1381:
Scotland: the Duke of
Rothesay, the heir-apparent to the Crown. The weak nature of the Scottish Crown had permitted the lesser feudal barons to continue attending the Scottish Estates, or Parliament, until the fifteenth century. Thereafter, only Earls and Lords of Parliament (the greater barons) came to be summoned to the Estates. In Scotland, the peerage remained tied to land until after the Union. Every earldom or lordship of Parliament was accompanied by a grant of land; sometimes, peerages and their associated lands were surrendered in return for other peerages and lands. After the Union of the Crowns, however, the concept of the Peerage as a personal dignity, not a dignity affixed to land, became established in Scotland.
1309:
Earls were the first to be hereditary, and three different rules can be traced for the case of an Earl who left no sons and several married daughters. In the thirteenth century, the husband of the eldest daughter inherited the
Earldom automatically; in the fifteenth century, the Earldom reverted to the Crown, who might regrant it (often to the eldest son-in-law); in the seventeenth century, it wouldn't be inherited by anybody unless all but one of the daughters died and left no descendants, in which case the remaining daughter (or her heir) would inherit.
1522:
every time three previous ones became extinct, until the number of Irish peers without
British peerages amounted to one hundred, when further creations would be permitted as often as necessary to maintain that number. Since Irish peers were not automatically entitled to representation in the Lords, individuals could be created Irish peers so as to honour them without further swelling the numbers of the House of Lords. There were only 21 creations of new Irish peerages after the Union; all other new peerages since 1801 have been created in the
1393:
1553:, but these failed. Only in 1876, twenty years after the Wensleydale case, was the Appellate Jurisdiction Act passed, authorising the appointment of two Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (commonly called Law Lords) to sit in the House of Lords as barons. They were to hold the rank of baron for life, but sit in the Lords only until retiring from judicial office. In 1887, they were permitted to continue to sit in the Lords for life; the number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary was also increased by further enactments.
1166:
was fettered by the principles of hereditary right. At first, the writ of summons was regarded as a burden and interference, but later, when
Parliament's power increased, it was seen as a sign of royal favour. Since the Crown was itself an hereditary dignity, it seemed natural for seats in the upper House of Parliament to be so as well. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Peerage had evolved its hereditary characteristics. Since under Norman customs, estates devolved under the principles of
37:
285:
1368:, but provided that Irish peerages could still be created. However, the Irish peers were concerned that their honours would be diluted as cheap prizes, and insisted that an Irish peerage be created only when three Irish peerages had gone extinct (until there were only 100 Irish peers left). In the early nineteenth century, Irish creations were as frequent as this allowed; but only three have been created since 1863, and none since 1898.
273:
1349:
in a peculiar political position; because they were subjects of the King of
England, but peers in a different kingdom, they could sit in the English House of Commons, and many did. In the eighteenth century, Irish peerages became rewards for English politicians, limited only by the concern that they might go to Dublin and interfere with the Irish Government.
1617:
hereditary peerages within a year of succeeding to them, or within a year of attaining the age of majority. All eligible
Scottish peers were permitted to sit in the House of Lords, and elections for representative peers ceased. Elections for Irish representative peers had already ended in 1922, when most of Ireland left the United Kingdom to become the
1186:, when the latter method fell into desuetude. Some peerage dignities, however, have been created by writs of summons since that time. In most cases, such peerage dignities were created when a writ was issued to an individual under the misapprehension that he was entitled to a peerage dignity created by letters patent. The
1165:
The
Peerage, still, was not an hereditary body. Kings did not consider themselves, having once summoned an individual, bound to summon the same individual, much less his heirs, to future Parliaments. Thus, writs were issued at the whim of the King. Over time, however, the arbitrary power of the Crown
1517:
were especially liberal in dispensing peerage dignities, a device used to obtain majorities in the House of Lords. It became apparent that the representation of
Scottish peers was inadequate: they had continued to elect but sixteen peers, while the number of British peers had increased tremendously.
