History of the Quakers - Knowledge (XXG)

1446:, the Quaker settlement of Chester County, Pennsylvania—one of the early hubs of the Underground Railroad—was considered a "hotbed of abolition". However, not all Quakers were of the same opinion regarding the Underground Railroad: because slavery was still legal in many states, it was therefore illegal for anyone to help a slave escape and gain freedom. Many Quakers, who saw slaves as equals, felt it was proper to help free slaves and thought that it was unjust to keep someone as a slave; many Quakers would "lie" to slave hunters when asked if they were keeping slaves in their house, they would say "no" because in their mind there was no such thing as a slave. Other Quakers saw this as breaking the law and thereby disrupting the peace, both of which go against Quaker values thus breaking Quaker belief in being pacifistic. Furthermore, involvement with the law and the government was something from which the Quakers had tried to separate themselves. This divisiveness caused the formation of smaller, more independent branches of Quakers, who shared similar beliefs and views. 1208:. Daniel Wing and his brother Stephen Wing and others resisted an oppressive law in the town of Sandwhich which publicly punished men and women by whipping, for “meetings at private houses, for encouraging others in holding meetings, for entertaining the preachers and for the unworthy speeches”. By 1658, Daniel Wing, with others who acted with him, became active converts and there were 18 families who recorded their names in the documents of the society. Writers of 1658-1660 said “We have two strong places in this land, the one at Newport and the other at Sandwhich; almost the whole town of Sandwhich is adhering towards them” and the records of the Monthly Meetings of Friends show that the Sandwhich Monthly Meeting was the first established in America. 1365:, Vol. 28:309 there is text of a "minute made in 'that Quarterly Meeting held at Providence Meeting-house the first day of the Sixth month, 1715' ." It reads as follows "A weighty concern coming before the meeting concerning some Friends being yet in the practice of importing, buying and selling negroe slaves; after some time spent in a solid and serious consideration thereof, it is the unanimous sense and judgment of this meeting, that Friends be not concerned in the importing, buying or selling of any negro slaves that shall be imported in future; and that the same be laid before the next Yearly Meeting desiring their concurrence therein. Signed by order and on behalf of the Meeting, Caleb Pusey, Jno. Wright, Nico. Fairlamb, Jno. Blunsten" 1860:. Quakers were motivated by high ideals, played down the role of conversion to Christianity, and worked well side by side with the Indians. They had been highly organized and motivated by the anti-slavery crusade, and after the Civil War were poised to expand their energies to include both ex-slaves and the western tribes. They had Grant's ear and became the principal instruments for his peace policy. During 1869–85, they served as appointed agents on numerous reservations and superintendencies in a mission centered on moral uplift and manual training. Their ultimate goal of acculturating the Indians to American culture was not reached because of frontier land hunger and Congressional patronage politics. 1378:. Other Quakers who ministered against slavery were not so moderate. Benjamin Lay would minister passionately and personally and once sprayed fake blood on the congregation, a ministry which got him disowned. After initially finding agreement that they would buy no slaves off the boats, the entire society came to unity (spiritual consensus) on the issue in 1755, after which time no one could be a Quaker and own a slave. In 1790, one of the first documents received by the new Congress was an appeal by the Quakers (presented through Benjamin Franklin) to abolish slavery in the United States. 853:(Fox was absent, being in prison in Scarborough), gathered in London and issued a document that they styled "A Testimony of the Brethren". It set rules to maintain the good order that they wanted to see among adherents and excluded separatists from holding office and prohibited them from travelling lest they sow errors. Looking to the future, they announced that authority in the Society rested with them. By the end of the century, these leaders were almost all now dead but London's authority had been established; the influence of dissident groups had been mostly overcome. 1869:"liberalism", which meant primarily a religion that de-emphasized corporate statements of theology and was characterized by its emphasis on social action and pacifism. Hence when the two Philadelphia and New York Yearly Meetings, one Hicksite, one Orthodox, united in 1955—to be followed in the next decade by the two in Baltimore Yearly Meeting—they came together on the basis of a shared liberalism. As time wore on and the implication of this liberal change became more apparent, lines of division between various groups of Friends became more accentuated. 1217: 1736:

early Friends, they actively sought to bring not only Gurneyites, but Hicksites, who had split off during the 1820s over antislavery and theological issues, back to orthodox Quaker belief. Apart from theology there were social and psychological patterns revealed by the divisions. The main groups were the growth-minded Gurneyites, Orthodox Wilburites, and reformist Hicksites. Their differences increased after the Civil War (1861–65), leading to more splintering. The Gurneyites became more evangelical, embraced Methodist-like revivalism and the

1884:. A Friends Service Committee, as an agency of London Yearly Meeting, had already been created in Britain to help Quakers there deal with problems of military service; it continues today, after numerous name changes, as Quaker Peace & Social Witness. Envisioned as a service outlet for conscientious objectors that could draw support from across diverse yearly meetings, the AFSC began losing support from more evangelical Quakers as early as the 1920s and served to emphasize the differences between them, but prominent Friends such as 1968:

worldview. Periodical attempts to institutionally reorganize the disparate Religious Society of Friends into more theologically congenial organizations took place, but generally failed. By the beginning of the 21st century, Friends United Meeting, as the middle ground, was suffering from these efforts, but still remained in existence, even if it did not flourish. In its home base of yearly meetings in Indiana especially, it lost numerous churches and members, both to other denominations and to the evangelicals.

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defenses; finally they relinquished political power. They created a second "holy experiment" by extensive involvement in voluntary benevolent associations while remaining apart from government. Programs of civic activism included building schools, hospitals and asylums for the entire city. Their new tone was an admonishing moralism born from a feeling of crisis. Even more extensive philanthropy was possible because of the wealth of the Quaker merchants based in Philadelphia.

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prevent similar behaviour. This effort culminated in 1666 with the "Testimony from the Brethren", aimed at those who, in its own words, despised a rule "without which we ... cannot be kept holy and inviolable"; it continued the centralizing process that began with the Nayler affair and was aimed at isolating any separatists who still lurked in the Society. Fox also established women's meetings for discipline and gave them an important role in overseeing

727:, drew opposition from English clergy and laity. Fox wrote that "The professors were in a rage, all pleading for sin and imperfection, and could not endure to hear talk of perfection, or of a holy and sinless life." However, in the mid-1600s, many people became attracted to Fox's preaching and his followers became known as Friends. By 1660, the Quakers grew to 35,000. Well known early advocates of Quaker Christianity included 1117: 1797:"programmed meeting". Worship of the traditional, silent variety is called an "unprogrammed meeting", although there is some variation on how the unprogrammed meetings adhere strictly to the lack of programming. Some unprogrammed meetings may have also allocated a period of hymn-singing or other activity as part of the total period of worship, while others maintain the tradition of avoiding all planned activities. (See also 1932:

Baltimore, Southeastern and Canada) were also affiliated with Friends General Conference and over the decades became more theologically liberal and predominantly unprogrammed in worship style, the theological position of the majority of its constituent yearly meetings continues to be often similar in flavor to the Protestant Christian mainstream in Indiana and North Carolina. In 1960, a theological seminary,

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Hicks were tagged as "Hicksites", while Friends who opposed him were labeled "Orthodox". The latter had more adherents overall, but were plagued by subsequent splintering. The only division the Hicksites experienced was when a small group of upper-class and reform-minded Progressive Friends of Longwood, Pennsylvania, emerged in the 1840s; they maintained a precarious position for about a century.

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Philadelphia Quakers formed the Friendly Association for Regaining and Preserving Peace with the Indians by Pacific Measures. Its purpose was to fulfill the legacy of William Penn's "Holy Experiment", which included "preserving the Friendship of the Indians. The association provided funding for commissioners of Indian affairs helping the Quakers control Indian diplomacy and trade in Pennsylvania.

1393:. They asked the Quakers, "What thing in the world can be done worse towards us, than if men should rob or steal us away and sell us for slaves to strange countries". In that same year, a group of Quakers along with some German Mennonites met at the meeting house in Germantown, Pennsylvania, to discuss why they were distancing themselves from slavery. Four of them signed a document written by 1508: 534: 1374:

Most High. Such are the purity and certainty of his judgments, that he cannot be partial to our favor." In general Quakers opposed mistreatment of slaves and promoted the teaching of Christianity and reading to them. Woolman argued that the entire practice of buying, selling, and owning human beings was wrong in principle. Other Quakers started to agree and became very active in the

1892:), considering it infected with the kind of theological liberalism that Jones exemplified; Oregon Yearly Meeting withdrew in 1927. That same year, eleven evangelicals met in Cheyenne, Wyoming, to plan how to resist the influence of liberalism, but depression and war prevented another gathering for twenty years, until after the end of the second world war. 1191:, citing the Flushing town charter of 1645, which promised liberty of conscience. Stuyvesant arrested Hart and the other official who presented the document to him, and he jailed two other magistrates who had signed the petition, and also forced the other signatories to recant. But Quakers continued to meet in Flushing. Stuyvesant arrested a farmer, 886:. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Writers such as 774:", disillusioned soldiers, and restless common folk as potential Quakers. Confrontations with the established churches and its leaders and those who held power at the local level assured those who spoke for the new sect a ready hearing as they insisted that God could speak to average people, through his risen son, without the need to heed 41: 715:

see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give him all the glory. For all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief, as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence, who enlightens, and gives grace, faith, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let (hinder) it?

