeing them as a poor substitute for other forms of education after elementary school. The Act also included various other proposals for reforming the education system which were not implemented.
131:
589:
of 116 in 1925. Around 40% of pupils in intermediate schools took exams in Welsh, in comparison to 67% in French, and Welsh would not have been a language of instruction. French was assessed as a second language while Welsh was assessed as a first language, which meant that French was an easier option for many students.
699:
this was due to scepticism towards formal education on the part of industrialists, a level of snobbishness towards vocational training among academics and a lack of financial support from the government. By 1908 there were more female students than male in
Aberystwyth. The women were kept separate from the men and
506:
had a fairly limited immediate impact on education in Wales. Some school buildings were requisitioned for military use and a shortage of male teachers had a particular effect on secondary schools. A suspension of new school buildings led to an increase in class sizes, especially in secondary schools,
482:
had to be neatly filled with carefully written words, evenly spaced and shaded properly on each down stroke. One blot or one imperfect letter would bring the rattan cane stinging down on laboring knuckles... As I look back now, kindergarten days were very pleasant. Welsh children usually began school
354:
The payment-by-results system ended in the middle of the 1890s. A feeling had developed in the education department that the inspectorate needed to return to its original role as a supportive advisor for schools rather than punitively judging their results. Historian
Russell Grigg writes that it took
698:
The colleges of the
University of Wales physically expanded in the early 20th century. While two of the colleges developed courses in agriculture funded by the state, the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire had less success developing technical subjects. Jones and Roderick wrote that
670:
was opened. The students, who were mainly aged 14 to 25, were often ill-prepared for university. This was especially true of those studying science. Jones and
Roderick argued that this reflected the mediocre nature of secondary education in Wales at the time. Some older men also came to study, these
588:
and was often taught as a subject up to the age of 11. It was sometimes also taught as a second language in elementary schools in
English-speaking areas. Meanwhile, the report also noted that the number of intermediate schools offering Welsh as a subject increased from 31 out of 79 in 1897 to 96 out
339:
Meanwhile the period saw a growth in evening classes teaching vocational subjects. While their progress had previously been slow and varied by the end of the 19th century these classes were becoming increasingly well regarded. Though they reached a lower proportion of the population than in
England,
192:, metalwork and woodwork. Topics such as needlework and cookery were added to the curriculum for girls. The perceived purpose of education for working-class girls was to prepare them to become domestic servants and later housewives; it was hoped they would become a moral influence on their husbands.
567:
County School's journey back and forth to school began at 5 am and ended at 7 pm. Various proposals were made throughout the interwar period for all children to transition from elementary school to secondary school at 11 or 12 years old. The idea of possibly raising the school leaving age was also
562:
Demand for secondary education continued to increase in the post-World War I period, and opportunities grew due to a fall in birth rates, even as the financial situation got worse. By 1931 19% of elementary school pupils in Wales transitioned to secondary school at the age of about 11 years old, a
391:
c. 42), which established the local education authorities, was deeply opposed by the
Nonconformists because it restructured school financing in a way that meant ratepayers would be paying directly for the upkeep of Anglican and Roman Catholic schools. In the heightened religious atmosphere of the
331:
was told in 1904 that 91 of 95 intermediate schools were classified as good or excellent. The Central Welsh Board was established in 1896 to inspect the intermediate schools but they were also visited by inspectors from other government bodies. Commenting on the legacy of the intermediate schools
195:
While the schools provided a basic education for almost all children they were not without their limitations. Classes were large, varied in age, ability and pupils were often from impoverished households. Resources of all kinds were lacking. Discipline was difficult to maintain and the cane often
179:
Some school boards were very active in expanding school provision. Many new schools were built by the boards over the thirty years after their introduction; the overall number of schools more than doubled. The boards also took over a large number of works and Nonconformist schools. In 1900, 1,709
719:
Studies were founded in 1922, expanding the publishing of research. While the colleges had working-class students, the economic conditions of the time prevented many of even the most academic young people from attending. In the 1938/39 academic year there were 663 students in Aberystwyth, 485 in
546:
Around the time of WWI the subjects listed on inspection reports as being taught at elementary schools included "English, Arithmetic, history and geography, music and drawing". Practical subjects might also be included, such as "needlework, laundry, handicraft, hygiene and school gardens". While
371:
and the cane was frequently used. Elementary schools were widely understood to be mainly institutions providing a fairly low level of education to those destined for lives of manual labour. Guidance for elementary schools in 1904 commented that they provided "training in followership rather than
576:
Reflecting an intensified sense of Welsh identity, attitudes among the authorities relating to the use of Welsh in schools began to soften towards the end of the 19th century. This was despite Wales increasingly becoming a predominantly English-speaking society, for reasons largely unrelated to
251:
The Aberdare Committee of 1881 emphasised the need for improved secondary education, especially for girls. The committee envisaged a four-tier system of secondary education. The social elite would continue to attend English public schools. The upper end of the middle classes would attend "first
592:
Even with some increase in the use of Welsh at schools, censuses suggest that Welsh speakers had become a minority in Wales at the start of the 20th century and continued to shrink as a proportion of the population. There was little prospect of a significant increase in the status of the Welsh
694:
was established as an overarching university for the colleges with the power to issue degrees. By 1900 the colleges were teaching a wide range of subjects relating to the arts and sciences. However they remained heavily reliant on the state and had less success with developing a technological
622:
which argued for the creation of a non-sectarian university. In 1854 a group of Welshmen of high status gathered to discuss the idea of a university organised on the model of the University of Ireland. In 1857 a scheme was established to create a university in Wales which quickly broke down.
