217:(Ibn-Sina) presented detailed knowledge about skull fractures and their surgical treatments. Avicenna is regarded by some as the father of modern medicine. He wrote 40 pieces on medicine with the most notable being the Qanun, a medical encyclopedia that would become a staple at universities for nearly a hundred years. He also explained phenomena such as, insomnia, mania, hallucinations, nightmares, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melancholia and tremors. He also described a condition similar to schizophrenia, which he called Junun Mufrit, characterized by agitation, behavioral and sleep disturbances, giving inappropriate answers to questions, and occasional inability to speak. Avicenna also discovered the cerebellar vermis, which he simply called the vermis, and the caudate nucleus. Both terms are still used in neuroanatomy today. He was also the first person to associate mental deficits with deficits in the brain's middle ventricle or frontal lobe.
90:
of the effects of head trauma. While the symptoms are well written and detailed, the absence of a medical precedent is apparent. The author of the passage notes "the pulsations of the exposed brain" and compared the surface of the brain to the rippling surface of copper slag (which indeed has a gyral-sulcal pattern). The laterality of injury was related to the laterality of symptom, and both aphasia ("he speaks not to thee") and seizures ("he shudders exceedingly") after head injury were described. Observations by ancient civilizations of the human brain suggest only a relative understanding of the basic mechanics and the importance of cranial security. Furthermore, considering the general consensus of medical practice pertaining to human anatomy was based on myths and superstition, the thoughts of the battlefield surgeon appear to be empirical and based on logical deduction and simple observation.
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59:, during the first step of mummification: "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs." Over the next five thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in "memorizing something by heart".
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68:
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181:, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by the movement of animal spirits through the ventricles. He also noted that specific spinal nerves controlled specific muscles, and had the idea of the reciprocal action of muscles. Only in the 19th century, in the work of
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89:
for brain, occurring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two patients, wounded in the head, who had compound fractures of the skull. The assessments of the author (a battlefield surgeon) of the papyrus allude to ancient
Egyptians having a vague recognition
1464:
Avicenna was a
Persian polymath and one of the most famous physicians from the Islamic Golden Age. He is known as the father of early modern medicine and his most famous work in Medicine called "The Book of Healing", which became a standard medical textbook at many European universities and remained
778:
in 1937 and remained there until 1946 where he made pioneering advances modelling the electrical properties of nervous tissue. Bernstein's hypothesis about the action potential was confirmed by Cole and Howard Curtis, who showed that membrane conductance increases during an action potential.
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to run at low voltages and were able to observe that action potentials occurred in two phases—a spike followed by an after-spike. They discovered that nerves were found in many forms, each with their own potential for excitability. With this research, the pair discovered that the
380:
pioneered the experimental method of carrying out localized lesions of the brain in animals describing their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. He concluded that the ablation of the cerebellum resulted in movements that “were not regular and coordinated". In 1843,
717:. Edgar Adrian observed nerve fibers in action during his experiments on frogs. This proved that scientists could study nervous system function directly, not just indirectly. This led to a rapid increase in the variety of experiments conducted in the field of
42:
practice throughout the early periods of history. The early civilizations lacked adequate means to obtain knowledge about the human brain. Their assumptions about the inner workings of the mind, therefore, were not accurate. Early views on the function of the
257:
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on human cadavers found problems with the
Galenic view of anatomy. Vesalius noted many structural characteristics of both the brain and general nervous system during his dissections. In addition to recording many anatomical features such as the
309:
placed severed frog thigh muscle in an airtight syringe with a small amount of water in the tip and when he caused the muscle to contract by irritating the nerve, the water level did not rise but rather was lowered by a minute amount debunking
3181:
Kreft, G.; Kovacs, G. G.; Voigtländer, T.; Haberler, C.; Hainfellner, J. A.; Bernheimer, H.; Budka, H. (2008). "125th anniversary of the
Institute of Neurology (Obersteiner Institute) in Vienna. "Germ Cell" of interdisciplinary neuroscience".
910:
As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience institutes and organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The largest professional neuroscience organization is the
432:. Broca published his findings from the autopsies of twelve patients in 1865. His work inspired others to perform careful autopsies with the aim of linking more brain regions to sensory and motor functions. Another French neurologist,
126:, while the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness. On the opposite end, during the
1557:
Di Ieva, Antonio; Tschabitscher, Manfred; Prada, Francesco; Gaetani, Paolo; Aimar, Enrico; Pisano, Patrizia; Levi, Daniel; Nicassio, Nicola; Serra, Salvatore (2007-01-01). "The neuroanatomical plates of Guido da
Vigevano".
507:
in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. The hypotheses of the neuron doctrine were supported by experiments following
Galvani's pioneering work in the
558:
Neuroscience during the twentieth century began to be recognized as a distinct unified academic discipline, rather than studies of the nervous system being a factor of science belonging to a variety of disciplines.
277:, Vesalius proposed that the brain was made up of seven pairs of 'brain nerves', each with a specialized function. Other scholars furthered Vesalius' work by adding their own detailed sketches of the human brain.
105:) and that the senses were dependent on the brain. According to ancient authorities, Alcmaeon believed the power of the brain to synthesize sensations made it also the seat of memories and thought. The author of
484:'s cytoarchitectonic (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.