1348:
After Henry II became the Lord of
Ireland, he and his successors began to imitate the English system as it was in their time. Irish Earls were first created in the thirteenth century, and Irish Parliaments began in the fifteenth century, complete with seven Barons of Parliament. The Irish peers were
1211:
Earls appear to have sat in
Parliament by virtue of their baronies, and not their earldoms. The separation of the two dignities seems to have arisen after the advent of the usage of letters patent to create peerage dignities. In some cases, a baron who held a dignity created by a writ of summons was
1420:
dictator, later found it convenient to re-establish a second chamber to reduce the power of the Commons. About sixty writs of summons, resembling those issued to peers sitting in the House of Lords, were issued. The individuals so summoned were called Lords, but their dignities were not hereditary.
1616:
Women were eventually admitted to the House of Lords in 1958. The Life Peerages Act passed that year permitted the creation of life baronies for both men and women on a regular basis. Hereditary peeresses were admitted in 1963 under the Peerage Act. The Peerage Act also permitted peers to disclaim
1561:
In the twentieth century, peers were almost always created to reward political merit, and creations became much more common. The peerage ceased to be associated with wealth or land ownership. At the beginning of the century, however, such associations remained for some time. In 1909, Chancellor of
1412:. In 1648, the House of Commons passed an Act abolishing the House of Lords, "finding by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The Peerage was not abolished, and peers became entitled to be elected to the sole remaining House of Parliament.
1612:
peeress, attempted to take a seat in the House of Lords. Though the Law Lords declared that she was, under the act, eligible, Lady Rhondda was not admitted by a decision of the committee for privileges. Many Conservatives were opposed to admitting women to the House of Lords. Liberals, meanwhile,
1521:
In 1801, Ireland united with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom. Ireland became entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to sit in the House of Lords as representative peers. Unlike the Union of Scotland and England, the Crown retained the right to create one new Irish peerage dignity
1380:
became King James I of England. Scotland's Peerage then became subject to many of the same principles as the English Peerage, though many peculiarities of Scottish law continue to apply to it today. Scotland, like England, had lesser and greater barons, as well as earls. There was but one Duke in
1308:
If a man held a peerage, his son would succeed to it; if he had no children, his brother would succeed. If he had a single daughter, his son-in-law would inherit the family lands, and usually the same Peerage; more complex cases were decided depending on circumstances. Customs changed with time;
1384:
James I had poor relations with the English Parliament, which had been less submissive than the Scottish Estates that he had been accustomed to. To raise funds without taxation, James began to sell titles. For instance, individuals paying ÂŁ1095 could obtain the non-peerage hereditary dignity of
1437:
falsely suggested that there was a "Popish Plot" to murder the King. Catholic peers were hindered from the House of Lords because they were forced, before taking their seats, to recite a declaration that denounced some of the Roman Church's doctrines as "superstitious and idolatrous." These
1445:
into Great Britain. There were, at the time, one hundred and sixty-eight English peers and one hundred and fifty-four Scottish ones. English peers did not wish for their individual significance in the House of Lords to dwindle, so they agreed to permit Scotland to elect just sixteen
1312:
During the reign of Henry VIII, peers attempted to consolidate and secure their position. They declared themselves "ennobled in blood," and suggested that no peerage could be extinguished except by an Act of Parliament, upon the extinction of all heirs to it, or upon forfeiture for
1747:
If there was no male heir, the lands of a barony would be partitioned between female heiresses who might hold a half, quarter, or thirty-sixth of a barony. As a result, a distinction was made between the greater barons and lesser barons. A "lesser baron" would fall into the
1574:, threatened to have the king create two hundred and fifty new Liberal peers to neutralise the Conservative majority in the House of Lords. The Lords then passed the Parliament Act, which provides that most bills can only be delayed, not rejected, by the House of Lords.
1432:
continued the Stuart tendency of profusely creating peerages, even eclipsing the figures of James I's reign. Several of those dignities went to Charles' many mistresses and illegitimate sons. Charles II's reign was also marked by the persecution of Roman Catholics after
1549:, a baron of the Exchequer, a life peer as Baron Wensleydale. The Lords refused to admit him, deeming that nothing but an Act of Parliament could change the fundamental hereditary characteristic of the Lords. Bills were later introduced to permit the creation of
1173:
Barons sat in Parliament by a combination of tenure and writs of summons issued to them. If a woman held a barony, her husband was summoned to Parliament in her right. The concept of a barony as a personal dignity not tied to land arose only when, in about 1388,
1194:
1505:, the Queen's closest Protestant relative, bypassing about 50 others in the line of succession. As the power of the monarch slowly shifted to Parliament, peerage dignities came to be conferred at the behest of ministers, not at the pleasure of the Crown.