2201: 1195:, in 1662 for holding illegal meetings in his home and banished him from the colony; Bowne immediately went to Amsterdam to plead for the Quakers. Though the Dutch West India Company called Quakerism an "abominable religion", it nevertheless overruled Stuyvesant in 1663 and ordered him to "allow everyone to have his own belief". 1924:, and Conservative yearly meetings, involved both theological and more concrete social issues. FGC, founded in 1900 and centered primarily in the East, along the West coast, and in Canada, tended to be oriented toward the liberal end of the political spectrum, was mostly unprogrammed, and aligned itself closely with the 1740:, and became probably the leading force in American Quakerism. They formally endorsed such radical innovations as the pastoral system. Neither the Hicksites nor Wilburites experienced such numerical growth. The Hicksites became more liberal and declined in number, while the Wilburites remained both orthodox and divided. 1895:

To overcome such divisions, liberal Quakers organized so-called worldwide conferences of Quakers in 1920 in London and again in 1937 at Swarthmore and Haverford Colleges in Pennsylvania, but they were too liberal and too expensive for most evangelicals to attend. A more successful effort at unity was

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By 1756 only 10% of leaders of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves. Virginia was a bastion of slaveholding. In 1765, the Quaker minister John Griffith wrote that " the life of religion is almost lost where slaves are numerous..the practice being as contrary to the spirit of Christianity as light

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in the early 18th century changed things. Woolman was a farmer, retailer, and tailor from New Jersey who became convinced that slavery was wrong and published the widely read "John Woolman's Journal". He wrote: "...Slaves of this continent are oppressed, and their cries have reached the ears of the

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In Bowden’s History of the Society of Friends in America, it is mentioned that “two English Friends, named Christopher Holden and John Copeland came to Sandwhich on the 20th of the 6th month” of 1657 and there they found friends of toleration and resisters of an oppressive law in Daniel Wing, the son

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rulers because some considered Nayler (and not Fox, who was in jail at the time) to be the actual leader of the movement. Many historians see this event as a turning point in early Quaker history because many other leaders, especially Fox, made efforts to increase the authority of the group, so as to

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And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly, to help me, nor could tell what to do; then, O then, I heard a voice which said 'There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition.' When I heard it, my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me

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The Quakers have historically believed in equality for men and women. Two Quaker women are part of the history of science, specifically astronomy. Jocelyn Bell Burnell, from Northern Ireland, is credited with being a key part of research that later led to a Nobel Prize Physics. However, she was not a

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in the Manchester Meeting. The controversy arose in 1831 when doctrinal differences amongst the Friends culminated in the winter of 1836–1837 with the resignation of Isaac Crewdson and 48 fellow members of the Manchester Meeting. About 250 others left in various localities in England, including some

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of Rhode Island. Gurney, troubled by the example of the Hicksite separation, emphasized Scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit as primary, and worked to prevent the dilution of the Friends tradition

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joined the movement to abolish slavery, moving them to cooperate politically with non-Quakers in working against the institution. Somewhat as a result of their initial exclusion from abolitionist activities, they changed their focus to the right of women to vote and influence society. Thomas Garrett

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Most Quakers did not oppose owning slaves when they first came to America. To most Quakers, "slavery was perfectly acceptable provided that slave owners attended to the spiritual and material needs of those they enslaved". 70% of the leaders of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves in the period

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The Quakers did not want to provide military troops to defend frontier settlements. They passed a bill that gave themselves the authority to appoint commissioners to oversee provincial Indian agents, interpreters, traders, and the legal means to build their own trade posts. In April 1756, a group of

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who had sought sanctuary there. However, English Quakers encountered persecution no different from that they had hoped to leave behind. Eventually, however, Dutch converts to Quakerism were made, and with Amsterdam as a base, preaching tours began within the Netherlands and to neighboring states. In

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which reaffirmed that the holding of any secret meeting by those who did not pledge allegiance to the Crown was a crime. Despite these laws, Friends continued to meet openly. They believed that by doing so, they were testifying to the strength of their convictions and were willing to risk punishment

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was organized to form a neutral ground where all branches of the Society of Friends could come together, consider common problems, and get to know one another; it held triennial conferences that met in various parts of the world, but it had not found a way to involve very many grassroots Quakers in

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The Germantown (Pennsylvania) Monthly Meeting published its opposition to slavery in 1688, but abolitionism did not become universal among Quakers until the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting reached unity on the issue in 1754. Reaching unity (spiritual consensus) was a long and difficult process. William

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During this time, other people began to recognize Quakers for their integrity in social and economic matters. Many Quakers went into manufacturing or commerce. These Quaker businessmen were successful, in part, because people trusted them. The customers knew that Quakers felt a strong conviction to

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resulted in a division within five-yearly meetings, Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. Rural Friends, who had increasingly chafed under the control of urban leaders, sided with Hicks and naturally took a stand against strong discipline in doctrinal questions. Those who supported

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campaigned for more humane treatment of prisoners and for the abolition of the death penalty. They played a key role in forming the Association for the Improvement of the Female Prisoners in Newgate, which managed to better the living conditions of woman and children held at the prison. Their work

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A small breakaway group, the Religious Society of Free Quakers, originally called "The Religious Society of Friends, by some styled the Free Quakers", was established on February 20, 1781 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. More commonly known as Free Quakers, the Society was founded by Quakers who had

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illustrated the group's drift away from traditional Quaker practice, permitting its member churches to practice the outward ordinances of the Lord's Supper and baptism. On social issues its members exhibited strong antipathy toward homosexuality and enunciated opposition to abortion. At century's

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held onto only three small yearly meetings, in Ohio, Iowa, and North Carolina, with Friends from Ohio arguably the most traditional. In Britain and Europe, where institutional unity and almost universal unprogrammed worship style were maintained, these distinctions did not apply, nor did they in

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During the 20th century, Quakerism was marked by movements toward unity, but at the end of the century Quakers were more sharply divided than ever. By the time of the First World War, almost all Quakers in Britain and many in the United States found themselves committed to what came to be called

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Quakers found that theological disagreements over doctrine and evangelism had left them divided into the Gurneyites, who questioned the applicability of early Quaker writings to the modern world, and the conservative Wilburites. Wilburites not only held to the writings of Fox (1624–91) and other

1992:, a midwestern recorded minister, tried unsuccessfully to maintain it, but it ended in the late 1920s. All three sought to educate adults for the kind of lay leadership that the founders Society of Friends relied upon. Woodbrooke and Pendle Hill still maintain research libraries and resources. 1405:

to ban the importation of slaves into America as of December 1, 1775. Pennsylvania was the strongest anti-slavery state at the time, and with Franklin's help they led "The Pennsylvania Society for Promoting The Abolition of Slavery, The Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, and for

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in 1681, which he tried to make a "holy experiment" by a union of temporal and spiritual matters. Pennsylvania made guarantees of religious freedom, and kept them, attracting many Quakers and others. Quakers took political control but were bitterly split on the funding of military operations or

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were permitted to transport people and cargo by ship to English colonies without restriction and throughout the 18th century many Dutch Quakers emigrated to Pennsylvania. There were an estimated 500 Quaker families in Amsterdam in 1710 but by 1797 there were only seven Quakers left in the city.

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One of their most radical innovations was a more nearly equal role for women, as Taylor (2001) shows. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, Friends believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were allowed to take a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the

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The Society was rent by controversy in the 1660s and 1670s because of these tendencies. First, John Perrot, previously a respected minister and missionary, raised questions about whether men should uncover their heads when another Friend prayed in meeting. He also opposed a fixed schedule for

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By that time, the differences between Friends were quite clear, to each other if not always to outsiders. Theologically, a small minority of Friends among the "liberals" expressed discomfort with theistic understandings of the Divine, while more evangelical Friends adhered to a more biblical

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turned to subjects seen as more feminine in that period. Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral. The Quakers

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Rooted in the Midwest, especially Indiana, and North Carolina, FUM was historically more rural and small-town in its demographics. The Friends churches which formed part of this body were predominantly programmed and pastoral. Though a minority of its yearly meetings (New York, New England,

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Starting in the late 19th century, many American Gurneyite Quakers, led by Dougan Clark Jr., adopted the use of paid pastors, planned sermons, revivals, hymns and other elements of Protestant worship services. They left behind the old "plain style". This type of Quaker meeting is known as a

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to the Crown. Those refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown were not allowed to hold any secret meetings and, because Friends believed it was wrong to take any "superstitious" oath, their freedom of religious expression was certainly compromised by this law. The second was the

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was eleven, he wrote that God spoke to him about "keeping pure and being faithful to God and man." After being troubled when his friends asked him to drink alcohol with them at the age of nineteen, Fox spent the night in prayer and soon afterwards, he left his home to search for spiritual

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From 1755 to 1776, the Quakers worked at freeing slaves, and became the first Western organization to ban slaveholding. They also created societies to promote the emancipation of slaves. From the efforts of the Quakers, Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were able to convince the

2039:(OSE), helped in the rescue from Europe of mainly Jewish families of refugees, in their flight finally to America. But in some cases, only the children could escape—these mainly Jewish children fled unaccompanied, leaving their parents behind, generally to be murdered by the 836:, which served both to isolate the opposition and fuel discontent with the new departures. In the 1660s and 1670s Fox himself travelled the country setting up a more formal structure of monthly (local) and quarterly (regional) meetings, a structure that is still used today. 1182:

issued a harsh ordinance, punishable by fine and imprisonment, against anyone found guilty of harboring Quakers. Some sympathetic Dutch colonists were able to get him released. Almost immediately after the edict was released, Edward Hart, the town clerk in what is now

2023:. This allowed these children to escape the Holocaust. American Quakers played a major role in pressuring the British government to supply these visas. The Quakers chaperoned the Jewish children on the trains, and cared for many of them once they arrived in Britain. 2913:

Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the Reputed President of the Underground Railroad: Being a Brief History of the Labors of a Lifetime in Behalf of the Slave, with the Stories of Numerous Fugitives, who Gained Their Freedom Through His Instrumentality, and Many Other

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Quakers in Britain and the Eastern United States embarked on efforts in the field of adult education, creating three schools with term-long courses, week-end activities, and summer programs. Woodbrooke College began in 1903 at the former home of chocolate magnate

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of Spirit-led ministry. After privately criticizing Gurney in correspondence to sympathetic Friends, Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Probably the best known Orthodox Friend was the poet and abolitionist editor

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opened the Retreat at York in 1796. It was a place where the mentally ill were treated with the dignity that Friends believe is inherent in all human beings. Most asylums at that time forced such people into deplorable conditions and did nothing to help them.

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was a prominent Newcastle upon Tyne Quaker. His office at the centre of the shipyard was always open to his workers for whom he cared greatly and he was a founder of the Workers’ Benevolent Trust in the region, (a forerunner to the trades’ union movement).

2067:. The Quakers founded a cheese factory and a Friends' school, and in an attempt to protect the area's watershed, purchased much of the land that now makes up the Monteverde Reserve. The Quakers have played a major role in the development of the community. 849:, whose spokesmen John Story and John Wilkinson were both respected leaders, led a schism. They disagreed with the heightening influence of women and centralizing authority among Friends closer to London. In 1666, a group of about a dozen leaders, led by 1928:. By the last part of the century it had taken a strong position in favor of same-sex marriage, was supportive of gay rights, and usually favored a woman's right to choose an abortion. Its membership tended to be professional and middle class or higher. 1657:

In the early days of the Society of Friends, Quakers were not allowed to get an advanced education. Eventually some did get opportunities to go to university and beyond, which meant that more and more Quakers could enter the various fields of science.