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and innovation in the technology necessary for these experiments. Much of Adrian's early research was inspired by studying the way vacuum tubes intercepted and enhanced coded messages. Concurrently,
4299:
158:. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their death.
101:, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the
420:
who had a 21-year progressive loss of speech and paralysis but neither a loss of comprehension nor mental function. Broca performed an autopsy and determined that the patient had a
1601:
976:
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later presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the
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as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the
209:, evaluated neurological patients and performed surgical treatments of head injuries, skull fractures, spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache. In
871:, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the
589:
discovered 15 new reflexes and is known for his competition with Pavlov regarding the study of conditioned reflexes. He founded the
Psychoneurological Institute at the
902:
Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.
352:
defined a specific function of a brain region for the first time. He studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions, and found the center of respiration in the
444:
who discovered in 1870 that electrical stimulation of motor cortex caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of a dog's body and by observations of
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Rommelfanger, Karen S.; Jeong, Sung-Jin; Ema, Arisa; Fukushi, Tamami; Kasai, Kiyoto; Ramos, Khara M.; Salles, Arleen; Singh, Ilina; Amadio, Jordan (2018).
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first coined the term "autonomic" in classifying the connections of nerve fibers to peripheral nerve cells. Langley is known as one of the fathers of the
4329:
4314:
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713:. Keith Lucas' experiments in the first decade of the twentieth century proved that muscles contract entirely or not at all, this was referred to as the
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in 1911. Brown recognized that the basic pattern of stepping can be produced by the spinal cord without the need of descending commands from the cortex.
546:, who worked on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus, attended this school, graduating in 1900. Obersteiner was later superseded by
996:
1740:
Rengachary, Setti S.; Lee, Jonathan; Guthikonda, Murali (July 2008). "Medicosocial problems engendered with the discovery of the Bell–Magendie Law".
1006:
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produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain. He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called
623:. Sherrington received the Nobel prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (
201:
Islamic medicine in the middle ages was focused on how the mind and body interacted and emphasized a need to understand mental health. Circa 1000,
2804:
2096:"On the reaction of cells and of nerve-endings to certain poisons, chiefly as regards the reaction of striated muscle to nicotine and to curari"
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conducted several experiments on nervous system function. In 1899 he described the "inexcitable" or "refractory phase" that takes place between
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314:. The idea that nerve stimulation led to movement had important implications by putting forward the idea that behaviour is based on stimuli.
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Richter, J. (2000). "The brain commission of the international association of academies: the first international society of neurosciences".
1016:
986:
955:
598:
590:
2754:
Grant, Gunnar (2006). "The 1932 and 1944 Nobel Prizes in physiology or medicine: rewards for ground-breaking studies in neurophysiology".
867:, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the
827:. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in
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in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in
Physiology and Medicine. During the same period,
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Cowan, W.M.; Harter, D.H.; Kandel, E.R. (2000). "The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry".
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One major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology of nerve impulses. In 1902 and again in 1912,
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during the late 1890s that used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of single neurons. His technique was used by
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of ionic conductances. A great deal of study on sensory organs and the function of nerve cells was conducted by
British physiologist
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in the resting state. In 1939 they began using internal electrodes inside the giant nerve fibre of the squid and Cole developed the
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in 1887 founded the ‘‘Institute for
Anatomy and Physiology of the CNS’’, later called Neurological or Obersteiner Institute of the
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had his frontal lobe pierced by an iron tamping rod in a blasting accident. He became a case study in the connection between the
1937:
Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, Thomas M. Jessel, eds. McGraw-Hill: New York, NY. 2000.
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764:. Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the
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suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the
349:
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studied the brain, nerves, and behavior to develop neurologic treatments. He described in great detail the structure of the
2354:
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1783:
Fine, Edward J.; Ionita, Catalina C.; Lohr, Linda (2002). "The History of the Development of the Cerebellar Examination".
1514:
Nanda, Anil; Khan, Imad Saeed; Apuzzo, Michael L. (2016-03-01). "Renaissance Neurosurgery: Italy's Iconic Contributions".
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further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production.
177:, swine, and other non-human mammals. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the
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presented his findings in 1875 about electrical phenomena of the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. In 1878,
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Avicenna was a well-known Persian and a Muslim scientist who was considered to be the father of early modern medicine.
2455:"Developmental aspects of spinal locomotor function: insights from using the in vitro mouse spinal cord preparation"
538:. It was one of the first brain research institutions in the world. He studied the cerebellar cortex, described the
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persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time. Already in the 4th century BC,
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theory, and as the origin of the concept of "receptive substance". Towards the end of the nineteenth century
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found in 1909 that the sense of touch was localized in the postcentral gyrus. Modern research still uses the
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was where the mind interacted with the body after recording the brain mechanisms responsible for circulating
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2039:"On the Union of Cranial Autonomic (Visceral) Fibres with the Nerve Cells of the Superior Cervical Ganglion"
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was created in 2017, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US,
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48:
2145:""Receptive Substances": John Newport Langley (1852–1925) and his Path to a Receptor Theory of Drug Action"
1444:"Ibn Sina or Abu Ali Sina (ابن سینا c. 980 –1037) is often known by his Latin name of Avicenna (ævɪˈsɛnə/)"
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Fishman, Ronald S. (1995). "Brain wars: Passion and conflict in the localization of vision in the brain".