183:
The elementary education system in Wales during this period closely resembled that of England. Both in what it taught and how it was administered. However, Welsh schools were often particularly enthusiastic about music, largely singing. The payment-by-results scheme encouraged an emphasis on
163:
run by locally elected officials to be established in areas where there were "insufficient places in efficient voluntary schools" to run additional schools. The boards were allowed but not required to make education compulsory, a power that was extended to other districts in 1876. Compulsory
777:
ideas in coal-mining areas. Its classes were initially far more popular than the Workers Educational Association. An intense rivalry developed between the two organisations in the interwar years when the Workers Educational Association gained government funding and increased its appeal to
551:, this had little practical effect on schools. The primary focus of education in Wales remained on pupils memorising information. Teaching practices did gradually improve during the first half of the 20th century and the curriculum became broader in subjects such as history, geography and
231:. They were designed to resemble villages with various amenities including a school. Over subsequent years, they became widespread across Wales and England—many continued to exist for much of the 20th century. A similar institution which existed in this time period was
396:, this led to a political crisis in Wales, with most local authorities refusing to apply the law. There was a prolonged struggle between the local authorities and the central government, which had a disruptive effect on schooling. It ultimately concluded after the
507:
where enrolment increased sharply in the later war years. The inspectorate believed that pupils had been unsettled by the war, but this was not reflected in exam results. The school inspectorate also underwent an erosion of its staff. The war coincided with the
372:
leadership training, suited to the working classes". These attitudes reflected traditional fears about the working classes being educated beyond their position in the world, along with prejudices that they had little capacity to benefit from education.
593:
language in the education system during the interwar period. The priority of Welsh-speaking parents was ensuring their children gained fluency in English to give them the best chance of gaining employment in a worsening economy. The youth organisation
411:, who supported introducing a curriculum more specific to Wales, and had some success in implementing it. His main impact was on Welsh language teaching, which is discussed elsewhere in this article. He also pushed for more teaching of Welsh history,
511:. The conflict did have a significant effect on the future of education, as it led to discussion of the effect of rival powers' education systems on their war efforts. In 1917 the Lewis Report by the Board of Education was released, resulting in the
748:
set up classes intended to encourage discussion of the social problems of the time. It was fairly moderate in its outlook, aiming to develop a sense of democratic citizenship in its students and arguing for a reconciliation between the interests of
196:
made use of. The newspapers frequently featured stories about teachers whose punishments were so severe that they ended up on trial for assault. Poor attendance was also a problem. Various factors contributed to this, including: outbreaks of
1745:
597:(Welsh League of Hope) was established in 1922 to develop an affection for the Welsh language and aspects of Welsh culture in young people. After five years the organisation had 5,000 members. In 1971, a Welsh individual living in
446:, a medical department was set up in the Board of Education, and local authorities were required to appoint school medical officers as well as conducting physical examinations of pupils. Maude Morgan Thomas, a
169:
2328:
332:
historians Gareth Elwyn Jones and Gordon Wynne Roderick wrote that, on the eve of World War I, young people in Wales were more likely to enter secondary school or university than anywhere else in
519:. c. 39) being passed. The Act increased the minimum school leaving age to fourteen. Other provisions included some financial changes which benefited the education system, and the creation of
1730:
671:
were frequently farmers who studied agriculture. Women were initially allowed to study music at the college, but this situation caused much annoyance among male academics and ended in 1878.
