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24:
688:, director of research at BASF, doubted the utility of it. He did not believe that BASF wanted to engage in such a project. According to Bernthsen, no industrial device was capable of withstanding such high pressure and temperature for a long enough period to pay off the investment. In addition, it appeared to him that the catalytic potential of osmium could disappear with use, which required its regular replacement despite the metal being scarce on Earth.
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260:, and are essential to the nourishment of at least two billion people. Industrial facilities using the Haber process and its analogues have a significant ecological impact. Half of the nitrogen in the great quantities of synthetic fertilizers employed today is not assimilated by plants but finds its way into rivers and the atmosphere as volatile chemical compounds.
714:, and his father had installed a mechanical workshop at home where the young Carl had learned to handle different tools. He had been working for several years on nitrogen fixation, without having obtained any significant results. He knew that processes that used electric arc furnaces, such as the
484:
was founded 2 December 1905 to commercialize the new process. In 1911, the Norsk Hydro facility was consuming 50,000 kW, the next year, consumption doubled to 100,000 kW. By 1913, Norsk Hydro's facilities were producing 12,000 tonnes of nitrogen, about 5 percent of the volume extracted
406:
Issues of food security were particularly acute in
Germany. Its soil was poor and the country lacked an empire. A major consumer of Chilean saltpeter, Germany saltpeter imports totaled 350,000 tonnes in 1900. Twelve years later, it imported 900,000 tonnes. The United States was in much better
157:
and urine, well aware of the benefits of an intake of essential nutrients for plant growth. Although it was frowned upon, farmers took it upon themselves to fertilize their fields using natural means and remedies that had been passed down from generation to generation. The 1840s works of
460:
managed to synthesize ammonia from air. After obtaining a patent, he claimed it was possible to obtain better performance by increasing the pressure. When one of his assistants was killed following the accidental explosion of a device, Le
Chatelier decided to end his research.
438:
began in 1905. By 1918, there were 35 synthesis sites fixing 325,000 tonnes of nitrogen annually. However, the
Cyanamide process consumed large amounts of electrical power and was more labor-intensive than the Haber process. Today, cyanamide is used primarily as a herbicide.
308:
were exploited for their high quality guano deposits, which they exported to the United States, France and the United
Kingdom. The guano-boom increased economic activity in Peru considerably for a few decades until all 12.5 million tons of guano deposits were exhausted.
355:". Bolivian forces were quickly defeated by the Chileans. In 1881, Chile defeated Peru and seized control of nitrate exploitation in the Atacama Desert. Consumption of Chilean saltpeter for agriculture quickly grew and Chileans standard of living rose significantly.
718:, required huge amounts of electricity, making them economically nonviable outside Norway. To continue to grow, BASF had to find a more economical method of fixing. Bosch said, "I think it can work. I know exactly what the steel industry can do. We should risk it."
277:, claimed that England had "stolen" 3.5 million skeletons from Europe to obtain phosphorus for fertilizer. In Paris, as many as one million tons of horse dung was collected annually to fertilize city gardens. Throughout the nineteenth century,
268:
For several centuries, farmers knew that certain nutrients were essential for plant growth. In different parts of the world, farmers developed different methods of fertilizing the farmland. In China, human waste was scattered in rice fields.
582:
of air, to develop a new nitrogen fixation process. He had no precise information on the parameters to impose on the system, but at the conclusion of his research, he was able to establish that an effective ammonia production system must:
515:(The Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reactions), a book more concerned about the industrial application of chemistry than to its theoretical study. In it, Haber inserted the results of his study of the equilibrium equation of ammonia:
320:). At the time of the discovery of these deposits, the saltpeter had limited agricultural use. Then chemists successfully developed a process to purify the saltpeter in order to produce gunpowder. The saltpeter was also converted into
243:
In the early twenty-first century, the effectiveness of the Haber process (and its analogues) is such that these processes satisfy more than 99% of global demand for synthetic ammonia, a demand which exceeds 100 million tons annually.
68:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge (XXG).
1435:
In Fritz Haber's speech upon receiving his Nobel prize in chemistry, the texts mentions "catalysts" (plural), though it is more probable that the synthesis used only one catalyst at a time. (see Haber 1920, p. 337 for more
729:
to operate the Schönherr process. Carl Bosch, future head of industrialization of the process, reported that the key factor that prompted BASF to embark on this path was the improvement of the efficiency of the
54:
403:
and the cost of saltpeter rose constantly. To ensure food security for Europe's growing population, it was essential that a new economical and reliable method of obtaining ammonia be developed.
