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church catechism; to use morning and evening prayers in schools and to teach the prayers and graces for use at home." Writing was a more difficult skill and it was on the agenda: children were to be taught, "to write a plain and legible hand in an order fitting them for useful
Employments; with as much Arithmetic as shall be necessary to the same purpose." Teachers insisted upon proper conduct outside the school, as well as inside. The community welcomed the SPG plan--the leaders wanted well-behaved white youth who had employable skills. With the owners' consent, The SPG also opened schools for slaves in South Carolina, North Carolina, and Maryland in the South, as well as New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The bishop ruled that conversion to Christianity would not free a slave, and the owners considered the that better behaved slave children would be less trouble. Reports from South Carolina indicated that hundreds of slaves, including adults, were eager for instruction. The legislature passed a law that the missionaries clearly had to inform the slaves that conversion to Christianity would not free them. The SPG founded the e Charleston Negro School in a downtown building in 1742. It used well-trained ten year old slaves to teach the older people. The goal was to create a permanent Christian community in the slave quarters, characterized by literacy and piety. By 1743, 45 children were taught during the day and 15 adult slaves in the evening, upon completing their daily tasks. The school flourished until 1764 when two leaders died and London cut off funding. After that there was no formal schooling for blacks in the South until the Civil War.
256:
188:
Washington was a respected advisor to major philanthropies, such as the
Rockefeller, Rosenwald and Jeanes foundations, which provided funding for leading black schools and colleges. The Rosenwald Foundation provided matching funds for the construction of schools for rural black students in the South. Washington explained, "We need not only the industrial school, but the college and professional school as well, for a people so largely segregated, as we are. ... Our teachers, ministers, lawyers and doctors will prosper just in proportion as they have about them an intelligent and skillful producing class." Washington was a strong advocate of progressive reforms as advocated by Dewey, emphasizing scientific, industrial and agricultural education that produced a base for lifelong learning, and enabled careers for many black teachers, professionals, and upwardly mobile workers. He tried to adapt to the system and did not support political protests against the segregated
212:, the school board was reduced in size, eliminating the power of ward bosses. The members of the school board were elected at-large, reducing the influence of various interest groups. The power of the superintendent was increased. Centralized purchasing allowed for economies of scale, although it also added opportunities for censorship and suppression of dissent. Standards of hiring and tenure in teachers were made uniform. Architects designed school buildings in which the classrooms, offices, workshops and other facilities related together. Curricular innovations were introduced. The reforms were designed to produce a school system for white students according to the best practices of the day. Middle-class professionals instituted these reforms; they were equally antagonistic to the traditional business elites and to working-class elements.
221:
leaders in the communities pressed, often successfully, for reducing state and local taxes. Schools closed in some instances or shortened their academic year because districts could no longer bear the burden of teacher salaries and administrative costs. By the beginning of 1934, almost 20,000 schools nationwide had been closed down; the crisis was more acute in the South and the
Southwest. Black students, facing racism, poverty, and neglect, were severely impacted. In 1932, 230 southern counties had no high schools for Blacks. The Depression greatly transformed teachers' working conditions, and educators observed the deterioration of school programs they had spent years building. Unemployment was very high for youths, so many stayed in school.
302:
170:
294:
northern whites. Most were women but among
African Americans, male teachers slightly outnumbered female teachers. In the South, people were attracted to teaching because of the good salaries, at a time when the societies were disrupted and the economy was poor. Northern teachers were typically funded by northern organizations and were motivated by humanitarian goals to help the freedmen. As a group, only the black cohort showed a commitment to racial equality; they were also the ones most likely to continue as teachers.
82:, in his 12 years as state superintendent of schools in North Carolina overcame traditionalistic opposition and set up the modern system of public education in the region. He founded the state education association; helped set up teacher training institutions; imposed standards and examining boards for teachers; mandated annual teacher certification; coordinated county school units with school superintendents and boards; and advocated for universal education as a vehicle for ensuring the state's economic prosperity.