159:
c. 75) began the transition to compulsory education and a school system run directly by the state. However he also describes it as a compromise which only started that process. It required
2429:
493:
559:
were difficult for schools. While participation was starting to decline, chapels remained a significant source of informal religious and cultural education in both English and Welsh.
33:
A system of compulsory, free education for children aged five to twelve years was gradually established from 1870 to 1899. Access to secondary education was expanded following the
643:, dedicated himself to fundraising. He quickly collected £7,000 mainly in small donations from ordinary people across Wales. By 1874 the debt on the buildings had been repaid.
675:
2398:
173:
568:
suggested. However, none of these plans came to fruition, so the school system of 1939 was very similar in structure to its counterpart at the start of the 20th century.
227:
schemes were established in South Wales in the 1870s. These were orphanages which provided alternative accommodation for destitute children who would otherwise be in the
2376:
380:
674:
In 1880 the Aberdare Committee recommended the creation of two university colleges in North and South Wales funded by the government. This led to the creation of the
2403:
2366:
442:
passed various legislation intended to improve the welfare of schoolchildren, at a time when disease was a serious threat to them. Free school milk was offered,
462:. In the chapter on her schooling, she describes lessons in art, Welsh medieval history, needlework (for girls), domestic science (for older girls), optional
1832:
172:
c. 23). 10- to 13-year-olds could leave school once they had reached a certain level of academic performance. Attendance was made free in 1891, the minimum
2048:
2515:
2220:
690:
in 1883. The original university college gained its own grant in 1886. Initially the colleges were affiliated with the University of London. In 1893 the
555:, especially in larger elementary schools. Lessons in speaking became more common, and school trips were encouraged. Government funding cuts during the
878:
2361:
2235:
2193:
197:
2251:
526:
188:
and teaching to the test. Although the curriculum steadily expanded with payments available to schools for results in history, geography, science,
2287:
443:
2578:
2510:
769:. These students were known for their left-wing militancy contributing to the Ruskin College strike in 1909. The union then contributed to the
556:
328:
2485:
2444:
2145:
1800:
1673:
757:. This lack of radicalism was off-putting for much of the working classes but by 1924 the association had 4,000 students in 200 classes. The
601:
wrote in a letter to a local newspaper that they could remember being caned for speaking Welsh at school playtime as a child in around 1940.
312:
303:
By around 1900 there were 7,000 children in the intermediate schools including almost as many girls as boys. A plurality of the schools were
257:
204:
and, initially, fees that were difficult for many households to pay. The overall level of attendance in Wales was 75.6% in 1899. An agent of
34:
2123:
397:
355:"time, commitment and training" for teachers to adjust to the new system but that by the 1900s there was evidence of them moving away from
30:. Compulsory primary education was established early in the period; access to secondary and higher education was significantly expanded.
2439:
2225:
646:
623:
Afterwards there was little progress due to the need for government funding at a time when the government was focused on paying for the
2393:
1770:
1719:
1696:
160:
439:
708:
205:
762:
1825:
2557:
276:
640:
2480:
2475:
2356:
2342:
2095:
704:
165:
152:
120:
23:
2323:
2183:
422:
393:
63:
2383:
2128:
1818:
663:
651:
38:
816:
2454:
2434:
2161:
1741:
467:
1706:
Keane, Ann; Egen, David; Grigg, Russell; Roy, James; Morgen, Alun; Norris, Barry; Williams, Sian Rhiannon (2022).
2505:
2271:
2038:
1711:
1688:
1558:
712:
1550:
327:. A degree of overlap developed between the age groups catered for by these schools and elementary schools. The
2259:
615:
404:
324:
2552:
2459:
720:
Bangor, 970 in Cardiff, 488 in Swansea and 173 in the medical school. More than 90% had been born in Wales.
628:
508:
290:
483:
at a very early age, many of them as young as three years. So school days were play days for the beginners.
379:
system in which teenagers had been put to work from the age of 13 as trainee teachers, and the creation of
2264:
2133:
770:
77:
740:
There were also other means of gaining access to higher education in the early 20th century connected to
252:
grade" intermediate schools which would continue until the age of 18 or 19 and prepare the most able for
176:
to 11 in 1893 and 12 in 1899. Compulsory education was also extended to deaf and blind children in 1893.