480:. The Birkeland–Eyde process requires a considerable amount of electricity, constraining possible site location; fortunately, Norway possessed several sites capable of meeting these needs.
703:, went to Haber's laboratory to determine whether BASF should engage in industrialization of the process. When Bernthsen learned that he needed devices capable of supporting at least 100
399:
In 1900, Chile, with its deposits of saltpeter, produced two-thirds of all fertilizer on the planet. However, these deposits rapidly diminished, the industry was dominated by an
574:, nitrogen fixation became Haber's first priority. A few years later, Haber used results published by Nernst on the chemical equilibrium of ammonia and his own familiarity with
707:(about 10 MPa), he exclaimed, "One hundred atmospheres! Just yesterday an autoclave at seven atmospheres exploded on us!" Before deciding, von Brunck asked for Bosch's advice.
358:
Technological developments in Europe brought an end to these days. In the twentieth century, the minerals from this region "contribute minimally to global nitrogen supply."
371:
2211:
2033:
1945:
Determinants in the
Evolution of the European Chemical Industry, 1900-1939: New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies (Chemists and Chemistry)
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1611:
Certain authors specify the mass of ammonia. One must simply perform the necessary conversion. For example, in Smil 2001, p. 81, the author mentions 80 g of NH
414:
In the years between 1890 and 1900, chemistry advanced on several fronts, and more scientists attempted to fix atmospheric nitrogen. In 1895, German chemists
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488:
Similar processes were developed at the time. Schönherr, an employee of BASF, worked on a nitrogen fixation process beginning in 1905. In 1919, Schönherr's
216:. During the interwar period, the lower cost of ammonia extraction from the virtually inexhaustible atmospheric reservoir contributed to the development of
178:. Scientists also already knew that nitrogen formed the dominant portion of the atmosphere, but manmade chemistry had yet to establish a means to fix it.
445:, considered one of the best German chemists of the early twentieth century, attempted to synthesize ammonia in 1900 using an invention. He interested
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In July 1909, BASF employees came to check on Haber's success again: the laboratory equipment fixed the nitrogen from the air, in the form of liquid
1963:
312:
Research was initiated to find alternative sources of fertilizer. The
Atacama Desert, at that time part of Peru, was home to significant amounts of
71:
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
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374:
in 1898, predicted that the demand for nitrogen compounds, either in the form of fertilizer or explosives, would exceed supply in the near future.
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gas. These results discouraged his further pursuit in this direction. However, in 1907, spurred by a scientific rivalry between Haber and
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The
Alchemy of Air: A Jewish Genius, a Doomed Tycoon, and the Scientific Discovery That Fed the World but Fueled the Rise of Hitler
381:
published in 1784, chemists knew ammonia to be a nitrogen compound. Early attempts to synthesize ammonia were performed in 1795 by
601:
operate at a high temperature (between 500 °C and 600 °C) to obtain the best efficiency in the presence of the catalyst;
725:, at a rate of about 250 milliliters every two hours. BASF decided to industrialize the process, although it was associated with
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by providing
Germany with the gunpowder and explosives necessary for the war effort even though it no longer had access to
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Content in this edit is translated from the existing French
Knowledge (XXG) article at ]; see its history for attribution.
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205:, developed the first industrial-scale application of the Haber process, sometimes called the Haber–Bosch process.
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Well before the start of the industrial revolution, farmers would fertilize the land in various ways, mainly using
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identified nitrogen as one of these important nutrients. The same chemical compound could already be converted to
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1417:. However, at the start of the 20th century, Haber ignored this principle. (See for example Haber 1920, p. 339).
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per hour, which gives 160 g for two hours. At 0 °C and 191.3 kPa, liquid ammonia has a density of 0.6386 g/cm.
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In March 1909, Haber demonstrated to his laboratory colleagues that he had finally found a process capable of
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In the literature on high-temperature chemical processes, the term "furnace" can replace "chemical reactor."
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642:, who designed the equipment necessary for the success of the process. Early in 1909, Haber discovered that
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392:. Its importance emerged later, and in the 1900s the industry modified their facilities to produce it from
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The
Development of the Chemical High Pressure Method During the Establishment of the New Ammonia Industry
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336:. As exports from this region increased, tensions between Peru and its neighbors increased as well.