68:
Carolina opened a state-wide system of "free schools" where white children could learn reading, writing, and arithmetic at public expense. Other
Southern states imitated this system. Before the Civil War it became a primary mode of organizing what became known as basic "poor schools." In the early 19th century conditions remained poor; textbooks were seldom available; homework and exams were not used. Teachers had a year or two schooling beyond 8th grade. Many schools adopted the "
52:
hodgepodge of publicly funded projects. In the colony of
Georgia, at least ten grammar schools were in operation by 1770, many taught by ministers. The Bethesda Orphan House educated children. Dozens of private tutors and teachers advertised their service in newspapers. A study of women's signatures indicates a high degree of literacy in areas with schools. In South Carolina, scores of school projects were advertised in the
36:, created some basic schools early in the colonial period. In late 17th century Maryland, the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students. Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools. During the colonial years, some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling.
440:(1726?–1806), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, gave a one-year course in law at the College of William and Mary starting in 1779. He lectured and set up moot courts. His students included Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, James Monroe, and James Madison. He retired in 1790 and was replaced by
435:
In the 20th century training for professional careers in law, medicine, religion, business, and teaching typically involves attending specialized schools after finishing college. That development emerged slowly in the South. Virginia's
College of William & Mary hired the first law professors and
297:
When the
Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools. Almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart
289:
opened 1000 schools across the South for black children. This was essentially building on schools that had been established in numerous large contraband camps. Freedmen were eager for schooling for both adults and children, and the enrollments were high and enthusiastic. Overall, the Bureau spent $ 5
293:
Many Bureau teachers were well-educated Yankee women motivated by religion and abolitionism. W.E.B. DuBois wrote of the zealous spirit and success of what he referred to as "the crusade of the New
England schoolma'am." Half the teachers were southern whites; one-third were blacks, and one-sixth were
277:
was a Church of
England missionary society that sent workers to the colonies to educate the white children, and also to reach out to "heathens" such as the slaves. The teaching mission was to teach how to, "read the Holy Scriptures and other pious and useful books; to instruct them thoroughly in the
51:
In the deep south (Georgia and South Carolina), schooling was carried out primarily by private venture teachers, in "old field schools. These small schools were local, private subscription schools that often were built on exhausted farm fields. They usually operated for three months a year. and in a
386:
emphasized the importance of offering African Americans the opportunity to prove themselves equal to whites by succeeding in traditional, classically oriented B.A. degree programs. In 1900 relatively few black students were enrolled in college-level work because their schools were understaffed and
339:
Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided a small amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, and also subsidized the pay of some
232:
The movement of young women into teaching began in the Northeast—in Massachusetts 78% of the teachers were women in 1860. The South was laggard. In Virginia 34% of the white teachers were women in 1870, and 69% by 1900. Women were only 24% of the Black teachers in 1870, and 54% by 1900. Black men
89:
rebuilt the South's public school systems—establishing the first such schools in some places—and supported them with general taxes. For the first time, both whites and blacks would be educated at the expense of the state, but legislators agreed on racially segregated schools. (The few integrated
67:
After 1800 Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, and South Carolina started small public universities. Their reputations were poor and many wealthy families continued to send their sons North to college. In Georgia public county academies for white students became more common, and after 1811 South
220:
he Great Depression had a significant impact on education, schools, and teachers in the US South. The Depression caused a decline in school attendance due to budget crises of local school districts. The rise of unemployment and cuts in pay meant less tax revenue for schools, and many business
187:
in Alabama, but his advice, political support, and financial connections proved important to many other black colleges and high schools, which were primarily located in the South. This was the center of the black population until after the Great Migration of the first half of the 20th century.
101:
regained control of the state legislatures in former Confederate states, they consistently underfunded public schools for blacks. This continued until the 1940s. However many private schools for Blacks were funded by Northern philanthropy well into the 20th century. Support came from the
1753:
Carbaugh, James Christopher. "The philanthropic confluence of the General Education Board and the Jeanes, Slater, and Rosenwald Funds: African-American education in South Carolina, 1900-1930" (PhD dissertation, Clemson University, 1997;  ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,
879:
James Christopher Carbaugh, "The philanthropic confluence of the General Education Board and the Jeanes, Slater, and Rosenwald Funds: African-American education in South Carolina, 1900-1930" (PhD dissertation, Clemson University, 1997;  ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,
154:
After 1900, some cities began to establish high schools, primarily for middle class whites. In the 1930s roughly one fourth of the US population still lived and worked on farms and few rural Southerners of either race went beyond the 8th grade until after 1945.