1533:, with an electorate of seven. Such small boroughs were often "owned" by peers, whose nominees were almost always elected. The Reform Act and further Acts reduced the influence of peers in the lower house, and therefore their overall political power.
465:
and came to dominate the east and southeast of the island. Based on archaeological evidence (such as burials and buildings), these early communities appear to have lacked any social elite. Around half the population were free, independent farmers
1005:
By the 13th century, the criteria for establishing baronial tenure was long forgotten. According to Ivor John Sanders, "both tenants-in-chief and the royal officials were ignorant of any principle of law upon which the liability to tenure
1141:, first issued in 1215, declared that "No free man shall be seized, imprisoned, dispossessed, outlawed, exiled or ruined in any way, nor in any way proceeded against, except by the lawful judgement of his peers". In the charter, the word
998:, a representative body that increasingly asserted for itself the right to consent to taxation. Initially, participation in Parliament was still determined by one's status as a tenant-in-chief. Earls and greater barons received a
734:
Below ealdormen were king's thegns, so called because they only served the king. The lowest thegnly rank were the median thegns who owed service to other thegns. Thegns were the backbone of local government and the military.
1360:, and the rules covering the peers should follow the English model; because there were proportionately many more Scottish peers, they chose a number of representatives to sit in the British House of Lords. The
1153:
responded angrily that there were no peers in England "as there were in the realm of France". This response was likely due to fears that a recognized peerage could challenge royal authority. By the reign of
1536:
An important development of the nineteenth century was the Law Lord. In 1856, it was deemed necessary to add a legally qualified peer to the House of Lords: the Lords exercised, and still exercise, certain
1508:
King George III's reign is of particular note in the history of the Peerage. Increases to the Peerage during the time were totally unprecedented: almost four hundred peers were created during his reign.
1389:. Even peerage dignities were sold. Thus, James I added sixty-two peers to a body that had included just fifty-nine members at the commencement of his reign. His Stuart successors were no less profuse.
876:
as "the greatest men in the aristocracy (whether they were earls, barons or not), men habitually at court, lords of great estates, those indeed whom the king consulted in the affairs of the realm".
230:
431:
occurred in 1984; even then it was considered unusual. Life peers and 92 hereditary peers still retain the right to sit and vote in the House of Lords, though their power is restricted and further
1305:, or charter declaring a man to be a Baron; and the five orders began to be called Peers; holders of older peerages also began receive greater honour than Peers of the same rank just created.
1182:. The Lord de Beauchamp was a baron not by tenure but rather by the will of the Crown. Letters patent and writs of summons were both used to create peerage dignities until the reign of
316:
2325:
2247:
1570:, the returned government introduced the Parliament Bill, which sought to curtail the powers of the Lords. When the Lords attempted to block the bill, the prime minister,
1636:(of the Labour Party), recommended hereditary peerage creations. Since then, hereditary peerages have not been regularly created outside of members of the royal family.
1656:
became Viscount Whitelaw, both in 1983. The peerages of the latter two became extinct upon their deaths; the Earldom of Stockton survives. Thatcher's husband received
1590:
1518:
To account for this deficiency in representation, British hereditary peerages were granted to Scottish peers, thereby entitling them to sit in the House of Lords.
1145:
meant "equal", but this ambiguous wording led to disputes over who was equal to an earl or baron and therefore who could sit in judgment of earls and barons. When
1567:
309:
1485:
in a previously Whig-dominated House. In response to the increase in creations, the House of Lords proposed a bill to restrict its numbers in 1719, but the
2217:
2164:
2122:
1605:
393:
1541:, but did not necessarily include a sufficient number of peers well-versed in law. So that the number of hereditary peers would not be further increased,
1023:
1538:
917:
2782:
1653:
1601:
302:
1274:
for life, making him the first person to hold a dignity of such a rank between dukes and earls. Subsequent marquessates were created rarely; the
1628:, of the Labour Party, became prime minister in 1964 he ceased to recommend the creation of hereditary peerages and neither of his successors,
935:
236:
2750:
2637:
1649:
1586:
1510:
1447:
1146:
968:
226:
1597:—had their peerage dignities suspended. The successors to those dignities may petition for their restoration, but none has chosen to do so.