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successfully fixed atmospheric nitrogen in a laboratory. This success had extremely attractive
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Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production
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To overcome the problems associated with high pressure, Haber called upon the talents of
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984:"Sir William Crookes Quotes - Dictionary of Science Quotations and Scientist Quotes"
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This was the maximum pressure Haber could obtain with his equipment. Travis 1993
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All these methods were quickly supplanted by the less-expensive Haber process.
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In modern chemical manuals, the authors explain Haber's choices by relying on
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Synthetic Nitrogen Products: A Practical Guide to the Products and Processes
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228:, the efforts to industrialize the Haber process benefited greatly from the
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1698:. Sciences humaines et sociales. Paris: La DĂ©couverte/Poche. p. 364.
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Jayant M. Modak, "Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis", Resonance, 2002.
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at the dawn of the twentieth century. The process allows the economical
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to convince him to talk to Haber. Von Brunck, along with Bernthsen and
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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is
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Verfahren zur synthetischen Darstellung von Ammoniak aus den Elementen
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atmospheric dinitrogen sufficient to consider its industrialization.
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could also act as a catalyst. Haber also obtained good results with
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434:, a chemical compound used as a fertilizer. Industrialization of the
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factories for the production of phosphorus and phosphate fertilizer.
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applications. In 1913, barely five years later, a research team from
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674:. Haber's team developed a system that recycles the heat produced.
670:. This heat can be used to heat the reagents before they enter the
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1571:. In 1907, he started an experimental site producing cyanide from
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2015:
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Hell's Cartel: IG Farben and the Making of Hitler's War Machine
1670:(2008). "Fritz Haber : un criminel de guerre récompensé".
142:, which in turn allows for the industrial synthesis of various
1873:
Lawrence, Stephen A. (2006). "An Introduction to the Amines".
868:
Weast, Robert C.; Astle, Melvin J.; Beyer, William H. (1983).
695:, a chemist and university professor, wrote to BASF President
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separate the ammonia from the other molecules by liquefaction,
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went to war over possession of Atacama Desert, the so-called "
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1044:(in French). Verona, Italy: Presses de la cité. p. 434.
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was employed at Norsk Hydro facilities. That same year, the
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BASF had requested a patent in Germany in 1908: see patent
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molecules react with each passage in the chemical reactor:
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Encyclopédie internationale des sciences et des techniques
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Encyclopédie internationale des sciences et des techniques
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In the 1870s, ammonia was an unwanted byproduct of making
385:. Several others were made during the nineteenth century.
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Pile of bison skulls Photo taken in the 1870s in the U.S.
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Industry and Ideology : IG Farben in the nazi era
1185:"Rich harvest, healthy environment. Calcium cyanamide"
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could serve as a catalyst. Later, he established that
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453:, a recently hired chemist, to validate the device.
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In the late nineteenth century, chemists, including
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1514:, requested October 13, 1908, approved June 8, 1911
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The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
1082:Bachand, Luc; Petit, Guy; Vanier, Philippe (1996).
684:While BASF took out a patent on the Haber process,
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that did not react into the chemical reactor again;
57:
a machine-translated version of the French article.
1993:Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy
1344:. New York: Interscience Publishers. p. 1305.
372:British Association for the Advancement of Science
98:{{Translated|fr|Histoire du procédé Haber-Bosch}}
1216:"Kristian Birkeland, prophète électromagnétique"
872:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. p. B-23.
562:, "small" amounts of ammonia were produced from
208:The industrial production of nitrogen prolonged
1854:. Vol. Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry.
1876:Amines. Synthesis, Properties and Applications
1355:
1353:
1351:
1154:(in French). Ellipses Marketing. p. 256.
587:operate at high pressure (on the order of 20 M
86:accompanying your translation by providing an
48:Click for important translation instructions.
35:expand this article with text translated from
2027:
1734:Considine, Glenn D.; Kulik, Peter H. (2002).
779:
777:
273:(1803 – 1873), German chemist and founder of
8:
666:. In the chemical equation shown above, the
1879:. Cambridge University Press. p. 384.
1275:"Mineral Wastes: The Chemists' Opportunity"
1086:(in French). Montreal: LIDEC. p. 315.
558:At 1000 °C in the presence of an iron
496:was used in Germany and the United States.
396:. Still, production could not meet demand.