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Penn himself owned slaves. Some Quaker businessmen had made their fortunes in Barbados or owned ships that worked the British/West Indies/American triangle. But gradually the reality of slavery took hold and the promotion by concerned members such as

827:, where they were tried. Parliament was sufficiently incensed by Nayler's heterodox views that they punished him savagely and sent him back to Bristol to jail indefinitely. This was especially bad for the movement's respectability in the eyes of the 1690:

was a pathologist who made major breakthroughs in the field of anatomy. He was the first doctor to describe the type of lymphoma named after him. An historian, he was also active in the movement to abolish slavery and to protect aboriginal people.

1960:, a small book that sought to move the Society of Friends to what he insisted was a strongly pro-Fox position of authentic Christianity, entirely separate from theological liberalism, churchly denominationalism, or rural isolation. He created the 1905:

its activities. One of its agencies, created during the Cold War and known as Right Sharing of World Resources, collects funds from Quakers in the "first world" to finance small self-help projects in the "Third World", including some supported by

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and thus gained their freedom. By 1792 states from Massachusetts to Virginia all had similar anti-slavery groups. From 1780 to 1804, slavery was largely abolished in all of New England, the Middle Atlantic states, and the North West territories.

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The Quakers were involved in many of the great reform movements of the first half of the 19th century. After the Civil War they won over President Grant to their ideals of a just policy toward the American Indians, and became deeply involved in

1759:, also known as holiness or sanctification, among Quakers and among various denominations. Their work inspired the formation of many new Christian groups. Hannah Smith was also involved in the movements for women's suffrage and for temperance. 3633: 1612:

published a pamphlet showing that slaves were "prize goods"—that is, products of piracy—and hence profiting from them violated Quaker principles; it was a short step from that position to reject use of all products made from slave labour, the

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This was especially true of proto-evangelical movements like the Quakers, organized as the Religious Society of Friends by George Fox in 1668 as a group of Christians who rejected clerical authority and taught that the Holy Spirit

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in 1651 and 1652, building a base there from which they moved south, first to London and then beyond. In the early days the groups remained scattered, but gradually they consolidated in the north—the first meeting being created in

1936:, was founded in FUM's heartland—Richmond, Indiana—to offer ministerial training and religious education. The seminary soon came to enroll significant numbers of unprogrammed Friends, as well as Friends from pastoral backgrounds. 3376:

Connerley, Jennifer. "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920." PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at

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Quakers were not apt to participate publicly in the arts. For many Quakers these things violated their commitment to simplicity and were thought too "worldly". Some Quakers, however, are noted today for their creative work.

1489:. After 1783, the number of Free Quakers began to dwindle as some members died and others were either accepted back into the Society of Friends or by other religious institutions. The movement had died out by the 1830s. 1572:, with new ones beginning. Friends also continued and increased their work in the areas of social justice and equality. They made other contributions as well in the fields of science, literature, art, law and politics. 965:

was passed. It allowed for freedom of conscience and prevented persecution by making it illegal to disturb anybody else from worship. Thus Quakers became tolerated though still not widely understood or accepted.

1909:. Beginning in 1955 and continuing for a decade, three of the yearly meetings divided by the Hicksite separation of 1827, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York, as well as Canadian Yearly Meeting, reunited. 1956:, a New Jersey printer by training, a theologian by vocation. Immersing himself in the corpus of early Quaker writings, he made himself an authority on George Fox and his message. In 1966, Benson published 1583:

owned a chocolate factory in York, England. When Henry died, Joseph took it over. He provided the workers with more benefits than most employers of his day. He also funded low-cost housing for the poor.

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struggled with conflicting ideals of patriotism for the new United States and their rejection of violence. Despite this dilemma, a significant number still participated in some form, and there were many

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At first Quakers were barred by law and their own convictions from being involved in the arena of law and politics. As time went on, a few Quakers in England and the United States did enter that arena.

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raised concerns about the prison system as a whole, so that they were a factor behind Parliament eventually passing legislation to improve conditions further and decrease the number of capital crimes.

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for the first time. Over and over he was thrown in prison during the 1650s through the 1670s. Other Quakers followed him to prison as well. The charge was causing a disturbance; at other times it was

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Charles II, 1662: An Act for preventing the Mischeifs and Dangers that may arise by certaine Persons called Quakers and others refusing to take lawfull Oaths, Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80

1984:, in the Philadelphia suburb of Wallingford, did not open until 1930. Earlier, beginning in 1915 and continuing for about a decade, the Woolman School had been created by Philadelphia Hicksites near 1159:

was thus executed in 1660. Three other martyrs to the Quaker faith in Massachusetts were William Robinson, Marmaduke Stephenson, and William Leddra. These events are described by Edward Burrough in

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For the most part, Friends in Britain were strongly evangelical in doctrine and escaped these major separations, though they corresponded only with the Orthodox and mostly ignored the Hicksites.

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The Friends had no ordained ministers and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. As a result, they did not open any colleges in the colonial period, and did not join in founding the

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was an editor and a poet in the United States. Among his works were some poems involving Quaker history and hymns expressing his Quaker theology. He also worked in the abolition movement.

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in London had her evicted. The Quaker presence disappeared from Dutch life by the early 1800s until reemerging in the 1920s, with Netherlands Yearly Meeting being established in 1931.

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In North America, Quakers, like other religious groups, were involved in the migration to the frontier. Initially this involved moves south from Pennsylvania and New Jersey along the

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At this time, Fox believed that he "found through faith in Jesus Christ the full assurance of salvation." Fox began to spread his evangelical Christian message and his emphasis on "

454: 1727:. He was an Associate Justice from 1862 to 1881. He strongly opposed slavery, moving out of the slave-holding state of Virginia to the free state of Ohio in his young adult years. 1568:

During the 19th century, Friends continued to influence the world around them. Many of the industrial concerns started by Friends in the previous century continued as detailed in

2003:, both from the Western evangelical wing, were elected to serve as presidents of the United States, thus achieving more secular political power than any Friend had enjoyed since 1981: 1457:

had an Underground Railroad stop at his house in Delaware and was found guilty in 1848 of helping a family of slaves escape. Garrett was also said to have helped and worked with

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meetings for worship. Soon this minor question broadened into an attack on the power of those at the centre. Later, during the 1670s, William Rogers of Bristol and a group from

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During the 19th century, Friends in the United States suffered a number of secessions, which resulted in the formation of different branches of the Religious Society of Friends.

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opened the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England in 1825. It was the first modern railway in the world, and carried coal from the mines to the seaports. Henry and

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stand as testaments to the expanding borders of American Quakerism. From Maryland and Virginia, Quakers moved to the Carolinas and Georgia. In later years, they moved to the

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set a fair price for goods and not to haggle over prices. They also knew that Quakers were committed to quality work, and that what they produced would be worth the price.

2820: 1108:(1885), all founded much later. The Friends did start the first elementary schools in Pennsylvania, Penn Charter (1689), Darby Friends School (1692) and Abington (1696). 895:

continued to meet openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in earlier years, women were treated as severely as men by the authorities.

1358:

John Blunston, Quaker pioneer founder of Darby Borough, Pennsylvania; and 12th Speaker of the PA Colonial Assembly; took part in an early action against slavery in 1715.

819:. While this was apparently an attempt to emphasize that the "Light of Christ" was in every person, most observers believed that he and his followers believed Nayler to 3625:'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext: 1418:). This encouraged George Washington to allow slaves to enlist as well, so that they all did not try to run away and fight on the Royalist side to get their freedom ( 1430:

The Southern states, however, were still very prominent in keeping slavery running. Because of this, an informal network of safe houses and escape routes—called the

661:

arose, calling for radical reforms of the medieval church. Parallels between the Lollards and Quakers and related groups have been drawn for a long time. During the

633:

recipient of the prize. Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) was the first internationally known woman to work as both a professional astronomer and a professor of astronomy.

1315:

Quakers were becoming more concerned about social issues and becoming more active in society at large. Slavery (considered below) was the most controversial issue.

3098:

Illick, Joseph E. (1971). "'Some of Our Best Friends Are Indians...': Quaker Attitudes and Actions Regarding the Western Indians during the Grant Administration".

1449:

However, there were many prominent Quakers who stuck to the belief that slavery was wrong, and were even arrested for helping the slaves out and breaking the law.

791:

in 1653—to provide financial support to the missionaries who had gone south and presently abroad. Before long they seemed a potential threat to the dignity of the

2333:

Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, eds: The Feminist Companion to Literature in English (London: Batsford, 1990), entry on Dorcas Dole, p. 302.

815:

on a horse in the pouring rain, accompanied by a handful of men and women saying "Holy, holy, holy" and strewing their garments on the ground, imitating Jesus's

677:'s disciples and subsequent movements is debated, Lollard ideas would lay inspiration in the religious soil of England; for example, Quakerism was strongest in 2032: 754:

that formed the Religious Society of Friends following 1647. This time of upheaval and social and political unrest called all institutions into question, so

1939:

EFI was staunchly evangelical and by the end of the century had more members converted through its missionary endeavors abroad than in the United States;

1346:

contained language specifically directed at Quaker citizens—in particular, the explicit allowance of "affirming", as opposed to "swearing" various oaths.

562: 1719:

was the son of Edward Pease mentioned above. He continued and expanded his father's business. In 1832 he became the first Quaker elected to Parliament.

1642:

was also an active abolitionist, helping thousands of escaped slaves migrate to Canada and opening a store for selling products made by former slaves.

4205: 1897: 1850: 301: 4220: 4200: 1901: 316: 296: 1767:

The Society in Ireland, and later, the United States suffered a number of schisms during the 19th century. In 1827–28, the views and popularity of

1529: 3084:

For an account of how British Friends (London Yearly Meeting) transformed from evangelical to liberal Christian thinking, see Thomas C. Kennedy,

1411: 3164: 1248:

In 1691 George Fox died. Thus the Quaker movement went into the 18th century without one of its most influential early leaders. Thanks to the

3719: 3642: 3392: 2211: 1442:. The Quakers were a very prominent force in the Underground Railroad, and their efforts helped free many slaves. Immediately north of the 1161:

A Declaration of the Sad and Great Persecution and Martyrdom of the People of God, called Quakers, in New-England, for the Worshipping of God

4059: 2318: 1888:

continued to offer it their public support. Many Quakers from Oregon, Ohio, and Kansas became alienated from the Five Years Meeting (later

173: 4230: 919: 321: 1829:

and brought influences of simplicity of worship to that society. Those notable among the Plymouthists who were former Quakers included

1155:, for example, had his ear cut off. A few were executed by the Puritan leaders, usually for ignoring and defying orders of banishment. 4175: 3626: 3378: 1925: 1873: 1336: 1148:. Their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned under terrible conditions, then deported. 271: 610:

in 1682, as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Quakers have been a significant part of the movements for the

4190: 3914: 3657: 3069: 2876: 2707: 2535: 2502: 2470: 1921: 1906: 1598: 1588:

founded another chocolate factory, which his sons George and Richard eventually took over. A third chocolate factory was founded by

1555: 1375: 1061:

who translated for them. His brother, Jacob Claus, had Quaker books translated and published in Dutch and he also produced a map of

1008: 286: 2740:. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. pp. 203–204. 1221: 3146: 2051:

Committee for "...their pioneering work in the international peace movement and compassionate effort to relieve human suffering."