1283:
1252:
1244:
1227:
was created before the 1300s possibly because kings did not want their subjects possessing the same title as themselves. The first English
493:
By the late 6th century, the archeological evidence (grander burials and buildings) suggests the development of a social elite. The early
1325:, which removed the abbots and priors from the House. Thereafter, the temporal peers formed for the first time a majority in the Lords.
1301:, attendance at Parliament became more valuable. The first claim of hereditary right to a writ comes from this reign; so does the first
2546:
2477:
2329:
2301:
2251:
1594:
1546:
1259:
1212:
created an Earl, and the two dignities later separated, the barony devolving upon the heir-general, and the earldom to an heir-male.
2757:
2722:
2698:
2615:
2525:
2390:
1684:
879:
The fiefs of earls and barons were called "honours". The honours were not compact territorial units. The Conqueror purposely spread
755:
1566:
proposed the introduction of a land tax, which the landowning peers opposed. The House of Lords rejected the budget. After the
771:
2663:
2501:
2453:
1604:
provided that "A person shall not be disqualified by sex or marriage from the exercise of any public function." In 1922, the
1542:
1322:
55:
2366:
2354:
2309:
1676:
1523:
1365:
953:
401:
179:
986:
or before the king himself. The baronage had a duty as tenants-in-chief to provide the king with advice when summoned to
1706:, hereditary peerages do not entitle individuals to seats in the House of Lords. The Act did provide exemptions for the
1692:
1470:
432:
221:
2435:
1668:
1578:
744:
770:) paralleled the secular aristocracy. The church's power derived from its spiritual authority as well as its virtual
36:
1333:
Scotland evolved a similar system, differing in points of detail. The first Scottish Earldoms derive from the seven
2445:
1030:. Over time, baronies by writ became the main method of creating baronies, and baronies by tenure became obsolete.
1502:
1421:
But soon after the establishment of this body, Cromwell dissolved Parliament, taking power into his own hands as
1318:
2708:
2511:
2463:
1514:
1463:
1357:
1197:
884:
869:
635:
and 1,200s for a thegn. Children inherited thegnly status from their father, and a thegnly woman who married a
397:
206:
169:
883:
over several shires to dilute the power of the barons. For example, the largest landholder after the king was
1317:
or felony. The Spiritual Lords had attempted to secure the privileges of the Peerage while maintaining their
845:
in Latin) and were distinguished by certain rights and responsibilities from other tenants-in-chief who held
2625:
1703:
1529:
In 1832, the Reform Act was passed, abolishing many of England's "rotten" boroughs, an example of which was
1342:
1236:
246:
650:
were peasants. Some were themselves landlords, and these prosperous free men could aspire to thegnly rank.
1711:
1498:
1338:
1275:
983:
860:
was largely untitled, but a small number of barons (never more than 25 at one time) enjoyed the title of
1429:
1267:
1232:
1183:
1175:
995:
963:
895:, it was rare for the estates of any lordship to be contiguous. The ten wealthiest barons in 1086 were:
836:
832:
831:
would then grant land to their own vassals. The greater tenants-in-chief were large landowners known as
801:
681:, king's thegns, and median thegns. The ealdorman was an official appointed by the king to administer a
370:
289:
1702:
After the Labour Party came to power in 1997, it began further reform of the House of Lords. Under the
1613:
felt that admitting hereditary peeresses would extend the hereditary principle which they so detested.