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503:, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the
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233:, active in the Medieval Muslim world, also described a number of medical problems related to the brain.
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human bodies, providing evidence for the primacy of the brain. They affirmed the distinction between the
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2629:(1907). "Recherches quantitatives sur l'excitationelectrique des nerfs traitee comme une polarisation".
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was directly proportional to the diameter of the nerve fiber and received a Nobel Prize for their work.
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that the ventral roots in spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input (
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597:. In the institute, he attempted to establish a multidisciplinary approach to brain exploration. The
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619:. His concepts centered around unitary behaviour of cells activated or inhibited at what he called
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811:. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the
2192:"Francis Gotch, D.Sc., F.R.S., Waynflete Professor Of Physiology In The University Of Oxford".
1278:
Al-Rodhan, N. R.; Fox, J. L. (1986-07-01). "Al-Zahrawi and Arabian neurosurgery, 936–1013 AD".
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111:, part of the Hippocratic corpus, likewise believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence.
2401:(1st ed.). Oxford University Press: H. Milford. pp. xvi, 411 p., leaves of plates.
1380:"Avicenna's Canon of Medicine: A Look at Health, Public Health, and Environmental Sanitation"
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594:
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241:
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Frank, Robert G. (1994-01-01). "Instruments, Nerve Action, and the All-or-None Principle".
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Windholz, George (1997). "Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work".
915:(SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries.
51:
onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the
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O. Loewi (1936). "Quantitative und qualitative Untersuchungen über den Sympathicusstoff".
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Reynolds, Edward H. (2017-12-26). "The origins of the British Neuroscience Association".
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regarded it to be a form of "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In ancient Egypt, from the late
3358:"Neuroethics Questions to Guide Ethical Research in the International Brain Initiatives"
2992:
2880:"The cortical sensory representation of genitalia in women and men: a systematic review"
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2817:
2502:
O. Loewi (1921). "Über humorale Übertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. I. Mitteilung".
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2000:"A Note Upon the Faradic Stimulation of the Postcentral Gyrus in Conscious Patients.1"
1214:
Gross, Charles G. (1987), "Neuroscience, Early History of", in Adelman, George (ed.),
436:, made similar observations a generation earlier. Broca's hypothesis was supported by
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Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain — by opening the heads of living patients
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1984:
795:, during which he joined Cole to measure the D.C. resistance of the membrane of the
615:'s work focused strongly on reflexes and his experiments led up to the discovery of
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in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology. He published
565:
contributed to many areas of neurophysiology. Most of his work involved research in
468:
found in dogs and monkeys that vision was localized in the occipital cortical area,
17:
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2111:
2054:
1884:
Macmillan, Malcolm (2001-08-01). "John Martyn Harlow: Obscure Country Physician?".
1828:
Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-century Germany
1678:
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816:
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654:. Loewi demonstrated the ″humorale Übertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung″ first in
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for its actions on heart tissue. It was confirmed as a neurotransmitter in 1921 by
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Aciduman, Ahmet; Arda, Berna; Ozaktürk, Fatma G.; Telatar, Umit F. (2009-07-01).
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2355:""Sir Charles Sherrington – Nobel Lecture: Inhibition as a Coordinative Factor""
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advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the
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528:. His primary focus was on how nerve interaction affected the muscles and eyes.
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measured these to travel at a rate between 24 and 38 meters per second in 1850.
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textbooks in Europe, which included a description of the brain, were written by
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in 1966. The first official use of the word "Neuroscience" may be in 1962 with
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to tackle the issue of the brain's relation to the mind. He suggested that the
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of the axonal membrane to ions. Bernstein was also the first to introduce the
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1323:"What does Al-Qanun Fi Al-Tibb (the Canon of Medicine) say on head injuries?"
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1644:"Timeline: Exorcizing the animal spirits: Jan Swammerdam on nerve function"
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The role of electricity in nerves was first observed in dissected frogs by
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1976:
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1307:
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Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the
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2895:
2701:"The Birth of Information in the Brain: Edgar Adrian and the Vacuum Tube"
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833:. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the
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3031:
2227:
Jellinger, K. A. (2006). "A short history of neurosciences in Austria".
2213:
1443:
4453:
2592:
2550:
2515:
1960:
1682:
829:
270:
237:
3432:
A History of the Brain: From Stone Age Surgery to Modern Neuroscience.
2700:
2539:
Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere
2504:
Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere
4128:
3195:
3000:
606:
602:
421:
210:
178:
35:
2576:
1863:. Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 90–95.
1079:
3657:
2661:
1662:
965:
Netherlands Central Institute for Brain Research in Amsterdam, now
946:
The brain commission of the International Association of Academies
3442:(Paperback), 978-84872-364-1 (Hardback), 978-1-315-79454-9 (Ebook)
740:
672:
255:
166:
66:
52:
44:
31:
1617:
Verhandelingen – Koninklijke Academie voor Geneeskunde van Belgie
651:
322:, the cerebellum, the ventricles, and the cerebral hemispheres.
4132:
3474:
3470:
2414:"The intrinsic factors in the act of progression in the mammal"
389:
demonstrated that nerve fibers transmitted electrical signals.
2932:"Electrical impedance of the squid giant axon during activity"
2878:
Cazala, Fadwa; Vienney, Nicolas; Stoléru, Serge (2015-03-10).