423:, the leading Anglican minister in the colony, was president for 50 years. The college won the broad support of the Virginia planter class, most of whom were Anglicans. After the state capital moved to Richmond, the town and the college rapidly declined.
255:
58:
beginning in 1732. Although it is difficult to know how many ads yielded successful schools, many of the ventures advertised repeatedly over years, suggesting continuity. Generally, however, literacy rates were lower in the South than in New England.
418:
was founded by Virginia government in 1693, with 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of land for an endowment, and a penny tax on every pound of tobacco, together with an annual appropriation. It was closely associated with the established Anglican Church.
43:
sailed from Bristol for Virginia. He became a deputy in charge of 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school. The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when Thorpe was killed in the
340:
teachers. In 1900, Protestant churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $ 1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students. Prominent schools included
426:
William and Mary's charter included among its purposes the education of Indian children, so it created an Indian School, the main goal of which was to make the Indian students literate enough to become missionaries to their peoples.
48:. In Virginia, rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish. Most elite parents either home schooled their children using peripatetic tutors or sent them to small local private schools.
1798:
Jackson, Ramon M. “Leaders in the Making: Higher Education, Student Activism, and the Black Freedom Struggle in South Carolina, 1925-1975” (PhD dissertation, U of South Carolina); ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,
1757:
DAVIS, FLORENCE P. "THE EDUCATION OF SOUTHERN GIRLS FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE CLOSE OF THE ANTEBELLUM PERIOD" (PhD dissertation, The University of Chicago ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,
363:
program to include federal support for state-sponsored colleges across the South. It required states to identify colleges for black students as well as white ones in order to get land grant support. This second
19:
covers the institutions, ideas and leaders of schools and education in the Southern states from colonial times to about the year 2000. It covers all the states and the main gender, racial and ethnic groups.
1904:
290:
million to set up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 freedmen were enrolled as students in these schools. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the North.
1783:
1140:
406:
While the colleges and academies were generally coeducational, until the late 20th century, historians had taken little notice of the role of women as students and teachers.
1819:
Parker, Marjorie H. "The Educational Activities of the Freedmen's Bureau" (PhD dissertation, The University of Chicago; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  1951. T-01438).
1909:
298:
from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the public school systems but sharply cut their funding.
98:
1899:
890:
246:
183:
was the dominant black political and educational leader in the United States from the 1890s until his death in 1915. Washington not only led his own college,
552:
309:
192:
system. At the same time, Washington used his network to provide important funding to support numerous legal challenges by the NAACP against the systems of
146:
Generally public schooling in rural areas did not extend beyond the elementary grades for either whites or blacks. This was known as "eighth grade school".
1329:
Debra Reid, "People's Colleges for Other Citizens: Black Land-Grant Institutions and the Politics of Educational Expansion in the Post-Civil War Era," in
740:
Spady, James O'Neil (2011). "To Vie with One against Another: Race and Demand for Non-elite White Education in an Eighteenth-Century Colonial Society".
1739:
Butchart, Ronald E. & Amy F. Rolleri. "Secondary Education and Emancipation: Secondary Schools for Freed Slaves in the American South, 1862–1875,"
72:", whereby the only paid teacher taught a few of the older students and they in turn taught the younger ones, usually by everyone reciting in unison.
542:
193:
557:
1538:
1868:
Butchart, Ronald E. " 'Outthinking and outflanking the owners of the world': A historiography of the African American struggle for education."
1186:
990:
Generals, Donald (2000). "Booker T. Washington and Progressive Education: An Experimentalist Approach to Curriculum Development and Reform".
724:
537:
274:
242:
164:
1746:
Butchart, Ronald E. "Black hope, white power: emancipation, reconstruction and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US South, 1861–1880"
196:
which southern legislatures had passed at the turn of the century, effectively excluding blacks from politics for decades into the 1960s.
1730:
Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39)
1660:
America's historically Black colleges & universities: a narrative history from the nineteenth century into the twenty-first century
799:
282:
229:"Separate and unequal" was the typical status of education for Blacks and women, as well as poor whites, into the late 20th century.