4250: 3567: 1580: 1300: 951: 341: 3821: 618:, to promote equal rights for women, and peace. They have also promoted education and the humane treatment of prisoners and the 4235: 3701: 3346: 3315: 2036: 1683: 326: 3777: 3999: 3939: 3477: 1857: 1716: 1576: 1533: 1407: 1268: 994:

were seen by Quakers as a refuge from persecution in England and they perceived themselves to have affinities with the Dutch

555: 2799: 2342:

Taylor, Kay S. (2001). "The Role of Quaker Women in the Seventeenth Century, and the Experiences of the Wiltshire Friends."

1167:, who had been busy in Rhode Island and New Jersey, were imprisoned in Boston under Massachusetts law and publicly flogged. 1072:

The attraction of a life free from persecution in the New World led to a gradual Dutch Quaker migration. English Quakers in

1682:

was an astronomer who discovered a comet. She was also active in the abolition movement and the women's suffrage movement.

4435: 4139: 1785: 238: 2228: 4240: 2557: 2494:

British Travellers in Holland During the Stuart Period: Edward Browne and John Locke As Tourists in the United Provinces

622:, through the founding or reforming of various institutions. Quaker entrepreneurs played a central role in forging the 576: 331: 3886: 4369: 4348: 1724: 514: 425: 1518: 1964:, which blazed forth for a decade or so, but had about disappeared as an effective group by the end of the century. 1216: 1140:

began preaching in Boston. They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the

595:, as they were said "to tremble in the way of the Lord". The movement in its early days faced strong opposition and 4210: 2203:

Radical Religion in Cromwell's England: A Concise History from the English Civil War to the End of the Commonwealth

1933: 1917: 1439: 1343: 1292: 1089: 306: 1537: 1522: 3979: 3753:

Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art,"

1961: 1838: 1469:

by hiding slaves in their house for over 21 years. They claimed to have helped 3,000 slaves gain their freedom.

1415: 548: 108: 3136: 862:

emergence of radical civil war sects. Among many female Quaker writers and preachers of the 1650s to 1670s were

4302: 4297: 1977: 1659: 1394: 1145: 1133: 1022: 728: 397: 392: 208: 2019:, 10,000 European Jewish children were given temporary resident visas for the UK, in what became known as the 1940: 3181: 1175: 4394: 4281: 4134: 2460: 2233: 1790: 1700: 1232: 494: 374: 233: 3650:

The Light in Their Consciences: Faith, Practices, and Personalities in Early British Quakerism, (1646–1666)

2290:

The Light in Their Consciences: Faith, Practices, and Personalities in Early British Quakerism, (1646–1666)

4343: 4276: 4215: 4185: 4129: 1913: 1889: 1744: 1593: 1125: 962: 449: 369: 311: 281: 228: 73: 2674: 1900:, originating during World War II in Washington, D.C., as a pioneering Quaker lobbying unit. In 1958 the 795:

state. Even arresting its leaders failed to slow the movement, instead giving them a new audience in the

4409: 4379: 4271: 4180: 3907: 3871: 2816: 2608: 2059:

In 1951 a group of Quakers, objecting to the military conscription, emigrated from the United States to

2044: 1748: 1614: 1435: 1188: 975: 824: 623: 580: 519: 469: 364: 276: 3426:

Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature,"

3035:

The Hicksite Separation A Sociological Analysis of Religious Schism in Early Nineteenth Century America

1670:

and formulated an hypothesis about the perception of color. Young was also involved in translating the

1025:, who had a Dutch mother, visited the Netherlands in 1671 and saw, first hand, the persecution of the 4384: 4245: 4195: 4124: 4054: 1945: 1877: 1780:

In the early 1840s the Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between

1756: 1752: 1675: 1631: 1473:

was also a Quaker, and did a lot of antislavery work hand in hand with her work with women's rights.

1466: 1453:, a school teacher from Ohio, was arrested because he was found helping three slaves escape in 1848. 1431: 1402: 1004: 924: 816: 763: 724: 484: 436: 336: 291: 168: 1989: 1397:

that stated, "To bring men hither, or to rob and sell them against their will, we stand against."

1318:

Another issue that became a concern of Quakers was the treatment of the mentally ill. Tea merchant,

3959: 3161: 1327: 1304: 1296: 1259:

Some useful and popular products made by Quaker businesses at that time included iron and steel by

1249: 947: 891: 686: 662: 538: 83: 2958:

Hamm, Thomas D. (2004). "'New Light on Old Ways': Gurneyites, Wilburites, and the Early Friends".

2918: 2433: 1151:

Some Quakers in New England were only imprisoned or banished. A few were also whipped or branded.

1077:

Isabella Maria Gouda (1745–1832), a granddaughter of Jan Claus, took care of the meeting house on

602:

The Quakers, though few in numbers, have been influential in the history of reform. The colony of

4333: 4266: 4064: 4019: 3766: 3613: 3431: 3297: 3141: 3115: 2983: 2975: 2658: 2649: 1985: 1781: 1720: 1650: 1635: 1450: 1184: 1152: 1101: 666: 642: 499: 143: 2351: 2315: 2047:, actually numbering about 1400. Quakers were nominated five times, starting from 1912, by the 1461:, who was a very well-known slave who worked to help other slaves gain their freedom. Educator 1187:, gathered his fellow citizens on Dec. 27, 1657 and wrote a petition to Stuyvesant, called the 4312: 4307: 4225: 3715: 3653: 3638: 3388: 3065: 3002: 2872: 2703: 2531: 2498: 2492: 2466: 2347: 2207: 2048: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1737: 1667: 1589: 1331: 1264: 1105: 1093: 850: 407: 402: 123: 3059: 4109: 3944: 3900: 3868:

Reprints and on-line versions of classic Quaker works with links to works at other websites.

3758: 3556: 3107: 3014: 2967: 2653: 2525: 2016: 1638:

died in a Tennessee prison where he was incarcerated for trying to help some slaves escape.

1622: 1470: 1443: 1423: 1284: 1260: 1205: 1179: 875: 654: 218: 63: 22: 2374: 1952:

In the 1960s and later, these categories were challenged by a mostly self-educated Friend,

1482:

been expelled for failure to adhere to the Peace Testimony during the American Revolution.

1434:—developed across the United States to get enslaved people out of America and into Canada ( 599:, but it continued to expand across the British Isles and then in the Americas and Africa. 4399: 4364: 4170: 4144: 3954: 3931: 3781: 3705: 3571: 3481: 3350: 3319: 3168: 3150: 2322: 2277:

The Sorrows of the Quaker Jesus: James Nayler and the Puritan Crackdown on the Free Spirit

2076: 2020: 1711:

was a British photographer, whose catalogue ran to many thousands of topographical views.

1414:

announced that all slaves would be freed if they were willing to fight for Great Britain (

1386: 1097: 1066: 941: 915: 879: 788: 650: 646: 504: 359: 266: 78: 56: 40: 1617:

that won support among Friends and others but also proved divisive. Quaker women such as

1178:, preached to large crowds of people. He was arrested, imprisoned, and flogged. Governor 3835: 3826: 3546: 2944:

Arthur J. Mekeel, "Free Quaker Movement in New England During the American Revolution."

2911: 1662:

an English Quaker, did experiments with optics, contributing much to the wave theory of

1116: 4404: 4389: 4338: 4165: 4049: 3984: 3964: 3949: 3585:

A Virtuous Education of Youth: William Penn and the Founding of Philadelphia's Schools

3132: 1996: 1973: 1885: 1817: 1793:. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite–Gurneyite separations occurred. 1687: 1679: 1627: 1602: 1458: 1454: 1355:

from 1681 to 1705; however, from 1688 some Quakers began to speak out against slavery.

1129: 1082: 1034: 736: 732: 619: 509: 489: 444: 261: 163: 88: 68: 3592:

Conflict of Conviction: A Reappraisal of Quaker Involvement in the American Revolution

3564: 3551:

Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865,"

2260: 1872:

World War I at first produced an effort toward unity, embodied in the creation of the

1747:

after 1839 Friends began to be influenced by the revivals sweeping the United States.

1686:

promoted the use of sterile techniques in medicine, based on Pasteur's work on germs.

1608:

Quakers actively promoted equal rights during this century as well. As early as 1811,

4429: 4119: 4094: 4089: 4079: 4074: 4044: 4024: 4014: 4004: 2987: 2000: 1881: 1755:, Quakers from New Jersey, had a profound effect. They promoted the Wesleyan idea of 1708: 1671: 1646: 1618: 1419: 1342:

By the late 18th century, Quakers were sufficiently recognized and accepted that the

1171: 1078: 983: 979: 937: 914:

Two acts of Parliament made it particularly difficult for Friends. The first was the

871: 867: 863: 767: 744: 674: 474: 223: 198: 193: 183: 158: 138: 128: 3774: 3698: 3474: 3343: 3312: 4374: 4149: 4104: 4084: 4069: 4034: 3969: 3855:(1962, reprint 1992) – collection of essays by Fox, Penn, and other notable Quakers 3519: 3511:(1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800. 2420:

The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III 1660–1702

2099: 2004: 1953: 1704: 1585: 1390: 1370: 1319: 1228: 1164: 1062: 1018: 955: 883: 823:

Jesus Christ. The participants were arrested by the authorities and handed over to

808: 796: 759: 740: 611: 607: 603: 464: 243: 213: 188: 178: 148: 98: 93: 3634:

The Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry, 1775–1920

3578:

Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865.

2700:

Batchelder, Batcheller Genealogy, Descendants of Rev. Stephen Bachiller of England

3812: 3599:

Abraham Lincoln, the Quakers and the Civil War: "A Trial of Faith and Principle"

3536: 3244: 4039: 3974: 3829:

Minute Book of the Men's Meeting of the Society of Friends in Bristol, 1667-1686

3543:

A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919

1768: 1692: 1639: 1609: 1507: 1462: 1141: 995: 991: 887: 670: 596: 153: 103: 3838:

Minute Book of the Men's Meeting of the Society of Friends in Bristol 1686-1704

3616:: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775. 4114: 4099: 4029: 4009: 3994: 3989: 2362: 2064: 2060: 1949:

Latin America and Africa, where evangelical missionary activity predominated.