55:
that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to
2577:"Untersuchungen zur Thermodynamik der bioelektrischen Ströme"
452:, who correctly deduced in the 1870s the organization of the
3410:
Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility.
1830:. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: The MIT Press.
1090:
837:. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous
666:
and in 1936 he wrote: ″I no longer hesitate to identify the
3099:"Chapter I: Neuroscience Before Neuroscience, WWII to 1969"
2418:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B
170:
1098:
542:
and wrote one of the first books on neuroanatomy in 1888.
456:
by watching the progression of seizures through the body.
2818:"Penfield – A great explorer of psyche-soma-neuroscience"
1615:
Van Laere, J. (1993). "Vesalius and the nervous system".
1430:
Avicenna is known as the father of early modern medicine.
677:
A graph showing the threshold for nervous system response
3328:"International Brain Initiative | The Kavli Foundation"
3016:"Potential, Impedance, and Rectification in Membranes"
2979:
Von Gierke HE (1999). "David E. Goldman ● 1910–1998".
1933:
1931:
1479:"Arab and Muslim Contributions to Modern Neuroscience"
260:
One of Leonardo da Vinci's sketches of the human skull
34:
to 18th-century scientific research on "globules" and
2867:
Penfield's homunculus: a note on cerebral cartography
1418:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 33.
1415:
Advice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine
977:
National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences
642:
to be identified. It was first identified in 1915 by
4510:
4477:
4429:
4376:
4338:
4262:
4206:
4166:
3988:
3850:
3790:
3665:
3526:
512:of muscles and neurons. In 1898, British scientist
1378:Saffari, Mohsen; Pakpour, Amir (1 December 2012).
81:The earliest reference to the brain occurs in the
1600:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
472:found in 1881 that audition was localized in the
348:in the second half of the 18th century. In 1811,
2981:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1253:Bear, M.F.; B.W. Connors; M.A. Paradiso (2001).
919:List of the major institutes and organizations
745:3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the
491:and the development of a staining procedure by
236:Between the 13th and 14th centuries, the first
138:of Alexandria engaged in studies that involved
97:, interest in the brain began with the work of
4144:
3486:
8:
4021:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring
3124:"A Brief History of Simulation Neuroscience"
2884:Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology
2399:The integrative action of the nervous system
2756:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences
2581:Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie
1886:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences
631:who developed one of the first ideas about
4568:
4151:
4137:
4129:
3493:
3479:
3471:
1223:, Birkhauser Verlag AG, pp. 843–847,
883:started the Department of Neurobiology at
823:across the space between neurons known as
3373:
3157:
3139:
3039:
2955:
2903:
2843:
2833:
2613:
2478:
2437:
2322:
2168:
2119:
2070:
1716:
1338:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
997:International Brain Research Organization
1007:International Society for Neurochemistry
917:
3467:ten-part series of BBC radio programmes
3122:Fan, Xue; Markram, Henry (2019-05-07).
1186:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1169:
122:thought that the heart was the seat of
1593:
1248:
1246:
967:Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience
865:Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
293:of the brain, proposing the theory of
165:, the Greek physician and philosopher
85:, written in the 17th century BC. The
74:designating the brain or skull in the
1442:Roudgari, Hassan (28 December 2018).
1412:Colgan, Richard (19 September 2009).
1122:History of neurology and neurosurgery
897:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
869:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
577:. In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the
505:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
4111:
1017:European Brain and Behaviour Society
987:Institute of Higher Nervous Activity
956:St. Petersburg State Medical Academy
954:Psychoneurological Institute at the
937:Vienna University School of Medicine
599:Institute of Higher Nervous Activity
591:St. Petersburg State Medical Academy
536:Vienna University School of Medicine
2816:Kumar, R.; Yeragani, V. K. (2011).
2397:Sherrington, Charles Scott (1906).
3290:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.09.057
1754:10.1227/01.NEU.0000335083.93093.06
1748:(1): 164–171, discussion 171–172.
1477:Mohamed, Wael MY (December 2012).
1465:in use up to the recent centuries.
1448:Journal of Iranian Medical Council
1180:; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM (2000).
609:was established on July 14, 1950.
579:Institute of Experimental Medicine
25:
4189:History and philosophy of science
4001:Development of the nervous system
3412:Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
3020:The Journal of General Physiology
2307:"Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev"
1255:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain
1112:History of catecholamine research
783:worked with Cole and derived the
662:because it was released from the
4591:
4590:
4578:
4567:
4197:
4110:
4099:
4098:
3656:
3452:
1027:British Neuroscience Association
873:University of California, Irvine
787:in 1943 at Columbia University.
658:. He initially gave it the name
627:). Sherrington also worked with
583:The Work of the Digestive Glands
499:and led to the formation of the
2376:"Sir Charles Scott Sherrington"
1117:History of neuraxial anesthesia
803:technique in 1947. Hodgkin and
3077:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343
2378:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
2229:Journal of Neural Transmission
2112:10.1113/jphysiol.1905.sp001128
2055:10.1113/jphysiol.1898.sp000726
1998:Cushing, Harvey (1 May 1909).
1333:(3): 255–263, discussion 263.