1702:
1379:
1236:
1150:
974:
468:
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looked for ways to eliminate waste and corruption. They emphasized using experts in schools. For example, in the 1897 reform of the
40:
1106:
Shawn Comminey, "The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts and Black Education in South Carolina, 1702-1764"
490:
473:
250:
301:
321:
103:
1625:
1502:
1122:
C. E. Pierre, "The Work of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts Among the Negroes in the Colonies"
1875:
Hines, Michael, and Thomas Fallace. "Pedagogical progressivism and black education: A historiographical review, 1880–1957."
1561:
Link, William A. "Privies, progressivism, and public schools: health reform and education in the rural South, 1909-1920."
791:
Education and the Racial Dynamics of Settler Colonialism in Early America: Georgia and South Carolina, ca. 1700 - ca. 1820
368:
thus simultaneously provided increased higher educational opportunities for African Americans but encouraged segregation.
123:
415:
1670:
1576:
495:
387:
underfunded and the students needed remedial study. The alumni of Keithley became high school teachers. However, some
325:
138:
134:
1415:
1025:
Plank, David N.; Peterson, Paul E. (1983). "Does Urban Reform Imply Class Conflict? The Case Of Atlanta's Schools".
868:
You Need a Schoolhouse: Booker T. Washington, Julius Rosenwald, and the Building of Schools for the Segregated South
382:
in 1881. Washington championed industrial education for African Americans on the basis of its practicality, whereas
169:
525:
1546:
Schooling in the Antebellum South: The Rise of Public and Private Education in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama
137:
declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. See
904:
1844:
Sweat, Edward F. "Some Notes on the Role of Negroes in the Establishment of Public Schools in South Carolina."
1268:
547:
483:
233:
found that teaching was one of the few prestigious jobs available to them if they remained in the rural South.
1513:
1292:
127:
45:
1356:
Roman Law, Classical Education, and Limits on Classical Participation in America into the Twentieth-Century
510:
478:
420:
365:
107:
54:
1556:
1712:
1690:
Anderson, James D. "Northern foundations and the shaping of southern Black rural education, 1902–1935."
1483:
520:
500:
458:
1763:
The education of the southern belle: Higher education and student socialization in the antebellum South
1305:
463:
453:
375:
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in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states.
286:
180:
173:
645:
Tyler, Lyon Gardiner (1897). "Education in Colonial Virginia. Part II: Private Schools and Tutors".
414:
The South was very slow to develop colleges and universities compared to the North and Europe. The
1790:
Separate and unequal: Public school campaigns and racism in the southern seaboard states, 1901-1915
1082:
Separate and unequal: Public school campaigns and racism in the southern seaboard states, 1901-1915
205:
610:
Tyler, Lyon Gardiner (1897). "Education in Colonial Virginia. Part I: Poor Children and Orphans".
374:
was of national importance because it set the standards for what was called industrial education.
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757:
627:
583:
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400:
379:
371:
349:
209:
184:
86:
79:
1838:(1985), covers Chicago, Atlanta and San Francisco, with emphasis on race, class and ethnicity.
1773:
1165:
W.E. Burghardt DuBois, The Freedman's Bureau, Atlantic Monthly, vol.87 pp.354-355 (March 1901).
1804:
A hard country and a lonely place: Schooling, society, and reform in rural Virginia, 1870-1920
1633:
Shelter in a Time of Storm: How Black Colleges Fostered Generations of Leadership and Activism
1375:
1369:
1331:
Science as Service: Establishing and Reformulating American Land-Grant Universities, 1865-1930
1288:
1232:
1226:
1182:
1146:
970:
964:
795:
720:
441:
392:
353:
341:
305:
111:
1770:
A New Kind of Youth: Historically Black High Schools and Southern Student Activism, 1920–1975
1276:
1206:
Schooling the Freed People: Teaching, Learning, and the Struggle for Black Freedom, 1861–1876
1178:
Schooling the Freed People: Teaching, Learning, and the Struggle for Black Freedom, 1861–1876
1528:
1318:
Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890
1296:
1034:
999:
855:
Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890
749:
619:
532:
119:
69:
396:
345:
333:
329:
75:
316:
Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race.
1778:
Harlan, Louis R. "The Southern Education Board and the race issue in public education."
1601:
694:
Arthur, Linda L. (2000). "A New Look at Schooling and Literacy: The Colony of Georgia".