1570:

Milligan's Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry

1486: 1192: 1137: 1030: 1012: 999: 904: 846: 783: 755: 720: 702: 479: 203: 133: 118: 113: 45: 3019: 2637: 2305:, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press (2000) pp. 224–26. 1695:

formulated the atomic theory of matter, among other scientific achievements.

3452:(1988), looks at the effect of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction 2738:

At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700-1763

2031:

Before and during the Second World War, the Quakers, often working with the

1834: 1798: 1674:. He translated the demotic text and began the process of understanding the 1252:, people in Great Britain were no longer criminals simply by being Friends. 1156: 1073: 1058: 1054: 1046: 1042: 987: 908: 588: 533: 3881: 3421:

The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends

2777: 3606:

British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community.

3560: 2971: 3445:(2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history 1272: 1038: 833: 792: 690: 658: 3876: 3509:

A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America

3435: 3359:(1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain 3301: 3086:

British Quakerism 1860–1920: the transformation of a religious community

2979: 2303:

The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain, 1646–1666

1465:

and his wife Catherine were Quakers who lived in Indiana and helped the

3923: 3882:

Article by Bill Samuel on the Beginnings of Quakerism in quakerinfo.com

3712:

Imaginary Friends: Representing Quakers in American Culture, 1650–1950.

1851:

Cultural assimilation of Native Americans § Grant's "Peace Policy"

828: 812: 771: 751: 615: 584: 31: 3770: 3666:

Early Bristol Quakerism: The Society of Friends in the City, 1654-1700

3119: 2892: 2263:

Early Bristol Quakerism: The Society of Friends in the City, 1654-1700

3663: 3450:

The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907

3311:(1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies 1485:

Notable Free Quakers at the early meetings include Lydia Darragh and

775: 678: 3848:

edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 580 pp.

3409:(1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side 1132:. Other Quakers faced persecution in Puritan Massachusetts. In 1656 3762: 3111: 3502:

Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President

3219: 3185: 2040: 1707:

painted religious and historical paintings in the naive style and

1663: 1115: 1050: 1026: 779: 682: 3046: 2139:

Manual of Faith and Practice of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends

1666:. He also discovered how the lens in the eye works and described 1605:, refused to build war ships on account of his pacifist beliefs. 1326:

The Quakers' commitment to pacifism came under attack during the

782:, or engage in deceitful practices. They found fertile ground in 3668:(Bristol Historical Association pamphlets, no. 17, 1967), 22 pp. 2931:

William C. Kashatus, "The Quakers and the American Revolution."

1231:, a colonist to whom the king owed money, received ownership of 811:, went beyond the standard beliefs of Quakers when he rode into 689:

and its consequences sewed strife for radical factions like the

673:

reorganization of society. Whilst the extent of overlap between

3896: 3831:(Bristol Record Society Publications, Vol. XXVI, Bristol, 1971) 3003:"The Divergent Paths of Iowa Quakers in the Nineteenth Century" 2869:

Starbuck, Waldschmidt, & Huffman Family of Bangor, Michigan

2702:(1898 ed.). New Delhi, India: Isha Books. pp. 88–89. 3840:(Bristol Record Society Publications, Vol. XXX, Bristol, 1977) 1825:

prominent members. A number of these joined themselves to the

1501: 3528:

2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.

3495:

First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism

2249:

First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism

1976:

in Birmingham, England, and later became associated with the

1626:

led in the movement to abolish slavery, personally assisting

1124:

In 1657 some Quakers were able to find refuge to practice in

2527:

Geschiedenis van de Vroegere Quackergemeenschap te Amsterdam

2462:

William Penn and the Dutch Quaker Migration to Pennsylvania

1645:

Prison reform was another concern of Quakers at that time.

1385:

Two other early prominent Friends to denounce slavery were

3892: 3865: 3333:

Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920

2632:

Mullett, Michael (2004). "Curwen, Thomas (c. 1610–1680)",

2265:(Bristol Historical Association pamphlets, no. 17), p. 17. 1045:, he unsuccessfully tried to convert the similarly minded 3514:

Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless.

1812:

The Beaconite Controversy arose in England from the book

1422:). About five thousand African Americans served for the 685:

where Lollardy had previously taken root. The following

3743:(1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia. 2409:

Catholic Encyclopedia 1917, Entry on Society of Friends

2176: 2152: 1120:

Title page of book on Quaker persecution in New England

974:

Quakers first arrived in the Netherlands in 1655 when

3423:(1973), emphasis on social structure and family life. 2754:. New York: Hastings House, Publishers, 1963, p. 518. 2141:. Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. 2018. p. 2. 2679:(Volume 1 ed.). London: Richard Bartlet Printer 2027:

War Rescue Operations, and The One Thousand Children

1212:

William Penn and settlement in colonial Pennsylvania

4321: 4290: 4259: 4158: 3930: 3795:

The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation

1204:of John Wing and Deborah Bachiler, and grandson of 3366:(1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900. 3292:Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization," 2597:. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. 1170:In 1657 a group of Quakers from England landed in 1163:(1661). Around 1667, the English Quaker preachers 1037:and at Walta Castle, their religious community at 721:the necessity of an inward transformation of heart 645:had struggled religiously for centuries since the 3681:Portrait in Grey: A short history of the Quakers. 1912:Disagreements between the various Quaker groups, 950:, persecution practically ceased. James issued a 770:, as well as numerous others—targeted "scattered 2832: 2830: 2015:In 1938–1939, just prior to the outbreak of the 3287:Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers). 2821:Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America 712: 697:George Fox and the Religious Society of Friends 693:to arise that inspired the birth of Quakerism. 3061:Historical Dictionary of the Holiness Movement 1406:Improving the Condition of the African Race" ( 954:in 1687 and 1688, and it was widely held that 750:Quakerism pulled together groups of disparate 706:satisfaction, which lasted four years. In his 3908: 3674:Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726 3652:, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. 3488:Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation 3220:"History | Quakers and the Nobel Peace Prize" 3162:"Locations of FGC Conferences and Gatherings" 2844: 2842: 2435:The Rise of Quakerism in Amsterdam, 1655–1665 1630:to escape from slavery and to coordinate the 932:The ending of official persecution in England 556: 8: 2676:History of the Society of Friends in America 2559:Handbook of the Religious Society of Friends 2454: 2452: 2033:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 918:which made it illegal to refuse to take the 3819:The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography 3688:A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa. 3342:(1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955) 3205:Eve Nussbaum Soumerai and Carol D. Schulz, 2946:Bulletin of Friends' Historical Association 2229:"The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725" 2133: 1536:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1337:Quakers involved in the American Revolution 1287:. Historic meeting houses such as the 1759 1144:. They were imprisoned and banished by the 1112:Persecution and acceptance in the New World 3915: 3901: 3893: 3877:A Quaker Page at the Street Corner Society 3400:The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725. 3251:. Norwegian Nobel Institute. 6 August 2021 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 928:for doing what they believed to be right. 626:, especially in England and Pennsylvania. 563: 549: 17: 4206:Friends Committee on National Legislation 3846:Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott. 3018: 1898:Friends Committee on National Legislation 1556:Learn how and when to remove this message 1081:but when she stopped paying the rent the 1049:to Quakerism. They also journeyed on the 302:Friends Committee on National Legislation 4221:Friends World Committee for Consultation 4201:Evangelical Friends Church International 2917:. Robert Clarke & Company. pp. 2752:The Colonial House of Worship in America 2530:. Scheltema & Holkema. p. 326. 1902:Friends World Committee for Consultation 1215: 317:Friends World Committee for Consultation 297:Evangelical Friends Church International 4329:Businesses, organizations and charities 3385:The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction 3047:A Short History of Conservative Friends 2634:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 2087: 1271:. An early meeting house was set up in 29: 3809:The Journal and Essays of John Woolman 3457:Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997. 2824:Oxford University Press (1989) p. 601. 2765:Slavery in colonial America, 1619–1776 2621:Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia 2595:Early Quaker education in Pennsylvania 2237:: 129–139 – via Oxford Academic. 1995:During the 20th century, two Quakers, 1057:, accompanied by the Amsterdam Quaker 3414:William Penn: Politics and Conscience 3307:Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. 2793: 2791: 2096:Christian Scholar's Review, Volume 27 7: 3269:Mara Vorhees and Matthew Firestone, 3182:"Earlham School of Religion website" 1876:in 1917 by Orthodox Friends, led by 1723:was the only Quaker to serve on the 1534:adding citations to reliable sources 807:In 1656, a popular Quaker minister, 710:, at age 23, he recorded the words: 4231:Quaker Council for European Affairs 3627:ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 3379:ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 649:, grappling with doctrines such as 322:Quaker Council for European Affairs 4176:American Friends Service Committee 3464:Women's Activism and Social Change 2867:Huffman, Jeanette (15 July 2017). 2063:and settled in what was to become 1926:American Friends Service Committee 1874:American Friends Service Committee 1814:A Beacon to the Society of Friends 1029:Quakers. He returned in 1677 with 591:. Members are informally known as 272:American Friends Service Committee 14: 4191:Central Yearly Meeting of Friends 3471:Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. 3364:Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom 2698:Pierce, Frederic Clifton (2013). 1922:Evangelical Friends International 1907:Evangelical Friends International 1599:Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson 1330:, as many of those living in the 1092:. The major Quaker colleges were 1009:Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine 1003:1661, Ames and Caton visited the 723:", as well as the possibility of 287:Central Yearly Meeting of Friends 4251:World Gathering of Young Friends 3889:Post-Reformation Digital Library 3748:Quakers and the Atlantic Culture 3741:Meeting House and Counting House 3516:Quakers in the American Colonies 2724:Colonial Pennsylvania: A History 2581:How the Quakers invented America 2227:Davies, Adrian (February 2000). 2200:Bradstock, Andrew (2010-12-07). 2043:. Such children are part of the 1506: 1301:South River Friends Meetinghouse 532: 342:World Gathering of Young Friends 39: 4236:Quaker Peace and Social Witness 3064:. Scarecrow Press. p. 68. 2619:Baltzell, Edward Digby (1996). 2465:. Genealogical Publishing Com. 327:Quaker Peace and Social Witness 3788:The Quakers: Money and Morals. 3371:William Penn's Holy Experiment 3326:The Quakers in Puritan England 2778:"Quakers (Society of Friends)" 1864:Twentieth-century developments 1408:Pennsylvania Abolition Society 1289:Hopewell Friends Meeting House 1222:Penn's Treaty with the Indians 1: 3755:Journal of American Folklore, 3285:Abbott, Margery Post et al. 437:Richmond Declaration of Faith 4241:Quaker United Nations Office 3683:(Quaker Home Service, 1984). 3100:Western Historical Quarterly 2798:Moore Mueller, Anne (2008). 2767:AltaMira Press (2005) p. 14. 2654:"A Colony With a Conscience" 2497:. Brill. 1993. p. 203. 2459:Hull, William Isaac (1970). 2037:Œuvre de secours aux enfants 1592:in Bristol. The shipbuilder 1275:, Shropshire by the Darbys. 1005:County Palatine of the Rhine 577:Religious Society of Friends 332:Quaker United Nations Office 3686:Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak. 3526:Later Periods of Quakerism, 3340:The Beginnings of Quakerism 3296:, 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43. 3245:"1947 Nobel Peace Laureate" 3033:Doherty, Robert W. (1967). 2524:Kannegieter, J. Z. (1972). 1725:United States Supreme Court 1498:Quaker influence on society 587:in the mid-17th century in 4452: 4211:Friends General Conference 3729:(Richmond, Indiana: 1987). 3637:, Sessions of York, 2007. 3357:Second Period of Quakerism 3207:A voice from the Holocaust 3137:Mid-America Yearly Meeting 3058:Kostlevy, William (2009). 2893:"THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD" 2722:Illick, Joseph E. (1976). 2638:Retrieved 17 November 2015 2261:Mortimer, Russell (1967). 1934:Earlham School of Religion 1918:Friends General Conference 1848: 1344:United States Constitution 1293:Frederick County, Virginia 1090:University of Pennsylvania 935: 758:and his leading disciples— 307:Friends General Conference 3887:Early Modern Quaker Texts 3872:Quaker Information Center 3734:The People Called Quakers 2897:Indiana Historical Bureau 2804:web.tricolib.brynmawr.edu 2432:Hull, William I. (1938). 2379:. 1819. pp. 350, 351 2363:George Fox's Imprisonment 2206:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 1962:New Foundation Fellowship 1839:Robert Mackenzie Beverley 1575:In the realm of industry 1412:Virginia's royal governor 1199:Sandwhich and Daniel Wing 952:Declaration of Indulgence 905:George Fox was imprisoned 840:Other early controversies 256:Meetings and other groups 3844:Mott, Lucretia Coffin. 3827:Mortimer, Russell, ed., 3695:The History of Quakerism 3518:(1911), history to 1775 3355:Braithwaite, William C. 3338:Braithwaite, William C. 3020:10.17077/0003-4827.10564 3001:Hamm, Thomas D. (2002). 2857:(Marietta 1991, 894–896) 2609:Rhode Island (Est. 1636) 2316:Retrieved 20 March 2012. 2288:Moore, Rosemary (2000). 2247:Ingle, H. Larry (1996). 1978:University of Birmingham 1941:Southwest Friends Church 1395:Francis Daniel Pastorius 1350:The abolition of slavery 1146:Massachusetts Bay Colony 1065:, the capital of Penn's 1021:, the Quaker founder of 455:Businesses and charities 48:, founder of the Quakers 4246:Szechwan Yearly Meeting 4135:John Greenleaf Whittier 3836:Mortimer, Russell, ed. 3621:LeShana, James David. 3533:The Story of George Fox 3443:The Quakers in America. 3407:The Hicksite Separation 3149:March 10, 2005, at the 2750:Harold Wickliffe Rose. 2562:. 1952. pp. 38, 40 2234:Oxford University Press 1816:, published in 1835 by 1791:John Greenleaf Whittier 1701:John Greenleaf Whittier 1267:and pharmaceuticals by 1165:Alice and Thomas Curwen 986:, took up residence in 539:Christianity portal 337:Szechwan Yearly Meeting 234:John Greenleaf Whittier 4216:Friends United Meeting 4186:Britain Yearly Meeting 3817:Jones, Rufus M., ed. 3727:Friends in East Africa 2817:Fischer, David Hackett 2736:Merritt, Jane (2003). 2673:Bowden, James (1850). 2593:Woody, Thomas (1920). 2314:Orlando Project site: 2275:Damrosch, Leo (1996). 2153:"Jocelyn Bell Burnell" 1914:Friends United Meeting 1890:Friends United Meeting 1858:Grant's "Peace Policy" 1745:Second Great Awakening 1601:, the builders of the 1594:John Wigham Richardson 1416:Dunmore's Proclamation 1410:). In November 1775, 1225: 1126:Providence Plantations 1121: 899:Persecution in England 717: 312:Friends United Meeting 282:Britain Yearly Meeting 74:Hannah Jenkins Barnard 4181:A Quaker Action Group 3866:Quaker Heritage Press 3807:Gummere, Amelia, ed. 3797:(1979), for post–1945 3746:Tolles, Frederick B. 3739:Tolles, Frederick B. 3597:Kashatus, William C. 3590:Kashatus, William C. 3583:Kashatus, William C. 3561:10.1353/cwh.2007.0016 2972:10.1353/qkh.2004.0020 2782:The Abolition Project 2652:(December 27, 2007). 2579:Yount, David (2007). 2102:. 1997. p. 205. 2045:One Thousand Children 1749:Robert Pearsall Smith 1615:free produce movement 1436:British North America 1219: 1189:Flushing Remonstrance 1119: 958:had been its author. 624:Industrial Revolution 581:evangelical Christian 475:First Day of the Week 277:A Quaker Action Group 4436:History of Quakerism 4196:Conservative Friends 4125:Mary Coffin Starbuck 3851:West, Jessamyn, ed. 3793:Yarrow, Clarence H. 3732:Trueblood, D. Elton 3710:Ryan, James Emmett. 3604:Kennedy, Thomas C. 3133:"Historical Summary" 2910:Levi Coffin (1880). 