1060:International Brain Initiative
1047:National Brain Research Centre
791:spent a year (1937–38) at the
747:Natural History Museum, London
697:across the membrane. In 1907,
1:
3842:Social cognitive neuroscience
3239:10.1016/S0361-9230(00)00294-X
3128:Frontiers in Neuroinformatics
3065:Annual Review of Neuroscience
3014:Goldman DE (September 1943).
2699:Garson, Justin (March 2015).
2324:10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30336-8
2037:Langley, J. N. (1898-07-26).
1826:Finkelstein, Gabriel (2013).
1701:"Julien Jean César Legallois"
935:Obersteiner Institute of the
893:Neuroscience Research Program
851:and collaborators have cited
736:velocity of action potentials
593:in 1907 where he worked with
189:, would the understanding of
3817:Molecular cellular cognition
3408:Rousseau, George S. (2004).
3375:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.021
2822:Indian Journal of Psychiatry
2471:10.1113/jphysiol.2003.046219
1861:Helmholtz: A Life in Science
1486:IBRO History of Neuroscience
1384:Archives of Iranian Medicine
1292:10.1016/0090-3019(86)90070-4
1217:Encyclopedia of Neuroscience
1183:Principles of Neural Science
1101:) spanning four continents.
1058:was announced in the US. An
906:Institutes and organizations
843:models of neural computation
638:Acetylcholine was the first
83:Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus
4540:Neurology and neurosurgery
4036:Neurodevelopmental disorder
4011:Neural network (biological)
4006:Neural network (artificial)
2453:Whelan PJ (December 2003).
2194:The British Medical Journal
1651:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
895:", which was hosted by the
752:In the process of treating
350:César Julien Jean Legallois
4634:
3563:Computational neuroscience
3434:London: Psychology Press.
3430:Wickens, Andrew P. (2015)
2292:10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941
1898:10.1076/jhin.10.2.149.7254
1528:10.1016/j.wneu.2015.11.016
1142:History of neurophysiology
1137:History of neuropsychology
927:Institute or organization
762:The Cerebral Cortex of Man
633:central pattern generators
575:involuntary reflex actions
540:Redlich–Obersteiner's zone
416:heard of a patient at the
329:
4563:
4195:
4094:
4031:Neurodegenerative disease
3875:Evolutionary neuroscience
3654:
3508:
2768:10.1080/09647040600638981
2717:10.1017/S0269889714000313
2412:Graham-Brown, T. (1911).
2241:10.1007/s00702-005-0400-7
2161:10.1017/s0025727300000090
2043:The Journal of Physiology
1949:Documenta Ophthalmologica
1340:10.1007/s10143-009-0205-5
1257:. Baltimore: Lippincott.
613:Charles Scott Sherrington
356:. Between 1811 and 1824,
114:The debate regarding the
3996:Brain–computer interface
3945:Neuromorphic engineering
3870:Educational neuroscience
3777:Nutritional neuroscience
3682:Clinical neurophysiology
3578:Integrative neuroscience
3141:10.3389/fninf.2019.00032
2305:Bozhkova, Elena (2018).
1572:10.3171/foc.2007.23.1.15
1037:Society for Neuroscience
913:Society for Neuroscience
839:biological neuron models
197:Medieval to early modern
169:dissected the brains of
4618:History of neuroscience
4254:20th century in science
4249:19th century in science
3807:Behavioral neuroscience
3459:History of neuroscience
3332:www.kavlifoundation.org
3227:Brain Research Bulletin
3184:Clinical Neuropathology
2835:10.4103/0019-5545.86826
2631:J. Physiol. Pathol. Gen
2200:(2742): 153–154. 1913.
1574:(inactive 2024-09-12).
1157:List of neuroscientists
729:were able to modify an
510:electrical excitability
474:superior temporal gyrus
193:surpass that of Galen.
38:, there is evidence of
4174:Theories and sociology
3802:Affective neuroscience
3583:Molecular neuroscience
3538:Behavioral epigenetics
3465:A History of the Brain
2439:10.1098/rspb.1911.0077
1718:10.1002/clc.4960181015
1699:Bruce Fye, W. (1995).
885:Harvard Medical School
749:
678:
497:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
450:John Hughlings Jackson
448:patients conducted by
342:Lucia Galeazzi Galvani
261:
78:
4234:Scientific Revolution
3865:Cultural neuroscience
3860:Consumer neuroscience
3702:Neurogastroenterology
3558:Cellular neuroscience
2280:American Psychologist
2143:Maehle A.-H. (2004).
2094:Langley J.N. (1905).
2016:10.1093/brain/32.1.44
1859:Cahan, David (2018).