1392:
686:
1728:
1640:, a Conservative, did revive the practice of creating hereditary peers while she was prime minister:
1409:
1205:
1155:
991:
958:
816:
712:
651:
494:
216:
2409:
2273:
1321:, but lost in both attempts. Nonetheless, they were in the majority in the House of Lords until the
1459:
1451:
1294:
1069:
1019:
926:
728:
724:
417:
409:
164:
137:
2589:
2487:
1563:
1455:
1442:
1377:
1361:
1353:
1278:, whose dignity was created in 1551, is the only English marquess without a dukedom. The rank of
1271:
1128:
1084:
930:
483:
413:
405:
174:
159:
104:
1469:
The individual power of peers did, however, reduce as more peerages were created. At one point,
1012:
could be based", so a person's baronial status was based on whether the records stated he held
677:
In 1066, there were an estimated 5,000 thegns in England. These were divided into three ranks:
2762:
2753:
2746:
2718:
2694:
2659:
2633:
2611:
2542:
2521:
2497:
2473:
2449:
2386:
1688:
1657:
1637:
1478:
1405:
1397:
1298:
1287:
1248:
1220:
1159:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1094:
1079:
1043:
1002:
issued directly from the king, while lesser barons were summoned through the local sheriffs.
944:
899:
888:
462:
563:
By the 10th century, Anglo-Saxon society was divided into three main social classes: slaves,
2687:
2581:
1714:
and ninety others elected by the peers. Further reform of the Lords is under consideration.
1645:
1641:
1618:
1482:
1240:
1216:
1201:
1150:
1108:
1103:
987:
921:
903:
865:
828:
812:
454:
201:
46:
674:) concurred but added that the property qualification had to be met for three generations.
2158:
1633:
1474:
1413:
1089:
1047:
999:
948:
797:
428:
342:
277:
127:
1428:
Soon after Cromwell's death, the monarchy was restored, as was the House of Lords. King
1149:, used the language of peerage to appeal to other magnates in 1233, the king's minister
2693:. The Governance of England. Vol. 2. Stanford, CA, US: Stanford University Press.
2652:
2601:
2572:(1955). "Gesiths and Thegns in Anglo-Saxon England from the Seventh to Tenth Century".
2558:
2378:
1696:
1680:
1422:
1179:
1074:
974:
Barons enjoyed greater access to the king than did other subjects and were exempt from
939:
850:
748:
720:
716:
685:
or group of shires (an ealdormanry). In the 11th century, while England was ruled by a
487:
374:
338:
258:
2654:
The House of Lords in the Middle Ages: A History of the English House of Lords to 1540
272:
17:
2776:
2738:
2211:
2206:
2153:
2116:
2111:
1753:
1625:
1571:
1187:
1167:
908:
892:
385:
2743:
Making aristocracy work: The peerage and the political system in Britain, 1884-1914
2682:
2647:
2585:
1707:
1672:
1629:
1550:
1486:
1193:
912:
458:
2560:
The Constitutional History of Medieval England from the English Settlement to 1485
1660:, but she herself was created a life baroness on recommendation of her successor,
416:
did not have an automatic right to sit in the House of Lords, and instead elected
2712:
2605:
2536:
2515:
2491:
2467:
2439:
1600:
Another issue of the 1920s was the admission of women to the House of Lords. The
1582:
1434:
1204:
was the first Duke created in England. Depicted is the effigy above his tomb at
1138:
880:
846:
740:
479:
467:
241:
427:
began in the second half of the 20th century. The last creation of a non-royal
2569:
1661:
979:
759:
1667:
Hereditary peerages continue to be created for members of the royal family.
1530:
1263:
678:
424:
132:
2221:. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 421–422.
2126:. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 421–422.
1441:
The next major event in the history of the Peerage occurred in 1707, when
2306:
Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third
1585:; the act permitted the suspension of their titles. In 1919, three peers—
1341:
is as old as the English; the Scottish equivalent of baronies are called
1279:
857:
791:
626:
622:
381:
366:
358:
334:
100:
91:
81:
2168:. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 840.