2438:. Swarthmore College 1946:Conservative Friends 1757:Christian perfection 1753:Hannah Whitall Smith 1632:Underground Railroad 1530:improve this section 1467:Underground Railroad 1432:Underground Railroad 1403:Continental Congress 925:Conventicle Act 1664 817:entry into Jerusalem 802: 764:Richard Hubberthorne 725:Christian perfection 665:of 1381, the priest 653:. In the 1300s, the 292:Conservative Friends 4415:ASFC Nobel nominees 4277:Integrity ("Truth") 3960:Kenneth E. Boulding 3664:Mortimer, Russell, 3504:. (2015). 272 pp. 3419:Frost, J. William. 3412:Dunn, Mary Maples. 2948:27.2 (1938): 72-82. 2935:86.2 (1997): 58-59. 2899:. 15 December 2020. 2650:Jackson, Kenneth T. 2398:First Among Friends 2321:24 May 2013 at the 1731:Theological schisms 1328:American Revolution 1305:Northwest Territory 1297:Lynchburg, Virginia 1250:Toleration Act 1688 948:James II of England 892:Elizabeth Stirredge 687:English Reformation 669:advocated radical, 370:Integrity ("Truth") 84:Kenneth E. Boulding 57:Notable individuals 4354:Book of Discipline 4350:Faith and Practice 4065:Zephaniah Kingsley 4020:Joseph John Gurney 3780:2012-07-26 at the 3704:2011-09-15 at the 3614:Daughters of Light 3611:Larson, Rebecca. 3570:2012-07-29 at the 3553:Civil War History, 3500:Ingle, H. Larry. 3493:Ingle, H. Larry. 3480:2012-05-29 at the 3469:Illick, Joseph E. 3430:67 (1978): 42–58. 3383:Dandelion, Pink. 3369:Bronner, Edwin B. 3349:2012-07-21 at the 3331:Benjamin, Philip. 3318:2012-06-27 at the 3167:2007-07-03 at the 3142:Faith and Practice 2659:The New York Times 2636:(Oxford, UK: OUP) 1986:Swarthmore College 1958:Catholic Quakerism 1782:Joseph John Gurney 1721:Noah Haynes Swayne 1651:Joseph John Gurney 1636:Richard Dillingham 1493:Nineteenth century 1451:Richard Dillingham 1376:abolition movement 1307:and further west. 1244:Eighteenth century 1226: 1185:Flushing, New York 1153:Christopher Holder 1122: 1102:Swarthmore College 998:and also with the 920:Oath of Allegiance 857:Women and equality 657:movement known as 643:Kingdom of England 431:Book of Discipline 427:Faith and Practice 144:Joseph John Gurney 4423: 4422: 4226:Nontheist Quakers 3853:The Quaker Reader 3720:978-0-299-23174-3 3693:Russell, Elbert. 3648:Moore, Rosemary. 3643:978-1-85072-367-7 3631:Milligan, Edward 3535:(1919) 169 pages 3497:. (1994). 407 pp. 3455:Hamm, Thomas D. 3405:Doherty, Robert. 3398:Davies, Adrian. 3393:978-0-19-920679-7 3249:Nobel Peace Prize 2301:Moore, Rosemary 2213:978-0-85771-872-3 2049:Nobel Peace Prize 1831:John Eliot Howard 1827:Plymouth Brethren 1822:Recorded Minister 1738:Holiness Movement 1590:Joseph Storrs Fry 1566: 1565: 1558: 1332:Thirteen Colonies 1279:American colonies 1265:Abraham Darby III 1106:Bryn Mawr College 1094:Haverford College 851:Richard Farnworth 579:began as a proto- 573: 572: 124:William Edmundson 4443: 4110:Robert Pleasants 3945:Susan B. Anthony 3917: 3910: 3903: 3894: 3786:Walvin, James. 3679:Punshon, John. 3624: 3541:Jones, Rufus M. 3531:Jones, Rufus M. 3524:Jones, Rufus M. 3486:Ingle, H. Larry 3274: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3216: 3210: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3184:. 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Anthony 1561: 1554: 1550: 1547: 1541: 1510: 1502: 1471:Susan B. Anthony 1444:Mason-Dixon line 1424:Continental Army 1382:is to darkness" 1285:Great Wagon Road 1261:Abraham Darby II 1206:Stephen Bachiler 1180:Peter Stuyvesant 876:Sarah Blackborow 784:northern England 663:Peasants' Revolt 655:proto-Protestant 637:Precursor basis? 565: 558: 551: 537: 536: 219:Robert Pleasants 64:Susan B. Anthony 43: 34: 18: 4451: 4450: 4446: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4440: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4365:Holy Experiment 4344:Decision Making 4317: 4286: 4255: 4171:Monthly Meeting 4154: 4145:Jon Wynne-Tyson 4060:Thomas R. Kelly 3955:Anthony Benezet 3926: 3921: 3862: 3802:Primary sources 3790:(1997). 243 pp. 3782:Wayback Machine 3757:Vol. 94, 1981. 3725:Smuck, Harold. 3706:Wayback Machine 3690:(1994). 168 pp. 3622: 3618:(1999). 399 pp. 3608:(2001). 477 pp. 3580:(2007). 191 pp. 3572:Wayback Machine 3507:James, Sydney. 3482:Wayback Machine 3462:Hewitt, Nancy. 3459:(1997). 448 pp. 3402:(2000). 261 pp. 3351:Wayback Machine 3324:Barbour, Hugh. 3320:Wayback Machine 3289:(2003). 432 pp. 3280:Further reading 3277: 3268: 3264: 3254: 3252: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3228: 3226: 3224:quakernobel.org 3218: 3217: 3213: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3189: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3169:Wayback Machine 3160: 3156: 3151:Wayback Machine 3131: 3127: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3057: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3041: 3032: 3028: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2943: 2939: 2930: 2926: 2909: 2908: 2904: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2879: 2866: 2865: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2840: 2836:(Zuber 1993, 4) 2835: 2828: 2815: 2811: 2797: 2796: 2789: 2776: 2775: 2771: 2762: 2758: 2749: 2745: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2682: 2680: 2672: 2671: 2667: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2631: 2627: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2578: 2574: 2565: 2563: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2523: 2522: 2518: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2458: 2457: 2450: 2441: 2439: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2418:Lodge, Richard 2417: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2395: 2391: 2382: 2380: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2361: 2357: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2323:Wayback Machine 2313: 2309: 2300: 2296: 2287: 2283: 2274: 2270: 2259: 2255: 2246: 2242: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2199: 2198: 2194: 2186: 2184: 2181:Knowledge (XXG) 2175: 2174: 2170: 2162: 2160: 2157:Knowledge (XXG) 2151: 2150: 2146: 2137: 2136: 2111: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2077:List of Quakers 2073: 2057: 2029: 2021:Kindertransport 2013: 2011:Kindertransport 1866: 1853: 1847: 1807: 1784:of England and 1778: 1765: 1733: 1581:Joseph Rowntree 1562: 1551: 1545: 1542: 1527: 1511: 1500: 1495: 1479: 1387:Anthony Benezet 1352: 1313: 1281: 1246: 1214: 1201: 1174:. One of them, 1128:established by 1114: 1098:Earlham College 1067:Holy Experiment 972: 944: 942:Francis Howgill 934: 916:Quaker Act 1662 901: 880:Rebecca Travers 859: 842: 805: 799:of the nation. 729:Isaac Penington 699: 651:Papal supremacy 647:Norman Invasion 639: 606:was founded by 569: 531: 526: 525: 524: 450:Decision Making 421: 413: 412: 388: 380: 379: 355: 347: 346: 267:Monthly Meeting 257: 249: 248: 209:Isaac Penington 174:Thomas R. Kelly 79:Anthony Benezet 59: 49: 30: 12: 11: 5: 4449: 4447: 4439: 4438: 4428: 4427: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4380:Meeting houses 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4325: 4323: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4294: 4292: 4288: 4287: 4285: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4166:Yearly Meeting 4162: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4062: 4057: 4052: 4050:Herbert Hoover 4047: 4042: 4037: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3985:Susanna Corder 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3965:Howard Brinton 3962: 3957: 3952: 3950:Robert Barclay 3947: 3942: 3936: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3912: 3905: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3861: 3860:External links 3858: 3857: 3856: 3849: 3842: 3833: 3824: 3822:online edition 3815: 3813:online edition 3804: 3803: 3799: 3798: 3791: 3784: 3775:online edition 3763:10.2307/540122 3751: 3744: 3737: 3730: 3723: 3708: 3699:online edition 3691: 3684: 3677: 3670: 3661: 3646: 3629: 3619: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3588: 3581: 3576:Jordan, Ryan. 3574: 3565:online edition 3555:Vol. 53, 2007 3549: 3547:online edition 3539: 3537:online edition 3529: 3522: 3520:online edition 3512: 3505: 3498: 3491: 3484: 3475:online edition 3467: 3460: 3453: 3448:Hamm, Thomas. 3446: 3441:Hamm, Thomas. 3439: 3428:Quaker History 3424: 3417: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3381: 3374: 3367: 3362:Brock, Peter. 3360: 3353: 3344:online edition 3336: 3329: 3322: 3313:online edition 3305: 3294:Quaker History 3290: 3282: 3281: 3276: 3275: 3262: 3236: 3211: 3198: 3173: 3171:, FGC website. 3154: 3125: 3112:10.2307/967835 3106:(3): 283–294. 3090: 3077: 3070: 3050: 3039: 3026: 3013:(2): 125–150. 3007:Annals of Iowa 2993: 2960:Quaker History 2950: 2937: 2933:Quaker History 2924: 2902: 2884: 2877: 2871:. p. 59. 2859: 2850: 2838: 2826: 2809: 2800:"John Woolman" 2787: 2769: 2756: 2743: 2728: 2715: 2708: 2690: 2665: 2641: 2625: 2612: 2600: 2585: 2572: 2549: 2536: 2516: 2503: 2484: 2471: 2448: 2424: 2422:(1910). p. 268 2411: 2402: 2389: 2366: 2355: 2335: 2326: 2307: 2294: 2281: 2268: 2253: 2240: 2219: 2212: 2192: 2168: 2144: 2109: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2079: 2072: 2069: 2056: 2053: 2028: 2025: 2012: 2009: 1997:Herbert Hoover 1990:Elbert Russell 1974:George Cadbury 1886:Herbert Hoover 1865: 1862: 1849:Main article: 1846: 1843: 1818:Isaac Crewdson 1806: 1803: 1777: 1774: 1764: 1761: 1732: 1729: 1688:Thomas Hodgkin 1680:Maria Mitchell 1628:Harriet Tubman 1603:RMS Mauretania 1564: 1563: 1514: 1512: 1505: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1478: 1475: 1459:Harriet Tubman 1455:Thomas Garrett 1351: 1348: 1312: 1309: 1280: 1277: 1245: 1242: 1213: 1210: 1200: 1197: 1176:Robert Hodgson 1130:Roger Williams 1113: 1110: 1083:Yearly Meeting 1035:Robert Barclay 971: 968: 963:Toleration Act 933: 930: 900: 897: 858: 855: 841: 838: 804: 801: 737:Thomas Ellwood 733:Robert Barclay 698: 695: 638: 635: 571: 570: 568: 567: 560: 553: 545: 542: 541: 528: 527: 523: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 470:Meeting houses 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 441: 440: 439: 434: 422: 419: 418: 415: 414: 411: 410: 405: 400: 395: 389: 386: 385: 382: 381: 378: 377: 372: 367: 362: 356: 353: 352: 349: 348: 345: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 262:Yearly Meeting 258: 255: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 164:Herbert Hoover 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 89:Howard Brinton 86: 81: 76: 71: 69:Robert Barclay 66: 60: 55: 54: 51: 50: 44: 36: 35: 27: 26: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4448: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4385:Perfectionism 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4370:Homosexuality 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4303:Latin America 4301: 4299: 4298:North America 4296: 4295: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4174: 4172: 4169: 4167: 4164: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4131: 4130:Jessamyn West 4128: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4120:Bayard Rustin 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4095:Parker Palmer 4093: 4091: 4090:Richard Nixon 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4080:Lucretia Mott 4078: 4076: 4075:Dave Matthews 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4045:Henry Hodgkin 4043: 4041: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4026: 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2920: 2916: 2915: 2906: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2888: 2885: 2880: 2878:9781387103201 2874: 2870: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2833: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2810: 2805: 2801: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2739: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2709:9789333137287 2705: 2701: 2694: 2691: 2678: 2677: 2669: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2645: 2642: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2622: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2607:The