1785:Seminars in Neurology
1132:History of psychology
1127:History of psychiatry
813:FitzHugh–Nagumo model
793:Rockefeller Institute
744:
715:all-or-none principle
676:
391:Hermann von Helmholtz
285:In the 17th century,
281:Scientific Revolution
259:
150:, and identified the
108:On the Sacred Disease
70:
4487:Agricultural science
4239:Age of Enlightenment
3837:Sensory neuroscience
3677:Behavioral neurology
3648:Systems neuroscience
3461:at Wikimedia Commons
2948:10.1085/jgp.22.5.649
2896:10.3402/snp.v5.26428
2311:The Lancet Neurology
1797:10.1055/s-2002-36759
1327:Neurosurgical Review
1152:List of neurologists
809:Hodgkin–Huxley model
532:Heinrich Obersteiner
514:John Newport Langley
387:Emil du Bois-Reymond
378:Jean Pierre Flourens
18:History of the brain
4525:Veterinary medicine
4219:Classical Antiquity
3980:Social neuroscience
3880:Global neurosurgery
3757:Neurorehabilitation
3727:Neuro-ophthalmology
3712:Neurointensive care
3543:Behavioral genetics
3032:10.1085/jgp.27.1.37
2993:1999ASAJ..106.1225V
2430:1911RSPSB..84..308B
1705:Clinical Cardiology
1560:Neurosurgical Focus
920:
776:Columbia University
766:cortical homunculus
629:Thomas Graham Brown
430:cerebral hemisphere
410:executive functions
364:discovered through
303:cerebrospinal fluid
76:Edwin Smith papyrus
4160:History of science
4056:Neuroimmune system
3950:Neurophenomenology
3890:Neural engineering
3613:Neuroendocrinology
3593:Neural engineering
2705:Science in Context
2593:10.1007/BF01790181
2587:(10–12): 521–562.
2551:10.1007/BF01753035
2516:10.1007/BF01738910
1961:10.1007/BF01203410
1516:World Neurosurgery
1280:Surgical Neurology
1147:History of science
1085:2020-02-05 at the
918:
889:Francis O. Schmitt
857:Francis O. Schmitt
835:Morris–Lecar model
789:Alan Lloyd Hodgkin
750:
679:
670:with adrenaline.″
644:Henry Hallett Dale
587:Vladimir Bekhterev
482:Korbinian Brodmann
398:John Martyn Harlow
262:
128:Hellenistic period
79:
4605:
4604:
4497:Materials science
4459:Political science
4224:Medieval European
4126:
4125:
3975:Paleoneurobiology
3910:Neuroepistemology
3885:Neuroanthropology
3851:Interdisciplinary
3737:Neuropharmacology
3697:Neuroepidemiology
3457:Media related to
3440:978-1-84872-365-8
2465:(Pt 3): 695–706.
1870:978-0-226-48114-2
1425:978-1-4419-1034-9
1264:978-0-7817-3944-3
1193:978-0-8385-7701-1
1052:
1051:
821:neurotransmission
703:dynamical systems
695:resting potential
625:Sherrington's law
554:Twentieth century
518:chemical receptor
406:prefrontal cortex
376:). In the 1820s,
374:Bell–Magendie law
362:François Magendie
354:medulla oblongata
312:balloonist theory
246:Guido da Vigevano
183:François Magendie
16:(Redirected from
4625:
4598:
4594:
4593:
4586:
4582:
4571:
4570:
4492:Computer science
4340:Natural sciences
4305:Medieval Islamic
4201:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4130:
4114:
4113:
4102:
4101:
4016:Detection theory
3900:Neurocriminology
3827:Neurolinguistics
3742:Neuroprosthetics
3660:
3623:Neuroinformatics
3573:Imaging genetics
3495:
3488:
3481:
3472:
3456:
3396:
3395:
3377:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3343:
3334:. Archived from
3324:
3318:
3317:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3196:10.5414/NPP27439
3178:
3172:
3171:
3161:
3143:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3109:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3043:
3011:
3005:
3004:
3001:10.1121/1.428239
2987:(3): 1225–1226.
2976:
2970:
2969:
2959:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2907:
2875:
2869:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2847:
2837:
2813:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2795:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2482:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2424:(572): 308–319.
2409:
2403:
2402:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2326:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2172:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2123:
2106:(4–5): 374–413.
2091:
2085:
2084:
2074:
2034:
2028:
2027:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1955:(1–2): 173–184.
1944:
1938:
1935:
1926:
1925:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1720:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1681:. Archived from
1648:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1599:
1591:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1496:. Archived from
1483:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1409:
1403:
1402:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1342:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1250:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1222:
1211:
1198:
1197:
1174:
1056:BRAIN Initiative
921:
877:James L. McGaugh
797:squid giant axon
785:Goldman equation
781:David E. Goldman
723:Josepht Erlanger
709:and his protege
683:Julius Bernstein
668:Sympathicusstoff
640:neurotransmitter
595:Alexandre Dogiel
418:Bicêtre Hospital
266:Andreas Vesalius
242:Mondino de Luzzi
29:ancient Egyptian
21:
4633:
4632:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4623:
4622:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4601:
4589:
4577:
4559:
4506:
4473:
4431:Social sciences
4425:
4372:
4334:
4258:
4202:
4193:
4162:
4157:
4127:
4122:
4090:
4076:Neurotechnology
4071:Neuroplasticity
4066:Neuromodulation
4061:Neuromanagement
3984:
3955:Neurophilosophy
3852:
3846:
3832:Neuropsychology
3793:
3786:
3747:Neuropsychiatry
3707:Neuroimmunology
3692:Neurocardiology
3668:
3661:
3652:
3643:Neurophysiology
3633:Neuromorphology
3588:Neural decoding
3529:
3522:
3504:
3499:
3449:
3405:
3403:Further reading
3400:
3399:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3341:
3339:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3224:
3223:
3219:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3107:
3105:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3013:
3012:
3008:
2978:
2977:
2973:
2936:J. Gen. Physiol
2926:
2925:
2921:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2861:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2799:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2612:
2608:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2536:
2535:
2531:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2093:
2092:
2088:
2036:
2035:
2031:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1929:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1858:
1857:
1853:
1838:
1825:
1824:
1820:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1711:(10): 599–600.