577:
1839:
1807:
1723:
1653:
1643:
1582:
Newman, Joseph W., “Antebellum School Reform in the Port Cities of the Deep South,” in
1410:
Marybeth Gasman, "Swept under the rug? A historiography of gender and Black colleges,"
505:
320:
in Kentucky was the main exception until state law in 1904 forced its segregation. The
33:
1812:
McCandless, Amy Thompson. "Progressivism and the higher education of Southern Women."
1793:
1893:
1861:
Boonshoft, Mark. "Histories of Nineteenth-Century Education and the Civil War Era."
1203:
1054:
761:
383:
317:
260:
1452:
Craig Evan Klafter, "St. George Tucker: The First Modern American Law Professor."
437:
1426:
Robert Polk Thomson, "The reform of the College of William and Mary, 1763-1780."
1176:
714:
115:
91:
29:
1371:
African American Culture and Heritage in Higher Education Research and Practice
716:
Industrious in Their Stations: Young People at Work in Urban America, 1720–1810
1396:
Classics and Counterpublics in Nineteenth-Century Historically Black Colleges,
360:
1822:
Parker, Marjorie H. "Some Educational Activities of the Freedmen's Bureau,"
1733:
1678:
Making Haste Slowly: The Troubled History of Higher Education in Mississippi
1640:
Historically Black colleges and universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos
1251:
Richard Allen Heckman and Betty Jean Hall. "Berea College and the Day Law."
753:
1480:
Universal Education in the South - Volume One: From the Beginning to 1900
776:
Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South
189:
1748:
Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education
1650:
Historically black colleges and universities : a reference handbook
1256:
308:
was founded in Washington, D.C., in 1867, making it one of a number of
1827:
1566:
1111:
1011:
631:
1849:
1591:
Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South
1584:
Southern Cities, Southern Schools: Public Education in the Urban South
1473:
1127:
1046:
926:
1468:
Best, John Hardin. "Education in the Forming of the American South."
1003:
921:
John Hardin Best, "Education in the Forming of the American South,"
789:
623:
176:, a leading figure in late 19th and early 20th century Black America
1720:
A history of Negro education in the South: From 1619 to the present
1586:
ed. by Plank, David N. and Ginsberg, Rick (Greenwood, 1990), 17–36.
1069:
Public Schools in Hard Times: The Great Depression and Recent Years
1038:
388:
300:
254:
168:
436:
trained many of the lawyers, politicians, and leading planters.
1228:
Reconstruction: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic
1525:
A Companion to the Literature and Culture of the American South
1882:
Urban, Wayne J. "History of education: A southern exposure."
1615:
Historically Black colleges and universities: an encyclopedia
1673:; separate articles on the major colleges and universities.
275:
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
1490:
Universal Education in the South - Volume Two: Since 1900
1743:(2004) 40:1-2, 157-181, DOI:10.1080/00309230310001649243
1271:(1901). Browne, Hugh; Kruse, Edwina; Walker, Thomas C.;
130:, which was massively funded by the Rockefeller family.
1709:
Negro Education in Alabama: A Study in Cotton and Steel
1635:(U of North Carolina Press, 2019). ISBN 9781469648330.
324:
supported the development and establishment of several
1905:
African-American history in the Southern United States
966:
Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee 1901–1915
647:
William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine
612:
William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine
403:—had standard B.A. programs with classical curricula.
1750:(2010), 46:1-2, 33-50, DOI:10.1080/00309230903528447
1622:
Intellectual life in Jefferson's Virginia, 1790-1830
1499:
Intellectual life in Jefferson's Virginia, 1790-1830
1441:
Indian Education in the American Colonies, 1607-1783
1667:
The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Education
1573:
The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Education
1181:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
1145:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
17:History of education in the Southern United States
1728:Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior.
1428:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
719:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
665:Women's Education in the United States, 1780-1840
598:Education of the Founding Fathers of the Republic
114:(also known as the Negro Rural School Fund); the
1596:Wilson, Charles R., and William R. Ferris, eds.
1492:(1936); a standard scholarly history; not online
378:, one of its graduates, founded the influential
1699:The education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935
1638:Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L., eds.
1277:"Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference"
1142:The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935
969:. Oxford University Press. pp. 174–201 .