95:
2307:
2073:
1896:
1873:
745:
636:
479:
304:
2230:
691:
408:
308:
42:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2200:
2043:
1878:
1841:
1792:
741:
700:
594:
547:
academic orthodoxy around teaching methods, especially for younger children, was changing by the
512:
474:
School days in Wales were rather more uncomfortable than happy for me. There were always so many
431:
412:
384:
265:
2083:
113:
2301:
2297:
2138:
2011:
1796:
1715:
1692:
1669:
1665:
683:
761:
was established with similar aims by Thomas Jones (see above) in 1927. Beginning in 1906 the
208:
told a parliamentary enquiry in 1902 that he believed between 40% and 50% of children in the
2540:
2535:
2188:
1779:
1708:
Watchdogs or Visionaries? Perspectives on the history of the education inspectorate in Wales
548:
497:
416:
261:
243:, which was designed to prepare adolescent boys from various backgrounds to become sailors.
189:
156:
27:
736:
which appeared in a 1910 design annual. The house was later adapted into the Coleg Harlech.
754:
687:
503:
447:
516:
2449:
2424:
2419:
2166:
1868:
766:
728:
552:
531:
520:
333:
320:
2572:
2176:
2171:
2031:
758:
655:
585:
539:
459:
451:
376:
364:
356:
349:
316:
236:
224:
185:
707:
was founded in 1920 and gained a reputation for science and technology. In 1922 the
307:, a large number catered for both sexes in a segregated manner while a small number
2547:
2118:
584:
found that Welsh was, in Welsh-speaking areas, the main language of instruction in
368:
240:
201:
703:. Universities were disrupted by World War I with many students volunteering. The
216:
time, magistrates were reluctant to convict and even local education officials in
41:
was founded in 1872; it was followed by several other university colleges and the
2026:
1997:
1978:
1944:
1761:
779:
667:
632:
624:
535:
164:
education was introduced for 5- to 10-year-olds across England and Wales by the
137:
130:
2060:
2021:
1963:
1958:
1906:
821:
750:
360:
2388:
2088:
1968:
1929:
1924:
598:
455:
228:
217:
209:
797:
Due to its intended audience the biography frequently uses American terms.
1992:
1934:
1901:
564:
388:
253:
102:
282:
Class photo at an intermediate school in St Davids by John Thomas (1899)
774:
733:
679:
427:
213:
69:
School originally opened as Albany Road Board School in Cardiff in 1886
1810:
1449:
1447:
475:
773:
which existed sporadically for the next twenty years and inculcated
444:
local authorities were given the option to provide free school meals
2292:
1022:
1020:
1018:
727:
716:
645:
525:
463:
421:
359:
to a wider curriculum and more varied teaching methods including "
84:
22:
covers the various types of education available in Wales from the
1422:
1420:
906:
904:
933:
931:
1814:
1383:
1381:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1073:
1071:
2329:
Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales
247:
Aberdare Committee, intermediate schools and evening classes
509:
introduction of compulsory education for disabled children
367:". Class sizes remained large, instruction was focused on
494:
History of the United Kingdom during the First World War
454:
intended for American children about her early years in
403:
In 1907 the Welsh department was established within the
1683:
Jones, Gareth Elwyn; Roderick, Gordon Wynne (2003).
2528:
2468:
2412:
2341:
2316:
2280:
2244:
2213:
2154:
2111:
2104:
2059:
2010:
1977:
1943:
1915:
1887:
1859:
1850:
676:
University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire
363:, local study, school museums and the creation of
1525:
1513:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1465:
1453:
1438:
1360:
1312:
1233:
1209:
1185:
1149:
1137:
1026:
910:
1769:Morgan Thomas, Maude (1936). "IV. School Days".
400:of a government that was more popular in Wales.
478:lashing about, so much writing and arithmetic.
119:Recreation of a Victorian-era classroom at the
20:history of education in Wales from 1870 to 1939
635:was bought that year for fundraising efforts.
1826:
1643:
1631:
1619:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1537:
1426:
1411:
1399:
1387:
1372:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1300:
1288:
1276:
1257:
1245:
1221:
1197:
1173:
1161:
1125:
1113:
1101:
1089:
1077:
1062:
1050:
1038:
973:
961:
949:
937:
922:
895:
375:Changes in the 1900s included the end of the
8:
1731:"Education, Literacy and the Reading Public"
1009:
997:
985:
2049:List of further education colleges in Wales
627:. By 1867 only £5,000 had been raised. The
151:According to historian W. B. Stephens, the
2516:Curriculum and Assessment (Wales) Act 2021
2349:
2313:
2108:
1856:
1833:
1819:
1811:
620:The Desirableness of a University of Wales
296:Girls Intermediate School, Aberdare (1913)
2404:National Curriculum for Wales (2008–2026)
841:
572:Growing acceptance of the Welsh language
258:Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889
808:
790:
2511:Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998
2486:Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889
1751:from the original on 5 November 2020.