1698:
1697:
1693:
1685:
1646:
1642:Cobb M (2002).
1641:
1640:
1636:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1592:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1481:
1476:
1475:
1471:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1265:
1252:
1251:
1244:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1220:
1213:
1212:
1201:
1194:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1107:
1087:Wayback Machine
1068:Allen Institute
908:
881:Stephen Kuffler
861:Stephen Kuffler
758:Wilder Penfield
719:neurophysiology
691:Nernst equation
556:
501:neuron doctrine
400:described that
383:Carlo Matteucci
346:Giovanni Aldini
334:
328:
283:
275:corpus callosum
254:
199:
191:spinal function
65:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4631:
4629:
4621:
4620:
4610:
4609:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4599:
4587:
4575:
4564:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4520:Human medicine
4516:
4514:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4483:
4481:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4435:
4433:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4344:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4210:
4208:
4204:
4203:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4179:Historiography
4176:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4156:
4155:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4120:
4108:
4095:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4086:Self-awareness
4083:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4041:Neurodiversity
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3940:Neuromarketing
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3915:Neuroesthetics
3912:
3907:
3905:Neuroeconomics
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3856:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3798:
3796:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3752:Neuroradiology
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3732:Neuropathology
3729:
3724:
3722:Neuro-oncology
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3671:
3663:
3662:
3655:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3608:Neurochemistry
3605:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3534:
3532:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3490:
3483:
3475:
3469:
3468:
3462:
3448:
3447:External links
3445:
3444:
3443:
3428:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3348:
3319:
3268:
3233:(6): 445–457.
3217:
3190:(6): 439–443.
3173:
3114:
3090:
3055:
3006:
2971:
2942:(5): 649–670.
2919:
2870:
2859:
2828:(3): 276–278.
2808:
2797:
2762:(4): 341–357.
2746:
2691:
2662:10.1086/368737
2656:(1): 208–235.
2640:
2618:
2614:Bernstein 1902
2606:
2564:
2529:
2494:
2445:
2404:
2389:
2367:
2346:
2297:
2286:(9): 941–946.
2270:
2235:(3): 271–282.
2219:
2184:
2155:(2): 153–174.
2135:
2086:
2049:(3): 240–270.
2029:
1990:
1939:
1927:
1892:(2): 149–162.
1876:
1869:
1851:
1836:
1818:
1791:(4): 375–384.
1775:
1732:
1691:
1688:on 2005-05-15.
1663:10.1038/nrn806
1657:(5): 395–400.
1634:
1623:(6): 533–576.
1607:
1549:
1506:
1503:on 2019-01-01.
1469:
1434:
1424:
1404:
1370:
1313:
1270:
1263:
1242:
1230:978-3764333331
1229:
1199:
1192:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
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1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1050:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1004:
1000:
999:
994:
990:
989:
984:
980:
979:
974:
970:
969:
963:
959:
958:
952:
948:
947:
944:
940:
939:
933:
929:
928:
925:
907:
904:
727:Herbert Gasser
699:Louis Lapicque
555:
552:
526:nerve impulses
478:Harvey Cushing
438:Gustav Fritsch
330:Main article:
327:
324:
307:Jan Swammerdam
287:René Descartes
282:
279:
253:
250:
207:Islamic Iberia
198:
195:
95:Ancient Greece
64:
61:
49:Middle Kingdom
32:mummifications
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4630:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4597:
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4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
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4518:
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4513:
4509:
4503:
4500:
4498:
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4488:
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4476:
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4440:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4396:Combinatorics
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4363:Earth science
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4261:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4214:Ancient world
4212:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4184:Pseudoscience
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4147:
4142:
4140:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4119:
4118:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4097:
4096:
4093:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3970:Neurotheology
3968:
3966:
3965:Neurorobotics
3963:
3961:
3960:Neuropolitics
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3925:Neuroethology
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3822:Motor control
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3812:Chronobiology
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3789:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3772:Neurovirology
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3664:
3659:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3618:Neurogenetics
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:Brain-reading
3551:
3549:
3548:Brain mapping
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3525:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3503:
3496:
3491:
3489:
3484:
3482:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3455:
3451:
3450:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3427:
3426:1-4039-3453-3
3423:
3419:
3418:1-4039-3454-1
3415:
3411:
3407:
3406:
3402:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3349:
3338:on 2020-02-05
3337:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3272:
3269:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3221:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3177:
3174:
3169:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3118:
3115:
3104:
3100:
3094:
3091:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2801:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2695:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
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2659:
2655:
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2644:
2641:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2619:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2446:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2405:
2400:
2393:
2390:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2220:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1866:
1862:
1855:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1837:9781461950325
1833:
1829:
1822:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1645:
1638:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1608:
1603:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1480:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1390:(12): 785–9.