247:Education of freed people during the Civil War
344:, a federal institution based in Washington;
204:In most American cities, Progressives in the
8:
1624:(U of Tennessee Press, 1964) pp. 27–69
1518:Freedom of Thought Struggle in the Old South
1501:(U of Tennessee Press, 1964) pp. 27–69
553:Historically black colleges and universities
310:historically black colleges and universities
1826:, Vol. 23#1 (Winter, 1954), pp. 9–21.
1253:Register of the Kentucky Historical Society
582:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p.
380:Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers
1910:History of education in the United States
1617:(Greenwood, 2011). . ISBN 978-0313394164.
1516:, before 1860; 2nd edition 1964 entitled
543:History of education in the United States
372:Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute
1836:The Politics of School Reform, 1870-1940
1589:Plank, David N. and Rick Ginsberg, eds.
1579:; comprehensive coverage in 135 articles
1342:
950:
1680:(University Press of Mississippi, 2004)
1662:(Mercer UP, 2015). ISBN 978-0881465341.
568:
558:School segregation in the United States
1523:Gray, Richard and Owen Robinson, eds.
870:(Northwestern University Press, 2015).
1900:History of the Southern United States
1412:American Educational Research Journal
1202:Krowl, Michelle A. (September 2011).
1084:(Univ of North Carolina Press, 1968).
905:"Farm Population Lowest Since 1850's"
538:History of the Southern United States
243:History of African-American education
165:History of African-American education
7:
1792:(U of North Carolina Press, 1968).
1701:(U of North Carolina Press, 2010).
1555:(`1922), a major scholarly survey.
1510:Freedom of Thought in the Old South
842:Encyclopedia of American Education,
816:Encyclopedia of American Education,
1613:Brooks, F. Erik; Starks, Glenn L.
1600:(U of North Carolina Press, 1989)
1535:A history of education in Virginia
1482:(U of North Carolina Press, 1936)
576:Bernard Christian Steiner (1894).
85:Republican governments during the
14:
1454:Journal of The Historical Society
1275:; Wheelock, Frederick D. (eds.).
1814:North Carolina Historical Review
1598:Encyclopedia of Southern culture
1204:"Review of Butchart, Ronald E.,
939:Universal Education in the South
579:History of education in Maryland
491:History of education in Missouri
474:History of education in Kentucky
312:established after the Civil War.
251:History of education in Missouri
713:Sundue, Sharon Braslaw (2009).
359:In 1890, Congress expanded the
322:American Missionary Association
104:American Missionary Association
1884:History of Education Quarterly
1877:Review of Educational Research
1870:History of Education Quarterly
1692:History of Education Quarterly
1470:History of Education Quarterly
1027:History of Education Quarterly
923:History of Education Quarterly
684:(William S. Powell ed., 2006).
682:Encyclopedia of North Carolina
263:, South Carolina photographed
1:
1553:Public education in the South
829:Public Education in the South
788:Spady., James O'Neil (2020).
416:College of William & Mary
264:
124:Southern Education Foundation
1863:Journal of the Civil War Era
1642:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
1175:Butchart, Ronald E. (2010).
696:Georgia Historical Quarterly
1780:Journal of Southern History
1563:Journal of Southern History
1139:Anderson, James D. (1988).
506:Education in South Carolina
496:Education in North Carolina
326:historically black colleges
140:Brown v. Board of Education
135:United States Supreme Court
1926:
1824:Journal of Negro Education
1548:(Louisiana State UP, 2016)
1401:vol.72, pp.137-139 (2009).
992:Journal of Negro Education
526:Education in West Virginia
240:
162:
78:(1819–1887), according to
1488:Dabney, Charles William.
1478:Dabney, Charles William.
1231:. ABC-CLIO. p. 172.
1110:(1999) 84#4 pp. 360-369.
963:Harlan, Louis R. (1983).
818:(2nd ed. 2001) 2:597-598.
281:In the early days of the
259:The Freedmen's School of
97:Particularly after white
1439:Margaret Connell Szasz,
1368:Freeman, Kassie (1998).
1269:Hampton Negro Conference
1225:Zuczek, Richard (2015).
1124:Journal of Negro History
1108:Journal of Negro History
548:Southern Education Board
484:Education in Mississippi
90:schools were located in
1551:Knight, Edgar Wallace.
1533:Heatwole, Cornelius J.
1293:Hampton Institute Press
1126:(1916) 1#4 pp. 349-360
925:36#1 (1996), pp. 39–51
200:Progressives in Atlanta
128:General Education Board
46:Indian Massacre of 1622
1848:22.2 (1961): 160-166.