236:access to the synthesized fuel produced by
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2012:
1846:Jones, K.; Bailar, J. C.; Emeléus, H. J.;
1767:The Synthesis of Ammonia From its Elements
1012:1918 Nobel Laureate. Fritz Haber 1868-1934
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843:
1789:. New York: Harmony Books. p. 336.
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1311:
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1939:Travis, Anthony S.; Schröter, Harm G.;
1646:Auger, Pierre; Grmek, Mirko D. (1969).
1040:Auger, Pierre; Grmek, Mirko D. (1969).
792:Hager 2008, pp. 38, 137–140 and 142–143
738:
598:to accelerate the synthesis of ammonia;
513:Thermodynamik technischer Gasreaktionen
468:, funded by engineer and industrialist
1740:Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia
1989:"Fritz Haber - a Conflicting Chemist"
870:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
759:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
476:which fixes atmospheric nitrogen as
1850:; Trotman-Dickenson, A. F. (1973).
1831:. Metropolitan Books. p. 496.
1563:Bosch had experience with metallic
1319:Intermediate Text Book of Chemistry
950:Kramer, Deborah A. (January 2003).
220:and provided support for worldwide
264:Nitrogen sources pre-Haber process
240:, thereby decreasing oil imports.
14:
1009:Laylin, James (30 October 1993).
710:The latter had already worked in
300:From the 1820s to the 1860s, the
126:begins with the invention of the
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248:and synthetic products, such as
22:
1858:: Pergamon Press. p. 547.
1533:, 1931 (accessed March 3, 2009)
2207:Medieval Islamic World alchemy
1943:; Morris, Peter J. T. (1998).
1273:Parsons, Chas. L. (Feb 1912).
618:withdraw ammonia continuously,
181:Then, in 1909, German chemist
96:You may also add the template
1:
668:direct reaction is exothermic
464:In 1905, Norwegian physicist
170:and powerful explosives like
1688:Bensaude-Vincent, Bernadette
1668:Bensaude-Vincent, Bernadette
324:, the precursor of powerful
124:history of the Haber process
1827:Jeffreys, Diarmuid (2008).
1250:(in French). Archived from
1224:(in French). Archived from
383:Georg Friedrich Hildebrandt
109:Knowledge (XXG):Translation
2420:
1810:Cambridge University Press
952:"Nitrogen (Fixed)—Ammonia"
634:recycle the heat produced.
60:Machine translation, like
2368:
1947:. Springer. p. 300.
1898:. Springer. p. 388.
1894:Maxwell, Gary R. (2004).
1848:Nyholm, Sir Ronald Sydney
1746:, inc. pp. 140–143.
1742:, Ninth Edition. Canada:
1316:Smith, Alexander (1919).
1150:Binoche, Jacques (2003).
37:the corresponding article
1415:Le Chatelier's principle
988:Today in Science History
858:Hager 2008, pp. xiii-xiv
507:In 1905, German chemist
2276:On specific discoveries
1987:Wisniak, Jaime (2002).
1965:Ullmann's Agrochemicals
1469:Haber 1920, pp. 333–335
1377:Haber 1920, pp. 336–337
1174:Hager 2008, pp. 137–143
1152:Histoire des États-Unis
1063:Haber 1920, pp. 328–329
901:Hager 2008, pp. 272–277
604:since about 5% of the N
576:high pressure chemistry
485:from coke at the time.
379:Claude Louis Berthollet
107:For more guidance, see
1545:Hager 2008, pp. 92–93.
1528:Carl Bosch - Biography
1395:Haber 1920, p. 337-338
1340:Faber, Eduard (1961).
1126:"Population of Europe"
960:U.S. Geological Survey
910:Smil 2001, pp. 177–198
810:Hager 2008, pp. 63–108
716:Birkeland–Eyde process
594:implement one or more
474:Birkeland–Eyde process
422:succeeded in reacting
377:Following the work by
297:
275:industrial agriculture
258:industrial agriculture
1804:Hayes, Peter (2001).
1744:John Wiley & Sons
1696:Histoire de la chimie
1584:Hager 2008, pp. 93–97
1386:Hager 2008, p. 81, 91
940:Hager 2008, pp. 38–43
919:Hager 2008, pp. 31–34
819:Smil 2001, pp. 83–107
295:
285:were brought back to
218:intensive agriculture
80:copyright attribution
2399:History of chemistry
2062:Physical chemistry (
2043:History of chemistry
1368:Smil 2001, pp. 68–74
1303:Smil 2001, pp. 54–55
1228:on 29 September 2011
1214:Witkowski, Nicolas.