1414:, pp. 126–127, 129–131, 133–134.
853:
105:girls' school by John Thomas (c.1885)
35:Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889
7:
1557:. 6 May 1971. p. 4 – via
1551:"CANED FOR SPEAKING WELSH AT SCHOOL"
448:Welsh immigrant to the United States
2252:Curriculum for Wales (2022–present)
2112:Funding and Governance arrangements
865:
54:Late Victorian elementary education
488:First World War and interwar years
470:. She commented on her experience:
14:
709:Welsh National School of Medicine
684:University College in North Wales
87:Boys School by John Thomas (1890)
746:Workers' Educational Association
289:
275:
174:school leaving age was increased
129:
112:
94:
76:
62:
2558:History of education in England
2288:Cabinet Secretary for Education
1789:Education in Britain, 1750—1914
817:"Carmarthenshire County Museum"
407:. The department was headed by
763:South Wales' Miners Federation
394:1904 to 1905 Christian revival
266:similar legislation in England
1:
2579:History of education in Wales
2481:Elementary Education Act 1880
2476:Elementary Education Act 1870
2399:Raising of school leaving age
2096:List of universities in Wales
1685:History of Education in Wales
765:established a scholarship to
705:University College of Swansea
166:Elementary Education Act 1880
153:Elementary Education Act 1870
141:
121:Carmarthenshire County Museum
24:Elementary Education Act 1870
2324:Curriculum Council for Wales
1660:Higginbotham, Peter (2014).
220:put their children to work.
2384:Treachery of the Blue Books
2129:Voluntary controlled school
664:University College of Wales
652:University College of Wales
582:Welsh in Education and Life
580:The 1927 government report
381:local education authorities
212:area were out of school at
39:University College of Wales
2595:
2455:Secondary technical school
2435:British and Foreign school
1772:When I Was A Girl In Wales
1742:Cambridge University Press
1662:The Workhouse Encyclopedia
491:
347:
2506:Education Reform Act 1988
2352:
2272:Teaching of Welsh history
2039:Further Education college
1712:University of Wales Press
1689:University of Wales Press
1644:Jones & Roderick 2003
1632:Jones & Roderick 2003
1620:Jones & Roderick 2003
1608:Jones & Roderick 2003
1596:Jones & Roderick 2003
1584:Jones & Roderick 2003
1572:Jones & Roderick 2003
1559:British Newspaper Archive
1538:Jones & Roderick 2003
1427:Jones & Roderick 2003
1412:Jones & Roderick 2003
1400:Jones & Roderick 2003
1388:Jones & Roderick 2003
1373:Jones & Roderick 2003
1349:Jones & Roderick 2003
1337:Jones & Roderick 2003
1325:Jones & Roderick 2003
1301:Jones & Roderick 2003
1277:Jones & Roderick 2003
1258:Jones & Roderick 2003
1246:Jones & Roderick 2003
1222:Jones & Roderick 2003
1198:Jones & Roderick 2003
1174:Jones & Roderick 2003
1162:Jones & Roderick 2003
1126:Jones & Roderick 2003
1114:Jones & Roderick 2003
1102:Jones & Roderick 2003
1090:Jones & Roderick 2003
1078:Jones & Roderick 2003
1063:Jones & Roderick 2003
1051:Jones & Roderick 2003
1039:Jones & Roderick 2003
974:Jones & Roderick 2003
962:Jones & Roderick 2003
950:Jones & Roderick 2003
938:Jones & Roderick 2003
923:Jones & Roderick 2003
896:Jones & Roderick 2003
732:Photograph of Wern Fawr,
713:University of Wales Press
610:Early university colleges
2256:Language of instruction
2214:Exams and qualifications
1787:Stephens, W. B. (1998).
1758:The Victorian Schoolroom
879:"The 1870 Education Act"
618:wrote a pamphlet called
616:Benjamin Thomas Williams
2553:Welsh Language Act 1993
2460:Secondary modern school
1555:Leicester Daily Mercury
438:Between 1906 and 1910,
200:, indifferent parents,
136:Neuaddlwyd School near
2134:Voluntary aided school
771:Central Labour College
737:
659:
543:
534:Church School after a
485:
435:
2070:Undergraduate Degree
1053:, pp. 82, 90–91.
731:
649:
529:
472:
466:lessons and frequent
425:
340:Scotland or Ireland.
336:other than Scotland.
45:was founded in 1893.
2413:Defunct school types
2308:Qualifications Wales
2194:Comprehensive school
2119:State-funded schools
2080:Postgraduate Degree
1756:May, Trevor (1994).