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1332:
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1317:
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1309:
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1301:
1297:
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1232:
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1200:
1195:
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1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
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1125:
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1118:
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1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
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1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:In 2013, the
1048:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1018:
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1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
991:
988:
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975:
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968:
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938:
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930:
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900:
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890:
886:
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850:
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840:
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831:
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818:
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805:Andrew Huxley
802:
801:voltage clamp
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
777:
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767:
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755:
748:
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739:
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732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
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708:
704:
700:
696:
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688:
684:
675:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
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649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
608:
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600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
553:
551:
549:
545:
544:Róbert Bárány
541:
537:
533:
529:
527:
523:
522:Francis Gotch
519:
515:
511:
506:
502:
498:
494:
493:Camillo Golgi
490:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:David Ferrier
467:
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462:Richard Caton
459:
458:Carl Wernicke
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316:Thomas Willis
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4535:Neuroscience
4534:
4439:Anthropology
4421:Trigonometry
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4103:
4051:Neuroimaging
4046:Neurogenesis
3930:Neurohistory
3895:Neurobiotics
3794:neuroscience
3762:Neurosurgery
3687:Epileptology
3669:neuroscience
3638:Neurophysics
3628:Neurometrics
3603:Neurobiology
3598:Neuroanatomy
3568:Connectomics
3517:
3502:Neuroscience
3431:
3420:(Paperback)
3409:
3368:(1): 19–36.
3365:
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3340:. Retrieved
3336:the original
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3278:Neuroscience
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687:permeability
680:
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530:
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454:motor cortex
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426:frontal lobe
402:Phineas Gage
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358:Charles Bell
335:
332:Neuroscience
299:pineal gland
289:studied the
284:
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205:, living in
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175:Barbary apes
163:Roman Empire
160:
136:Erasistratus
124:intelligence
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106:
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26:
4502:Engineering
4444:Archaeology
4411:Probability
4378:Mathematics
4244:Romanticism
4229:Renaissance
3920:Neuroethics
3767:Neurotology
3103:www.sfn.org
3071:: 345–346.
2545:: 504–514.
2510:: 239–242.
1522:: 647–655.
1236:25 November
853:David Rioch
849:Eric Kandel
815:. In 1962,
707:Keith Lucas
664:vagus nerve
617:motor units
567:temperament
563:Ivan Pavlov
412:. In 1861,
370:vivisection
252:Renaissance
161:During the
116:hegemonikon
103:hegemonikon
4479:Technology
4464:Psychology
4416:Statistics
4263:By culture
4167:Background
4081:Neurotoxin
3782:Psychiatry
3342:2019-05-29
3108:2019-03-30
2637:: 620–635.
2627:Lapicque L
2459:J. Physiol
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1178:Kandel, ER
1164:References
924:Foundation
660:Vagusstoff
656:amphibians
648:Otto Loewi
489:microscope
414:Paul Broca
366:dissection
291:physiology
231:Maimonides
203:Al-Zahrawi
156:dura mater
152:ventricles
148:cerebellum
140:dissecting
132:Herophilus
87:hieroglyph
72:Hieroglyph
4573:Timelines
4550:Pathology
4545:Nutrition
4469:Sociology
4449:Economics
4358:Chemistry
4348:Astronomy
4285:Byzantine
4280:Brazilian
4275:Argentine
4026:Neurochip
3792:Cognitive
3717:Neurology
3392:207222852
3298:1873-7544
3284:: 10–14.
3247:0361-9230
3204:0722-5091
3150:1662-5196
2890:: 26428.
2776:0964-704X
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2670:0369-7827
2249:0300-9564
2206:0007-1447
2100:J Physiol
2063:0022-3751
2024:0006-8950
1969:0012-4486
1906:0964-704X
1846:864592470
1813:260317107
1762:1524-4040
1580:1092-0684
1536:1878-8769
1460:2645-338X
1349:1437-2320
1300:0090-3019
1080:Australia
446:epileptic
396:In 1848,
320:brainstem
219:Abulcasis
120:Aristotle
63:Antiquity
57:Herodotus
27:From the
4612:Category
4596:Category
4555:Pharmacy
4512:Medicine
4401:Geometry
4391:Calculus
4310:Japanese
4105:Category
3989:Concepts
3935:Neurolaw
3667:Clinical
3384:30308169
3314:38900823
3306:29066383
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1357:19437052
1105:See also
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825:synapses
819:modeled
754:epilepsy
621:synapses
434:Marc Dax
264:Work by
227:Avenzoar
223:Averroes
215:Avicenna
154:and the
146:and the
144:cerebrum
99:Alcmaeon
4530:Anatomy
4454:History
4386:Algebra
4368:Physics
4353:Biology
4330:Spanish
4325:Russian
4320:Mexican
4295:Chinese
4270:African
4117:Commons
3530:science
3518:History
3513:Outline
3159:6513977
3041:2142582
2989:Bibcode
2957:2142006
2928:Cole KS
2905:4357265
2845:3221191
2480:2343637
2426:Bibcode
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2360:31 July
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1977:7555576
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830:Aplysia
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424:in the
295:dualism
271:putamen
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4290:French
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422:lesion
211:Persia
4406:Logic
3528:Basic
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3310:S2CID
3259:S2CID
2788:S2CID
2737:S2CID
2682:S2CID
2597:S2CID
2555:S2CID
2520:S2CID
2337:S2CID
2261:S2CID
2210:JSTOR
2004:Brain
1981:S2CID
1918:S2CID
1809:S2CID
1686:(PDF)
1675:S2CID
1647:(PDF)
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1221:(PDF)
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1072:Japan
1043:1997
1033:1969
1023:1968
1013:1968
1003:1963
993:1960
983:1950
973:1947
962:1909
951:1907
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