1356:, between England and Scotland, provided that future peerages should be
1337:, of immemorial antiquity; they were named Earls by Queen Margaret. The
815:
and granted it to the king's Norman followers according to the rules of
1723:
1386:
1334:
1314:
1039:
775:
736:
708:
389:
362:
2593:
1749:
1302:
1158:(1307–1327), however, it had become standard to refer to magnates as
820:
763:
527:
500:
2326:"History of Parliament: Part 1: The House of Lords and the Peerage"
2248:"History of Parliament: Part 1: The House of Lords and the Peerage"
739:
were drawn from this class, and thegns were required to attend the
2630:
The Anglo-Saxons: A History of the Beginnings of England: 400–1066
1391:
1224:
779:
774:. Secular government depended on educated clergy to function, and
767:
682:
590:
544:
473:
346:
341:, stretches over the last thousand years. The current form of the
96:
2157:
1581:
was passed. Some British peers had fought against the British in
2675:
English Baronies: A Study of Their Origin and Descent, 1086-1327
1624:
Hereditary peerages continued to be created after 1958 but when
1228:
1027:
975:
861:
824:
702:
694:
690:
655:
645:
636:
630:
612:
580:
564:
550:
498:
471:
354:
350:
86:
76:
1404:
The position of the Peerage was called into question after the
891:
was spread over ten shires. Except in northern England and the
660:
had to own five hides to qualify for thegnhood. The legal text
423:
Peerages were largely hereditary until the regular creation of
2177:
2175:
978:
service. Though they could be tried in ordinary courts, their
2714:
The World Before Domesday: The English Aristocracy, 900–1066
2210:
2115:
1998:
1996:
1190:
is an example of a peerage dignity created due to an error.
369:
came later, in the mid-15th century. Peers were summoned to
1215:
While kings of England possessed the subsidiary titles of
715:'s reign (1042–1066), there were four principal earldoms:
707:). After the king, the earl was the most powerful secular
887:. He held 793 manors spread out over twenty shires. The
2689:
The Governance of Norman and Angevin England, 1086–1272
2517:
Forging the Kingdom: Power in English Society, 973–1189
525:) to describe a nobleman. By the 8th century, the word
345:
has been a process of development. While the ranks of
396:
in 1801, led successively to the establishment of the
1799:
1797:
1501:, which devolved the Crown, after Anne's death, upon
778:
were important politicians and royal advisers in the
617:) meant servant or warrior, and it replaced the term
2686:
2651:
2557:
1699:in 2018 (all on the occasion of their marriages).
827:in return for military service and counsel. These
353:predate the British peerage itself, the ranks of
1462:ceased and all new peerages were created in the
743:and give judgment. For these reasons, historian
2607:The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327
700:
2469:The Image of Aristocracy in Britain, 1000–1300
404:, and the discontinuation of creations in the
1438:provisions would not be repealed until 1829.
310:
8:
2493:The English Nobility in the Late Middle Ages
2181:
2140:
2098:
2074:
2026:
2002:
1987:
1975:
1963:
1951:
1899:
1297:, in the fifteenth century, just before the
1290:, with precedence between earls and barons.
994:(1216–1272), the great council evolved into
2441:The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066–1284
2385:. London: Little, Brown. pp. 156–172.
1013:
1007:
840:
542:
1481:, in order to secure a majority for their
1454:). After the Union, creations in both the
621:in the 10th century. Law codes assigned a
482:of land (enough to provide for a family).
317:
303:
31:
2410:"Briefing: History of the House of Lords"
2274:"Briefing: History of the House of Lords"
2242:
2240:
2086:
1935:
1282:was introduced from Europe in 1440, when
2564:(4th ed.). Adams and Charles Black.
2404:
2402:
2062:
1939:
1923:
1911:
1875:
1863:
1851:
1839:
1827:
1815:
1192:
1052:
2769:Westminster: A. Constable and Co., Ltd.
2349:
2347:
2320:
2318:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2136:
1769:
1740:
1602:Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919
1557:Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Windsor monarchs
689:, the office changed from ealdorman to
444:Anglo-Saxon period (5th century – 1066)
257:
54:
2231:
2193:
2050:
2038:
2014:
1788:
1776:
1170:, seats in Parliament did so as well.
868:in England before 1337. The historian
2767:Studies in peerage and family history
2658:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
1887:
1587:Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany
1473:created twelve peers in one day. The
1147:Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke
7:
1803:
1477:requested these creations, known as
1591:Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland
1046:was limited to the highest ranking
555:as the common term for a nobleman.
1595:Henry Taaffe, 12th Viscount Taaffe
1450:to sit in the House of Lords (see
1260:Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford
1178:created John Beauchamp a baron by
856:There were around 170 barons. The
811:) confiscated the property of the
786:Post-Conquest baronage (1066–1299)
388:in 1707, and of Great Britain and
25:
2302:Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron
1050:, six prelates and six magnates.