1204:Wisniak 2002, p. 163
1072:Wisniak 2002, p. 161
801:Smil 2001, pp. 61-82
783:Jeffreys 2008, p. 51
407:position due to the
246:Nitrogen fertilizers
148:nitrogen fertilizers
2327:Scientific disputes
2109:Organic chemistry (
1972:-VCH. p. 932.
1291:10.1021/ie50038a013
1254:on 11 February 2009
1248:"Yara - Historique"
973:Hager 2008, pp. 3-4
697:Heinrich von Brunck
640:Robert Le Rossignol
370:, President of the
256:, are mainstays of
166:, the precursor of
2360:Women in chemistry
1962:Wiley-VCH (2007).
1812:(published 1971).
1692:Stengers, Isabelle
1660:Presses de la Cité
1633:Bosch 1931, p. 197
1554:Hager 2008, p. 93.
1445:Smil 2001, p.78-79
837:Hager 2008, p. 168
771:Smil 2001, p. xiii
466:Kristian Birkeland
458:Henry Le Chatelier
436:Frank-Caro process
298:
88:interlanguage link
2386:
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2344:Transfermium Wars
2287:Carbon nanotubes
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2212:Indian metallurgy
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2160:Applied chemistry
2129:Nuclear chemistry
1968:. United States:
1931:978-0-262-69313-4
1819:978-0-521-78638-6
1796:978-0-307-35178-4
1624:Hager 2008, p. 88
1602:Hager 2008, p. 99
1593:Hager 2008, p. 97
1487:Hager 2008, p. 91
1161:978-2-7298-1451-9
1115:Hager 2008, p. 52
892:Hager 2008, p. xi
755:Technology Review
432:calcium cyanamide
409:Guano Islands Act
271:Justus von Liebig
222:population growth
160:Justus von Liebig
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2083:Electrochemistry
2078:Molecular theory
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784:
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772:
769:
763:
762:
747:Schrock, Richard
743:
686:August Bernthsen
672:chemical reactor
553:
552:
551:
541:
540:
539:
529:
528:
527:
490:Badische process
472:, developed the
390:manufactured gas
254:ammonium nitrate
99:
93:
66:Google Translate
47:
44:(September 2011)
43:
26:
25:
18:
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2414:
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2409:
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2389:
2388:
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2382:
2364:
2348:
2339:Joule–von Mayer
2322:
2298:Electrophoresis
2267:
2251:
2216:
2202:Chinese alchemy
2195:Ancient history
2186:
2155:
2124:
2104:
2050:
2040:
1986:
1980:
1961:
1955:
1938:
1932:
1924:. p. 358.
1912:
1906:
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1887:
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607:
550:
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546:
545:
543:
538:
535:
534:
533:
531:
526:
523:
522:
521:
519:
505:
494:Pauling process
478:nitrogen oxides
443:Wilhelm Ostwald
424:calcium carbide
368:William Crookes
364:
362:A pressing need
302:Chincha Islands
281:bones from the
266:
230:Bergius process
138:in the form of
134:of atmospheric
116:
115:
114:
97:
91:
50:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
2417:
2415:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2391:
2390:
2384:
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2369:
2366:
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2362:
2356:
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2346:
2341:
2336:
2334:Element naming
2330:
2328:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2294:
2293:
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2269:
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2266:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2244:
2238:
2236:
2229:
2222:Periodic table
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2177:Nanotechnology
2174:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2093:Thermodynamics
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2069:
2067:
2056:
2052:
2051:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2031:
2024:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1999:(2): 153–173.
1984:
1979:978-3527316045
1978:
1959:
1954:978-0792348900
1953:
1941:Homburg, Ernst
1936:
1930:
1910:
1905:978-0306482250
1904:
1891:
1886:978-0521029728
1885:
1870:
1864:
1843:
1838:978-0805078138
1837:
1824:
1818:
1801:
1795:
1779:
1758:
1752:
1731:
1710:
1704:
1684:
1674:(423): 66–70.
1664:
1662:. p. 840.