1782:23.2 (1957): 189–202.
1718:Bullock, Henry Allen.
1665:Mohr, Clarence L. ed.
1620:Davis, Richard Beale.
1571:Mohr, Clarence L. ed.
1565:54.4 (1988): 623–642.
1497:Davis, Richard Beale.
1430:115.3 (1971): 187-213.
1414:44#4 (2007): 760–805.
844:(2nd ed. 2001) 3:1216.
742:Early American Studies
511:Education in Tennessee
479:Education in Louisiana
431:Professional education
366:Morrill Land-Grant Act
313:
270:
225:Race, class and gender
177:
108:Peabody Education Fund
55:South Carolina Gazette
24:Colonial South to 1800
1886:21.2 (1981): 131–145.
1879:93.3 (2023): 454-486.
1872:28.3 (1988): 333-366.
1865:12.2 (2022): 234-261.
1816:70.3 (1993): 302–325.
1741:Paedagogica Historica
1694:18.4 (1978): 371–396.
1212:H-SAWH, H-Net Reviews
754:10.1353/eam.2011.0028
521:Education in Virginia
501:Education in Oklahoma
459:Education in Arkansas
304:
258:
241:Further information:
172:
1722:(Harvard UP, 1967).
1648:Jackson, Cynthia L.
1472:36.1 (1996): 39–51.
1456:6.1 (2006): 133-150.
1255:66.1 (1968): 35–52.
1071:(Harvard UP, 2004).
774:Catherine Kerrison,
469:Education in Georgia
464:Education in Florida
454:Education in Alabama
376:Booker T. Washington
181:Booker T. Washington
174:Booker T. Washington
1761:Farnham, Christie.
1707:Bond, Horace Mann.
1697:Anderson, James D.
1685:Race, class, gender
1676:Sansing, David G.
1316:Joe M. Richardson,
1273:Moton, Robert Russa
1097:(1986), pp 57, 205.
1067:David Tyack et al.
866:Stephanie Deutsch,
853:Joe M. Richardson,
206:Efficiency Movement
70:Lancasterian system
1834:Peterson, Paul E.
1806:(UNC Press, 1986)
1765:(NYU Press, 1994).
1736:, a primary source
1715:, a famous classic
1631:Favors, Jelani M.
1537:(Macmillan, 1916)
1394:Susan C. Jarratt,
909:The New York Times
663:Margaret A. Nash,
516:Education in Texas
401:Atlanta University
350:Atlanta University
314:
283:Reconstruction era
271:
194:disenfranchisement
185:Tuskegee Institute
178:
87:Reconstruction era
80:Harlow Giles Unger
32:, centered on the
1802:Link, William A.
1799:2019. 27542910).
1788:Harlan, Louis R.
1658:Lovett, Bobby L.
1593:(Greenwood, 1990)
1354:Timothy Kearley,
1345:, pp. 33–78.
1301:2027/chi.14025704
1289:Hampton, Virginia
1188:978-0-8078-3420-6
1093:William A. Link,
1080:Louis R. Harlan,
827:Edgar W. Knight,
726:978-0-8139-2713-8
678:Old Field Schools
676:David A. Norris,
442:St. George Tucker
393:Howard University
354:Hampton Institute
342:Howard University
306:Howard University
287:Freedmen's Bureau
28:Residents of the
1917:
1608:Higher education
1508:Eaton, Clement.
1457:
1450:
1444:
1443:(1988) pp.74, 77
1437:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1408:
1402:
1399:College English,
1392:
1386:
1385:
1365:
1359:
1358:, (2022) p.113 .
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1327:
1321:
1314:
1308:
1304:
1281:Hampton Bulletin
1265:
1259:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1136:
1130:
1120:
1114:
1104:
1098:
1091:
1085:
1078:
1072:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1022:
1016:
1015:
987:
981:
980:
960:
954:
948:
942:
937:Charles Dabney,
935:
929:
919:
913:
912:
901:
895:
894:
887:
881:
877:
871:
864:
858:
851:
845:
838:
832:
825:
819:
812:
806:
805:
785:
779:
772:
766:
765:
737:
731:
730:
710:
704:
703:
691:
685:
674:
668:
661:
655:
654:
642:
636:
635:
607:
601:
596:James J. Walsh,
594:
588:
587:
573:
533:Antebellum South
410:Higher education
269:
266:
216:Great Depression
1925:
1924:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1890:
1889:
1858:
1758:1951. T-01353).