365:in the 14th century. The rank of
2310:Volume I, Chapter 5, pp.273–281.
1632:(of the Conservative Party) and
1568:general election of January 1910
1489:failed in the House of Commons.
283:
271:
35:
2412:. House of Lords. 19 April 2000
2312:London: Longmans, Green and Co.
2276:. House of Lords. 19 April 2000
1652:became Viscount Tonypandy, and
806:
2783:Peerages in the United Kingdom
2520:. Cambridge University Press.
1577:Later in the same decade, the
1323:Dissolution of the Monasteries
1042:was borrowed from France. The
982:could only be assessed by the
331:history of the British peerage
1:
2574:The English Historical Review
1524:Peerage of the United Kingdom
1448:Scottish representative peers
2586:10.1093/ehr/LXX.CCLXXVII.529
1034:Medieval peerage (1300–1500)
754:High-ranking members of the
641:retained her noble status.
433:reform of the House of Lords
2673:Sanders, Ivor John (1960).
2610:. Oxford University Press.
2556:Jolliffe, J. E. A. (1961).
2541:(2nd ed.). Routledge.
1579:Titles Deprivation Act 1917
1443:England and Scotland united
1366:peers of the United Kingdom
1329:Scottish and Irish peerages
652:Archbishop Wulfstan of York
420:from amongst their number.
2799:
2677:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2535:Huscroft, Richard (2016).
2446:Penguin History of Britain
2365:Farnborough, Lord (1896).
2353:Farnborough, Lord (1896).
2139:, pp. 1–28 quoted in
1503:George, Elector of Hanover
789:
669:law of the Northern People
490:, made up the other half.
380:The unions of England and
2538:Ruling England, 1042-1217
1319:ecclesiastical privileges
751:of Anglo-Saxon England".
747:described thegns as "the
654:(1002–1023) wrote that a
497:use the Old English word
398:Peerages of Great Britain
290:United Kingdom portal
105:Lord / Lady of Parliament
27:Chronology of UK nobility
2650:; Wallis, Keith (1968).
2182:Powell & Wallis 1968
2141:Powell & Wallis 1968
2075:Powell & Wallis 1968
2017:, pp. 44 & 106.
1988:Powell & Wallis 1968
1964:Powell & Wallis 1968
1952:Powell & Wallis 1968
1900:Powell & Wallis 1968
1515:William Pitt the Younger
1464:Peerage of Great Britain
1198:Edward, the Black Prince
885:Robert, count of Mortain
813:old Anglo-Saxon nobility
693:(related to Old English
435:is under consideration.
2328:. Dods'. Archived from
2250:. Dods'. Archived from
2218:Encyclopædia Britannica
2165:Encyclopædia Britannica
2123:Encyclopædia Britannica
1938:, p. 66 quoted in
1704:House of Lords Act 1999
1658:an hereditary baronetcy
1343:lordships of Parliament
1237:Edward the Black Prince
1022:(1272–1307), the first
984:barons of the exchequer
701:
695:
656:
646:
637:
631:
613:
581:
565:
551:
499:
472:
247:Territorial designation
1712:Lord Great Chamberlain
1499:Act of Settlement 1701
1497:Parliament passed the
1401:
1358:peers of Great Britain
1339:Parliament of Scotland
1276:Marquess of Winchester
1208:
1014:
1008:
990:. During the reign of
969:Geoffrey of Mandeville
841:
782:(the king's council).
543:
457:collectively known as
92:Viscount / Viscountess
82:Marquess / Marchioness
18:History of the peerage
2717:. London: Continuum.
2367:Volume I, pp.290–299.
2355:Volume I, pp.281–290.
1878:, pp. 3 & 5.
1395:
1196:
964:Geoffrey of Coutances
802:William the Conqueror
772:monopoly on education
1729:Privilege of peerage
1398:created twelve peers
1378:James VI of Scotland
1284:John, Baron Beaumont
1206:Canterbury Cathedral
713:Edward the Confessor
625:or man price of 200
453:In the 5th century,
418:representative peers
2745:Oxford: Clarendon.
2488:Given-Wilson, Chris
2196:, pp. 104–105.
2077:, pp. 224–225.