1738:Gale Primary Sources
1540:, pp. 117, 122.
650:Illustration of the
2231:Welsh Baccalaureate
2184:Secondary Education
1729:Lloyd, Amy (2007).
1646:, pp. 139–140.
1634:, pp. 135–139.
1402:, pp. 128–129.
1375:, pp. 116–117.
1327:, pp. 123–124.
1260:, pp. 120–121.
1224:, pp. 109–111.
1176:, pp. 101–102.
724:Political education
692:University of Wales
468:corporal punishment
268:by thirteen years.
43:University of Wales
2501:Education Act 1944
2496:Education Act 1918
2491:Education Act 1902
2201:All-through school
2044:Sixth form college
1985:Progression step 5
1951:Progression step 4
1917:Progression step 3
1889:Progression step 2
1861:Progression step 1
1843:Education in Wales
1793:Palgrave Macmillan
1441:, pp. 68, 84.
1289:Morgan Thomas 1936
844:, pp. 77, 79.
742:left-wing politics
738:
660:
595:Urdd Gobaith Cymru
544:
513:Education Act 1918
436:
432:Percy Benzie Abury
426:Schoolchildren in
405:Board of Education
385:Education Act 1902
317:sport on Saturdays
223:A number of early
198:childhood diseases
2566:
2565:
2524:
2523:
2469:Major legislation
2445:Elementary school
2337:
2336:
2209:
2208:
2162:Primary Education
2139:Foundation school
2074:Bachelor's Degree
2013:Further Education
2006:
2005:
1852:Progression steps
1802:978-0-333-60512-7
1780:Lee & Shepard
1760:. Great Britain:
1675:978-0-7509-5671-0
1666:The History Press
1622:, pp. 95–97.
1586:, pp. 86–87.
1526:Keane et al. 2022
1514:Keane et al. 2022
1502:Keane et al. 2022
1492:, pp. 88–89.
1490:Keane et al. 2022
1478:Keane et al. 2022
1468:, pp. 63–64.
1466:Keane et al. 2022
1456:, pp. 84–85.
1454:Keane et al. 2022
1439:Keane et al. 2022
1429:, pp. 84–85.
1361:Keane et al. 2022
1313:Keane et al. 2022
1291:, IV. Schooldays.
1236:, pp. 84–93.
1234:Keane et al. 2022
1212:, pp. 57–58.
1210:Keane et al. 2022
1188:, pp. 52–53.
1186:Keane et al. 2022
1152:, pp. 54–55.
1150:Keane et al. 2022
1138:Keane et al. 2022
1104:, pp. 93–95.
1065:, pp. 89–91.
1027:Keane et al. 2022
1010:Higginbotham 2014
998:Higginbotham 2014
986:Higginbotham 2014
940:, pp. 83–85.
925:, pp. 81–82.
911:Keane et al. 2022
711:was founded. The
264:c. 40) predating
262:52 & 53 Vict.
170:43 & 44 Vict.
157:33 & 34 Vict.
140:, Cardiganshire (
2586:
2541:Welsh Government
2536:Welsh devolution
2350:
2345:
2314:
2189:Secondary school
2124:Community school
2109:
2063:
2014:
1986:
1981:
1952:
1947:
1918:
1890:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1844:
1835:
1828:
1821:
1812:
1806:
1783:
1777:
1765:
1752:
1750:
1735:
1725:
1702:
1679:
1664:(2nd ed.).