1641:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1626:
1617:
1612:
1604:
1595:
1586:
1577:
1556:
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1535:
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1489:
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1471:
1462:
1447:
1438:
1428:
1419:
1406:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1347:
1342:Great Chemists
1329:
1305:
1296:
1265:
1239:
1206:
1197:
1176:
1167:
1160:
1142:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1092:
1074:
1065:
1056:
1047:
1032:
1025:
1001:
975:
966:
963:. p. 119.
942:
930:
921:
912:
903:
894:
885:
878:
860:
851:
839:
830:
821:
812:
803:
794:
785:
773:
764:
751:"Nitrogen Fix"
737:
735:
732:
636:
635:
632:
631:
630:
626:
622:
619:
616:
609:
605:
602:
599:
592:
572:Walther Nernst
556:
555:
548:
536:
524:
504:
503:A new approach
501:
363:
360:
330:nitroglycerine
318:sodium nitrate
265:
262:
176:nitroglycerine
118:
117:
113:
112:
105:
94:
72:
69:
58:
51:
32:
31:
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2416:
2405:
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2329:
2325:
2319:
2318:Haber process
2316:
2314:
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2301:
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2240:
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2223:
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2213:
2210:
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2199:
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2180:
2178:
2175:
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2170:
2168:
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2139:
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2127:
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2112:
2107:
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2096:
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2079:
2076:
2074:
2073:Atomic theory
2071:
2070:
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2057:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2032:
2030:
2025:
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2018:
2017:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1966:
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1956:
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1946:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1865:0-08-017275-X
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1783:Hager, Thomas
1780:
1777:. p. 15.
1776:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1753:0-471-33230-5
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:. p. 45.
1728:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1705:2-7071-3541-0
1701:
1697:
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1416:
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1127:
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1118:
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1109:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1093:2-7608-3587-1
1089:
1085:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1036:
1033:
1028:
1026:0-8412-2690-3
1022:
1018:
1014:
1013:
1005:
1002:
989:
985:
979:
976:
970:
967:
962:
961:
953:
946:
943:
937:
935:
931:
925:
922:
916:
913:
907:
904:
898:
895:
889:
886:
881:
879:0-8493-0464-4
875:
871:
864:
861:
855:
852:
846:
844:
840:
834:
831:
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822:
816:
813:
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798:
795:
789:
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756:
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748:
742:
739:
733:
731:
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724:
719:
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713:
708:
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702:
698:
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689:
687:
682:
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669:
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633:
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569:
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402:
397:
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384:
380:
375:
373:
369:
361:
359:
356:
354:
353:Saltpeter War
350:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
307:
303:
294:
290:
288:
284:
283:American West
280:
276:
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263:
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241:
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227:
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219:
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206:
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200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
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161:
156:
151:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
128:Haber process
125:
110:
106:
103:
95:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
70:
67:
63:
59:
56:
53:
52:
46:
40:
38:
33:You can help
29:
20:
19:
16:
2317:
2303:Gaseous fuel
2120:Biochemistry
2088:Spectroscopy
1996:
1992:
1964:
1944:
1917:
1914:Smil, Vaclav
1895:
1875:
1851:
1828:
1808:. New York:
1805:
1786:
1766:
1762:Haber, Fritz
1738:. Vol.
1735:
1718:
1695:
1672:La Recherche
1671:
1647:
1640:Bibliography
1629:
1620:
1607:
1598:
1589:
1580:
1559:
1550:
1519:
1511:
1501:
1492:
1483:
1474:
1465:
1450:
1441:
1431:
1422:
1409:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1373:
1364:
1341:
1318:
1299:
1282:
1278:
1268:
1256:. Retrieved
1252:the original
1242:
1230:. Retrieved
1226:the original
1221:La Recherche
1219:
1209:
1200:
1188:. Retrieved
1179:
1170:
1151:
1145:
1133:. Retrieved
1129:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1083:
1077:
1068:
1059:
1050:
1041:
1035:
1011:
1004:
992:. Retrieved
987:
978:
969:
958:
945:
924:
915:
906:
897:
888:
869:
863:
854:
833:
824:
815:
806:
797:
788:
767:
754:
749:(May 2006).