1687:
1610:
1544:Hyde, Sarah L.
1465:
1463:Further reading
1460:
1451:
1447:
1438:
1434:
1425:
1421:
1409:
1405:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1374:. p. 146.
1367:
1366:
1362:
1353:
1349:
1341:
1337:
1328:
1324:
1315:
1311:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1121:
1117:
1105:
1101:
1092:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1066:
1062:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1004:10.2307/2696233
989:
988:
984:
977:
962:
961:
957:
949:
945:
936:
932:
920:
916:
911:. 20 July 1988.
903:
902:
898:
889:
888:
884:
878:
874:
865:
861:
852:
848:
840:Harlow Unger,
839:
835:
826:
822:
813:
809:
802:
787:
786:
782:
778:, (2006) p.11 .
773:
769:
739:
738:
734:
727:
712:
711:
707:
693:
692:
688:
675:
671:
662:
658:
644:
643:
639:
624:10.2307/1914924
609:
608:
604:
595:
591:
575:
574:
570:
566:
450:
433:
412:
397:Fisk University
346:Fisk University
334:Shaw University
330:Fisk University
267:
253:
239:
227:
218:
210:Atlanta schools
202:
167:
161:
159:Black education
152:
76:Calvin H. Wiley
65:
39:In March 1620,
26:
12:
11:
5:
1923:
1921:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1880:
1873:
1866:
1857:
1856:Historiography
1854:
1853:
1852:
1842:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1817:
1810:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1776:
1766:
1759:
1755:
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1744:
1737:
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1716:
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1656:
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1636:
1629:
1618:
1609:
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1569:
1559:
1549:
1542:
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1506:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1476:
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1461:
1459:
1458:
1445:
1432:
1419:
1403:
1387:
1380:
1360:
1347:
1335:
1333:p. 144 (2015).
1322:
1309:
1260:
1244:
1237:
1217:
1194:
1187:
1167:
1158:
1151:
1131:
1115:
1099:
1095:A Hard Country
1086:
1073:
1060:
1039:10.2307/368157
1033:(2): 151–173.
1017:
998:(3): 215–234.
982:
975:
955:
943:
941:(2 vols. 1939)
930:
914:
896:
891:"Our Approach"
882:
872:
859:
846:
833:
831:(1922) p. 266.
820:
814:Harlow Unger,
807:
801:978-0367437169
800:
780:
767:
748:(3): 649–676.
732:
725:
705:
686:
669:
656:
637:
618:(4): 219–223.
602:
589:
567:
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466:
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456:
449:
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432:
429:
411:
408:
348:in Nashville,
238:
235:
226:
223:
217:
214:
201:
198:
163:Main article:
160:
157:
151:
148:
120:Rosenwald Fund
64:
61:
34:Chesapeake Bay
25:
22:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1922:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
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1895:
1885:
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1878:
1874:
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1821:
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1805:
1801:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1768:Hale, Jon N.
1767:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1725:
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1700:
1696:
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1688:
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1679:
1675:
1672:
1671:online review
1668:
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1381:9780275958442
1377:
1373:
1372:
1364:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:Anderson 1988
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951:Anderson 1988
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797:
794:. Routledge.
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702:(4): 563–588.
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434:
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116:Slater Fund
112:Jeanes Fund
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1894:Categories
1754:9833440.).
361:land-grant
328:, such as
285:, the new
126:; and the
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762:143582173
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99:Democrats
1828:in JSTOR
1711:(1939).
1527:(2004).
1474:in JSTOR
1257:in JSTOR
927:in JSTOR
857:(1986).
448:See also
190:Jim Crow
1774:summary
1772:(2022)
1732:(1917)
1669:(2011)
1652:(2003)
1575:(2011)
1512:(1940)
1320:(1986).
1306:Alt URL
1012:2696233
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1850:online
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1008:JSTOR
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680:, in
628:JSTOR
564:Notes
389:HBCUs
1376:ISBN
1233:ISBN
1183:ISBN
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796:ISBN
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332:and
273:The
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