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1117:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
926:
920:
914:
908:
899:
893:
887:
886:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
832:
830:
829:
813:
798:
795:
605:Higher education
557:Great Depression
538:photographed by
517:8 & 9 Geo. 5
498:Interwar Britain
398:election in 1906
329:House of Commons
293:
279:
190:domestic science
143:
133:
116:
98:
80:
66:
28:Second World War
2594:
2593:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2520:
2464:
2440:National school
2430:Endowed schools
2408:
2343:
2333:
2312:
2276:
2240:
2205:
2150:
2146:Private schools
2100:
2084:Master's Degree
2061:
2055:
2012:
2002:
1984:
1979:
1973:
1950:
1945:
1939:
1916:
1911:
1888:
1883:
1860:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1809:
1803:
1786:
1775:
1768:
1755:
1748:
1733:
1728:
1722:
1705:
1699:
1682:
1676:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1642:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1594:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1476:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1452:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1386:
1379:
1371:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1275:
1264:
1256:
1252:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1016:
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
972:
968:
960:
956:
948:
944:
936:
929:
921:
917:
909:
902:
894:
890:
877:
876:
872:
864:
860:
852:
848:
840:
836:
827:
825:
815:
814:
810:
806:
801:
796:
792:
788:
780:trade unionists
726:
612:
607:
574:
549:interwar period
521:central schools
504:First World War
500:
490:
352:
346:
301:
300:
299:
298:
297:
294:
285:
284:
283:
280:
249:
149:
148:
147:
146:
145:
134:
125:
124:
123:
117:
108:
107:
106:
101:Class photo at
99:
90:
89:
88:
83:Class photo at
81:
72:
71:
70:
67:
56:
51:
12:
11:
5:
2592:
2590:
2582:
2581:
2571:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2450:Central school
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2425:Charity school
2422:
2420:Grammar school
2416:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2353:
2347:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2320:
2318:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2260:English-medium
2254:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2167:Primary school
2158:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2115:
2113:
2106:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2067:
2065:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2018:
2016:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2003:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1987:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1921:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1815:
1808:
1807:
1801:
1784:
1766:
1753:
1726:
1721:978-1786839404
1720:
1703:
1698:978-0708318089
1697:
1680:
1674:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1636:
1624:
1612:
1600:
1588:
1576:
1564:
1542:
1530:
1518:
1506:
1494:
1482:
1470:
1458:
1443:
1431:
1416:
1404:
1392:
1390:, p. 131.
1377:
1365:
1353:
1351:, p. 129.
1341:
1339:, p. 126.
1329:
1317:
1305:
1303:, p. 124.
1293:
1281:
1279:, p. 114.
1262:
1250:
1248:, p. 118.
1238:
1226:
1214:
1202:
1200:, p. 115.
1190:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1128:, p. 144.
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1067:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1014:
1012:, p. 271.
1002:
990:
988:, p. 282.
978:
966:
954:
942:
927:
915:
900:
888:
870:
858:
846:
834:
807:
805:
802:
800:
799:
789:
787:
784:
767:Ruskin College
725:
722:
611:
608:
606:
603:
586:infant schools
573:
570:
553:nature studies
489:
486:
440:the government
365:school gardens
345:
342:
334:Western Europe
295:
288:
287:
286:
281:
274:
273:
272:
271:
270:
248:
245:
239:docked in the
135:
128:
127:
126:
118:
111:
110:
109:
100:
93:
92:
91:
82:
75:
74:
73:
68:
61:
60:
59:
58:
57:
55:
52:
50:
47:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2591:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2394:School boards
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2300:(among other
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2177:Junior school
2175:
2173:
2172:Infant school
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2058:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2032:Year Thirteen
2030:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2009:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1845:
1836:
1831:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1804:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1773:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1645:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1610:, p. 87.
1609:
1604:
1601:
1598:, p. 86.
1597:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1577:
1574:, p. 70.
1573:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1531:
1528:, p. 93.
1527:
1522:
1519:
1516:, p. 89.
1515:
1510:
1507:
1504:, p. 90.
1503:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1483:
1480:, p. 69.
1479:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1366:
1363:, p. 66.
1362:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1315:, p. 71.
1314:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1167:
1164:, p. 90.
1163:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1143:
1140:, p. 58.
1139:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1116:, p. 92.
1115:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1092:, p. 91.
1091:
1086:
1083:
1080:, p. 88.
1079:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1047:
1044:
1041:, p. 89.
1040:
1035:
1032:
1029:, p. 54.
1028:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1000:, p. 72.
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
976:, p. 81.
975:
970:
967:
964:, p. 83.
963:
958:
955:
952:, p. 99.
951:
946:
943:
939:
934:
932:
928:
924:
919:
916:
913:, p. 51.
912:
907:
905:
901:
898:, p. 80.
897:
892:
889:
884:
883:UK Parliament
880:
874:
871:
868:, p. 29.