741:
720:
709:
690:
683:
676:
637:
621:inject the N
580:liquefaction
557:
512:
506:
498:
487:
463:
455:
449:, who asked
441:
420:Nikodem Caro
413:
405:
398:
387:
376:
365:
357:
338:
311:
299:
267:
242:
234:Nazi Germany
226:World War II
207:
195:agricultural
180:
152:
123:
121:
84:edit summary
75:
42:
34:
15:
2404:Fritz Haber
2235:By elements
1714:Bosch, Carl
1456:read online
1359:Travis 1993
727:Norsk Hydro
693:Carl Engler
509:Fritz Haber
482:Norsk Hydro
470:Samuel Eyde
416:Adolf Frank
322:nitric acid
232:, allowing
210:World War I
183:Fritz Haber
164:nitric acid
2393:Categories
1322:. p.
1285:(1): 127.
1084:Chimie 534
828:Bosch 1931
712:metallurgy
701:Carl Bosch
568:dihydrogen
564:dinitrogen
511:published
451:Carl Bosch
430:to obtain
428:dinitrogen
328:, such as
326:explosives
287:East Coast
203:Carl Bosch
191:industrial
144:explosives
136:dinitrogen
2313:Gunpowder
2263:Nonmetals
2167:Cosmetics
2055:By branch
2005:0019-5235
1922:MIT Press
1680:0029-5671
730:catalyst.
691:However,
660:manganese
596:catalysts
456:In 1901,
401:oligopoly
339:In 1879,
314:saltpeter
238:IG Farben
224:. During
201:, led by
168:gunpowder
102:talk page
39:in French
2378:Category
2308:Graphene
2291:timeline
2256:By class
2226:timeline
2182:Pharmacy
2111:timeline
2098:timeline
2064:timeline
2047:timeline
1916:(2001).
1856:New York
1852:Nitrogen
1785:(2008).
1764:(1920).
1716:(1931).
1694:(2001).
1436:details)
994:22 April
578:and the
560:catalyst
554:(g) - ΔH
542:(g) ⇌ 2
530:(g) + 3
334:dynamite
187:military
132:fixation
78:provide
2283:Battery
2151:Weapons
2136:Fission
1736:Ammonia
1569:nitride
1565:cyanide
1531:archive
1507:235 421
1459:archive
1258:4 March
1232:4 March
1190:18 July
1135:6 April
723:ammonia
664:calcium
648:uranium
341:Bolivia
140:ammonia
100:to the
82:in the
41:.
2141:Fusion
2003:
1976:
1951:
1928:
1902:
1883:
1862:
1835:
1816:
1793:
1750:
1702:
1678:
1652:Verona
1573:barium
1158:
1090:
1023:
990:. 2007
876:
679:fixing
656:nickel
644:osmium
347:, and
2353:Other
2146:Power
1970:Wiley
1771:(PDF)
1723:(PDF)
1656:Italy
955:(PDF)
734:Notes
625:and H
608:and H
426:with
345:Chile
279:bison
214:guano
155:feces
62:DeepL
2001:ISSN
1974:ISBN
1949:ISBN
1926:ISBN
1900:ISBN
1881:ISBN
1860:ISBN
1833:ISBN
1814:ISBN
1791:ISBN
1748:ISBN
1700:ISBN
1676:ISSN
1567:and
1260:2009
1234:2009
1192:2008
1156:ISBN
1137:2009
1088:ISBN
1021:ISBN
996:2009
874:ISBN
662:and
652:iron
566:and
447:BASF
418:and
394:coke
349:Peru
332:and
306:Peru
252:and
250:urea
199:BASF
193:and
174:and
146:and
122:The
76:must
74:You
55:View
1324:320
1287:doi
1017:118
705:atm
304:of
172:TNT
64:or
2395::
2247:Al
1997:37
1995:.
1991:.
1920:.
1690:;
1658::
1654:,
1650:.
1538:^
1526:,
1350:^
1332:^
1308:^
1281:.
1277:.
1218:.
1128:.
1019:.
986:.
957:.
933:^
842:^
776:^
757:.
753:.
658:,
654:,
591:);
589:Pa
544:NH
411:.
343:,
189:,
2242:F
2228:)
2224:(
2113:)
2066:)
2049:)
2045:(
2035:e
2028:t
2021:v
2007:.
1982:.
1957:.
1934:.
1908:.
1889:.
1868:.
1841:.
1822:.
1799:.
1756:.
1708:.
1682:.
1613:3
1575:.
1326:.
1293:.
1289::
1283:4
1262:.
1236:.
1194:.
1164:.
1139:.
1096:.
1029:.
998:.
882:.
761:.
627:2
623:2
610:2
606:2
549:3
537:2
532:H
525:2
520:N
316:(
111:.
104:.
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