Colonies 2604: 2601: 2596: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2576: 2573: 2561: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2539: 2537:9789060608890 2533: 2529: 2528: 2520: 2517: 2506: 2504:9789004094826 2500: 2496: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2474: 2472:9780806304328 2468: 2464: 2463: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2437: 2436: 2428: 2425: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2393: 2390: 2378: 2377: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2339: 2336: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2298: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2282: 2279:, pp. 66, 221 2278: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2244: 2241: 2236: 2235: 2230: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2209: 2205: 2204: 2196: 2193: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2158: 2154: 2148: 2145: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2070: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2002: 2001:Richard Nixon 1998: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1969: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1929: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1882:Henry Cadbury 1879: 1875: 1870: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1852: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1794: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1751:and his wife 1750: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1712: 1710: 1709:Francis Frith 1706: 1702: 1696: 1694: 1689: 1685: 1684:Joseph Lister 1681: 1677: 1676:hieroglyphics 1673: 1672:Rosetta Stone 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1647:Elizabeth Fry 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1620: 1619:Lucretia Mott 1616: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1571: 1560: 1557: 1549: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1525: 1524: 1520: 1515:This section 1513: 1509: 1504: 1503: 1497: 1492: 1490: 1488: 1483: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1420:Black Patriot 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1379: 1377: 1372: 1366: 1364: 1359: 1356: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1321: 1316: 1311:Social reform 1310: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1269:William Allen 1266: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1251: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1224: 1223: 1218: 1211: 1209: 1207: 1198: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1172:New Amsterdam 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1118: 1111: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1079:Keizersgracht 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1007:and met with 1006: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 984:William Caton 981: 980:Margaret Fell 977: 969: 967: 964: 959: 957: 953: 949: 943: 939: 938:Margaret Fell 931: 929: 926: 921: 917: 912: 910: 906: 898: 896: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 872:Hester Biddle 869: 868:Dorothy White 865: 864:Margaret Fell 856: 854: 852: 848: 839: 837: 835: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 803:Nayler's sign 800: 798: 794: 790: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 768:Margaret Fell 765: 761: 757: 753: 748: 746: 745:Margaret Fell 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 716: 711: 709: 704: 696: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 675:John Wycliffe 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 636: 634: 630: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 600: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 566: 561: 559: 554: 552: 547: 546: 544: 543: 540: 535: 530: 529: 521: 518: 516: 515:Homosexuality 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 485:Perfectionism 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 442: 438: 435: 433: 432: 428: 424: 423: 417: 416: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 398:Latin America 396: 394: 393:North America 391: 390: 384: 383: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 357: 351: 350: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 253: 252: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 229:Jessamyn West 227: 225: 224:Bayard Rustin 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 199:Parker Palmer 197: 195: 194:Richard Nixon 192: 190: 187: 185: 184:Lucretia Mott 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 159:Henry Hodgkin 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 139:Elizabeth Fry 137: 135: 132: 130: 129:Margaret Fell 127: 125: 122: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 62: 61: 58: 53: 52: 47: 42: 38: 37: 33: 28: 24: 20: 19: 16: 4375:Inward light 4359: 4353: 4349: 4150:John Woolman 4105:William Penn 4085:James Nayler 4070:Benjamin Lay 4035:Edward Hicks 4000:Joshua Evans 3970:John Cadbury 3852: 3845: 3837: 3828: 3818: 3808: 3794: 3787: 3754: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3726: 3711: 3694: 3687: 3680: 3673: 3672:Nash, Gary. 3665: 3649: 3632: 3612: 3605: 3598: 3591: 3584: 3577: 3552: 3542: 3532: 3525: 3515: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3487: 3470: 3463: 3456: 3449: 3442: 3427: 3420: 3413: 3406: 3399: 3384: 3370: 3363: 3356: 3339: 3332: 3325: 3309:The Quakers. 3308: 3293: 3286: 3270: 3265: 3253:. Retrieved 3248: 3239: 3227:. Retrieved 3223: 3214: 3206: 3201: 3190:. Retrieved 3186:the original 3176: 3157: 3140: 3128: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3085: 3080: 3060: 3053: 3042: 3034: 3029: 3010: 3006: 2996: 2966:(1): 53–67. 2963: 2959: 2953: 2945: 2940: 2932: 2927: 2912: 2905: 2896: 2887: 2868: 2862: 2853: 2819: 2812: 2803: 2781: 2772: 2764: 2763:Wood, Betty 2759: 2751: 2746: 2737: 2731: 2723: 2718: 2699: 2693: 2681:. Retrieved 2675: 2668: 2657: 2644: 2633: 2628: 2620: 2615: 2603: 2594: 2588: 2580: 2575: 2564:. Retrieved 2558: 2552: 2541:. Retrieved 2526: 2519: 2508:. Retrieved 2493: 2487: 2476:. Retrieved 2461: 2440:. Retrieved 2434: 2427: 2419: 2414: 2405: 2397: 2392: 2381:. Retrieved 2375: 2369: 2358: 2343: 2338: 2329: 2310: 2302: 2297: 2289: 2284: 2276: 2271: 2262: 2256: 2248: 2243: 2232: 2222: 2202: 2195: 2185:, retrieved 2183:, 2023-01-08 2180: 2171: 2161:, retrieved 2159:, 2023-01-30 2156: 2147: 2138: 2103: 2100:Hope College 2095: 2090: 2058: 2030: 2014: 2005:William Penn 1994: 1988:; its head, 1970: 1966: 1957: 1954:Lewis Benson 1951: 1938: 1930: 1911: 1894: 1871: 1867: 1854: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1795: 1779: 1766: 1742: 1734: 1717:Joseph Pease 1713: 1705:Edward Hicks 1697: 1660:Thomas Young 1656: 1644: 1607: 1586:John Cadbury 1577:Edward Pease 1574: 1567: 1552: 1543: 1528:Please help 1516: 1484: 1480: 1477:Free Quakers 1448: 1429: 1399: 1391:John Woolman 1384: 1380: 1371:John Woolman 1367: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1353: 1341: 1325: 1320:William Tuke 1317: 1314: 1282: 1258: 1254: 1247: 1238: 1233:Pennsylvania 1229:William Penn 1227: 1220: 1202: 1169: 1160: 1150: 1123: 1104:(1864), and 1087: 1071: 1063:Philadelphia 1023:Pennsylvania 1019:William Penn 1017: 976:William Ames 973: 961:In 1689 the 960: 956:William Penn 945: 913: 902: 884:Alice Curwen 860: 843: 820: 809:James Nayler 806: 760:James Nayler 749: 741:William Penn 718: 713: 707: 700: 640: 631: 628: 620:mentally ill 608:William Penn 604:Pennsylvania 601: 592: 583:movement in 574: 465:Inward light 459: 430: 426: 420:Other themes 244:John Woolman 214:William Penn 189:James Nayler 179:Benjamin Lay 149:Edward Hicks 99:Carla Denyer 94:John Cadbury 15: 4260:Testimonies 4140:John Wilbur 4055:Rufus Jones 4040:Elias Hicks 3980:Anne Conway 3975:Levi Coffin 3932:Individuals 2346:23: 10–29. 1982:Pendle Hill 1878:Rufus Jones 1820:. He was a 1786:John Wilbur 1769:Elias Hicks 1743:During the 1693:John Dalton 1668:astigmatism 1640:Levi Coffin 1610:Elias Hicks 1463:Levi Coffin 1440:free states 1142:Inner Light 1134:Mary Fisher 996:Collegiants 992:Netherlands 982:'s nephew, 970:Netherlands 888:Dorcas Dole 793:Cromwellian 671:egalitarian 597:persecution 354:Testimonies 239:John Wilbur 169:Rufus Jones 154:Elias Hicks 109:Anne Conway 104:Levi Coffin 4282:Simplicity 4115:Betsy Ross 4100:Alice Paul 4030:Carl Heath 4010:George Fox 3995:Judi Dench 3990:James Dean 3271:Costa Rica 3192:2010-08-02 2848:Ralph 2008 2583:. pp. 83–4 2566:2013-02-25 2543:2013-02-24 2510:2013-02-24 2478:2013-02-24 2442:2013-02-24 2383:2013-10-08 2187:2023-02-16 2163:2023-02-16 2083:References 2065:Monteverde 2061:Costa Rica 2055:Costa Rica 1805:Beaconites 1776:Gurneyites 1546:April 2022 1487:Betsy Ross 1363:The Friend 1193:John Bowne 1138:Ann Austin 1031:George Fox 1013:Heidelberg 1000:Mennonites 936:See also: 847:Lancashire 825:Parliament 756:George Fox 703:George Fox 375:Simplicity 204:Alice Paul 134:George Fox 119:Judi Dench 114:James Dean 46:George Fox 4291:By region 3255:9 October 3229:9 October 2988:162136169 2914:Incidents 2726:. p. 225. 2352:0142-4688 1835:Tottenham 1799:Joel Bean 1763:Hicksites 1517:does not 1438:) or the 1157:Mary Dyer 1074:Rotterdam 1059:Jan Claus 1055:Frankfurt 1047:Labadists 1043:Friesland 988:Amsterdam 909:blasphemy 834:marriages 776:churchmen 667:John Ball 612:abolition 589:Ulverston 480:New Birth 387:By region 32:Quakerism 4430:Category 4400:Tapestry 4272:Equality 3778:Archived 3714:(2009). 3702:Archived 3697:(1942). 3676:(1968)]. 3568:Archived 3478:Archived 3436:41946850 3387:(2008). 3347:Archived 3316:Archived 3302:41947575 3165:Archived 3147:Archived 2980:41947529 2623:. p. 86. 2400:, 212–14 2319:Archived 2071:See also 1980:, while 1299:'s 1798 1273:Broseley 1100:(1847), 1096:(1833), 1039:Wieuwerd 903:In 1650 772:Baptists 691:Puritans 679:parishes 659:Lollardy 505:Tapestry 365:Equality 23:a series 21:Part of 4405:Wedding 4395:Schools 4360:History 4334:Science 3924:Quakers 3811:(1922) 3750:(1960). 3736:(1966). 3601:(2010). 3594:(1990). 3587:(1997). 3545:(1922) 3466:(1984). 3416:(1967). 3335:(1976), 3328:(1964). 2784:. 2009. 2683:16 June 2396:Ingle, 1538:removed 1523:sources 829:Puritan 813:Bristol 752:Seekers 708:Journal 616:slavery 593:Quakers 585:England 510:Wedding 500:Science 495:Schools 460:History 4313:Africa 4308:Europe 4159:Groups 3771:540122 3769: 3718: 3656: 3641: 3490:(1986) 3473:1976. 3434: 3391: 3373:(1962) 3300: 3120:967835 3118: 3088:(2001) 3068: 2986: 2978: 2921:, 705. 2875: 2706: 2534: 2501: 2469: 2350: 2210: 2105:guided 990:. The 946:Under 797:courts 789:Durham 780:tithes 778:, pay 408:Africa 403:Europe 4410:Women 4390:Query 4339:Clerk 4322:Other 4267:Peace 3767:JSTOR 3432:JSTOR 3298:JSTOR 3135:from 3116:JSTOR 2984:S2CID 2976:JSTOR 2041:Nazis 1944:end, 1664:light 1051:Rhine 1027:Emden 701:When 683:Essex 520:Women 490:Query 445:Clerk 360:Peace 3716:ISBN 3654:ISBN 3639:ISBN 3389:ISBN 3257:2022 3231:2022 3066:ISBN 2873:ISBN 2704:ISBN 2685:2022 2532:ISBN 2499:ISBN 2467:ISBN 2348:ISSN 2208:ISBN 1999:and 1896:the 1880:and 1837:and 1621:and 1521:any 1519:cite 1389:and 1295:and 1263:and 1136:and 1033:and 978:and 940:and 890:and 882:and 743:and 641:The 575:The 4352:or 3759:doi 3557:doi 3145:. 3139:'s 3108:doi 3015:doi 2968:doi 2919:671 2035:or 1833:of 1801:.) 1532:by 1361:In 1291:in 1053:to 1041:in 1011:at 681:in 614:of 429:or 4432:: 3773:. 3765:. 3563:. 3247:. 3222:. 3114:. 3102:. 3011:61 3009:. 3005:. 2982:. 2974:. 2964:93 2962:. 2895:. 2841:^ 2829:^ 2802:. 2790:^ 2780:. 2656:. 2451:^ 2231:. 2179:, 2155:, 2112:^ 2098:. 2007:. 1920:, 1916:, 1841:. 1678:. 1634:. 1339:. 1069:. 1015:. 911:. 878:, 874:, 870:, 866:, 821:be 766:, 762:, 747:. 739:, 735:, 731:, 25:on 3916:e 3909:t 3902:v 3761:: 3722:. 3660:. 3645:. 3623:" 3559:: 3438:. 3395:. 3304:. 3259:. 3233:. 3195:. 3122:. 3110:: 3104:2 3074:. 3037:. 3023:. 3017:: 2990:. 2970:: 2881:. 2806:. 2712:. 2687:. 2662:. 2569:. 2546:. 2513:. 2481:. 2445:. 2386:. 2292:. 2251:. 2216:. 1559:) 1553:( 1548:) 1544:( 1540:. 1526:. 564:e 557:t 550:v

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