867:
862:
859:
855:
850:
847:
843:
842:Stephens 1998
838:
835:
824:
823:
818:
812:
809:
803:
794:
791:
785:
783:
781:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
759:Coleg Harlech
756:
752:
747:
743:
735:
730:
723:
721:
718:
715:and Board of
714:
710:
706:
702:
696:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
669:
665:
657:
656:parish church
653:
648:
644:
642:
641:civil servant
638:
634:
630:
626:
621:
617:
609:
604:
602:
600:
596:
590:
587:
583:
578:
571:
569:
566:
560:
558:
554:
550:
541:
540:Geoff Charles
537:
533:
528:
524:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
499:
495:
487:
484:
481:
477:
471:
469:
465:
461:
460:Edwardian era
457:
453:
452:autobiography
449:
445:
441:
433:
429:
424:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
401:
399:
395:
390:
386:
382:
378:
377:pupil-teacher
373:
370:
366:
362:
358:
357:rote learning
351:
350:Edwardian era
344:Edwardian era
343:
341:
337:
335:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
292:
278:
269:
267:
263:
259:
255:
246:
244:
242:
238:
237:training ship
234:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
193:
191:
187:
186:rote learning
181:
177:
175:
171:
167:
162:
161:school boards
158:
154:
139:
132:
122:
115:
104:
97:
86:
79:
65:
53:
48:
46:
44:
40:
36:
31:
29:
25:
21:
16:
2548:Welsh Office
2371:
2265:Welsh-medium
1788:
1771:
1757:
1737:
1707:
1684:
1661:
1653:Bibliography
1639:
1627:
1615:
1603:
1591:
1579:
1567:
1554:
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1461:
1434:
1407:
1395:
1368:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1296:
1284:
1253:
1241:
1229:
1217:
1205:
1193:
1181:
1169:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1121:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1058:
1046:
1034:
1005:
993:
981:
969:
957:
945:
918:
891:
882:
873:
861:
849:
837:
826:. Retrieved
820:
811:
793:
739:
697:
695:curriculum.
673:
662:In 1872 the
661:
639:, a retired
629:Castle Hotel
619:
613:
591:
581:
579:
575:
561:
545:
536:rummage sale
501:
476:rattan canes
473:
437:
409:Owen Edwards
402:
374:
369:the three Rs
361:field visits
353:
338:
325:school clubs
302:
250:
241:Menai Strait
232:
225:cottage home
222:
202:child labour
194:
182:
178:
150:
32:
19:
17:
15:
2362:before 1701
2302:exam boards
2105:School type
2027:Year Twelve
1998:Year Eleven
1980:Key Stage 4
1946:Key Stage 3
1762:Shire Books
668:Aberystwyth
633:Aberystwyth
625:Crimean War
458:during the
450:, wrote an
138:Ffos-y-ffin
2377:after 1939
2062:University
2022:Sixth Form
1964:Year Eight
1959:Year Seven
1907:Year Three
854:Lloyd 2007
828:2023-11-22
822:VisitWales
804:References
701:chaperoned
654:next to a
492:See also:
480:Copy books
348:See also:
309:were mixed
305:single-sex
206:Lord Powis
26:until the
2389:Welsh Not
2372:1870–1939
2367:1701–1870
2281:Oversight
2155:Age group
2089:Doctorate
1969:Year Nine
1930:Year Five
1925:Year Four
1879:Reception
1874:Playgroup
637:Hugh Owen
599:Leicester
456:Pontypool
413:geography
229:Workhouse
218:mid-Wales
210:Welshpool
49:Schooling
2573:Category
2357:Overview
2317:Historic
2245:Pedagogy
1993:Year Ten
1935:Year Six
1902:Year Two
1897:Year One
1746:Archived
866:May 1994
614:In 1853
565:Barmouth
530:Boys of
389:2 Edw. 7
321:prefects
313:uniforms
254:Oxbridge
103:Aberdyfi
2529:Related
2344:History
2226:A-Level
1869:Nursery
775:Marxist
751:capital
734:Harlech
680:Cardiff
532:Newtown
428:Bleddfa
417:culture
214:harvest
1799:
1718:
1695:
1672:
755:labour
744:. The
717:Celtic
688:Bangor
658:(1868)
542:(1939)
434:(1911)
383:. The
2293:Estyn
1776:(PDF)
1749:(PDF)
1734:(PDF)
786:Notes
464:piano
144:1880)
85:Tywyn
2298:WJEC
2236:BTEC
2221:GCSE
1797:ISBN
1716:ISBN
1693:ISBN
1670:ISBN
753:and
682:and
502:The
496:and
415:and
323:and
235:, a
233:Clio
18:The
430:by
2575::
1795:.
1791:.
1778:.
1744:.
1740:.
1736:.
1714:.
1710:.
1691:.
1687:.
1668:.
1553:.
1446:^
1419:^
1380:^
1265:^
1070:^
1017:^
930:^
903:^
881:.
819:.
782:.
686:,
678:,
666:,
631:,
319:,
315:,
142:c.
2304:)
1983:/
1949:/
1834:e
1827:t
1820:v
1805:.
1782:.
1764:.
1724:.
1701:.
1678:.
1561:.
885:.
856:.
831:.
515:(
387:(
260:(
168:(
155:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