1606:Viscountess Rhondda
1493:Hanoverian monarchs
1460:Peerage of Scotland
1452:representative peer
1295:Henry VI of England
1070:Archbishop of Reims
1055:
954:Eustace of Boulogne
927:Roger of Montgomery
478:) who cultivated a
406:Peerages of England
361:were introduced to
278:Politics portal
2763:Round, John Horace
2159:"Parliament"
1564:David Lloyd George
1539:judicial functions
1456:Peerage of England
1406:English Revolution
1402:
1362:Acts of Union 1800
1354:Acts of Union 1707
1272:Marquess of Dublin
1243:in 1337. In 1351,
1239:, who was created
1209:
1160:peers of the realm
1129:Count of Champagne
1085:Bishop of Beauvais
1053:
1018:. In the reign of
936:William of Warenne
931:earl of Shrewsbury
918:William FitzOsbern
2751:978-0-19-820389-6
2639:978-1-64313-312-6
2632:. Pegasus Books.
2448:. Penguin Books.
2234:, pp. 96–98.
2099:Given-Wilson 1996
2027:Given-Wilson 1996
2003:Given-Wilson 1996
1976:Given-Wilson 1996
1966:, pp. 39–41.
1791:, pp. 50–51.
1779:, pp. 49–50.
1689:Duke of Cambridge
1638:Margaret Thatcher
1299:Wars of the Roses
1288:Viscount Beaumont
1249:Duke of Lancaster
1245:Henry of Grosmont
1221:Duke of Aquitaine
1219:(until 1259) and
1188:Barony of Strange
1151:Peter des Rosches
1136:
1135:
1124:Count of Toulouse
1119:Count of Flanders
1114:Duke of Aquitaine
1095:Bishop of Chalons
1080:Bishop of Langres
1044:peerage of France
1024:hereditary barons
945:Hugh of Avranches
900:Robert of Mortain
889:Honour of Peverel
699:and Scandinavian
495:law codes of Kent
463:sub-Roman Britain
400:and later of the
327:
326:
16:(Redirected from
2790:
2728:
2704:
2692:
2678:
2669:
2657:
2648:Powell, J. Enoch
2643:
2621:
2602:Maddicott, J. R.
2597:
2580:(277): 529–549.
2565:
2563:
2552:
2531:
2512:Green, Judith A.
2507:
2483:
2459:
2436:Carpenter, David
2422:
2421:
2419:
2417:
2406:
2397:
2396:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2351:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2322:
2313:
2299:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2244:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2214:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2150:
2144:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1757:
1745:
1654:William Whitelaw
1646:Earl of Stockton
1642:Harold Macmillan
1619:Irish Free State
1364:changed this to
1251:, the first non-
1241:Duke of Cornwall
1217:Duke of Normandy
1202:Duke of Cornwall
1109:Duke of Burgundy
1104:Duke of Normandy
1056:
1054:Peers of France
1026:were created by
1017:
1011:
959:Richard of Clare
922:earl of Hereford
904:earl of Cornwall
866:hereditary title
844:
837:tenure by barony
829:tenants-in-chief
810:
809: 1066–1087
808:
756:church hierarchy
706:
698:
673:
670:
667:
659:
649:
640:
634:
616:
606:
603:
600:
596:
593:
588:
584:
578:
575:
572:
568:
554:
548:
540:
537:
534:
524:
521:
518:
514:
511:
508:
504:
486:, mostly native
477:
455:Germanic peoples
319:
312:
305:
288:
287:
286:
276:
275:
261:
237:Forms of address
97:Baron / Baroness
60:
39:
32:
21:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2773:
2772:
2735:
2733:Further reading
2725:
2707:
2701:
2681:
2672:
2666:
2646:
2640:
2624:
2618:
2600:
2568:
2555:
2549:
2534:
2528:
2510:
2504:
2486:
2480:
2462:
2456:
2434:
2431:
2426:
2425:
2415:
2413:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2379:Hattersley, Roy
2377:
2376:
2372:
2364:
2360:
2352:
2345:
2335:
2333:
2332:on 6 March 2008
2324:
2323:
2316:
2300:
2289:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2254:on 6 March 2008
2246:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2173:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2135:
2131:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1934:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1854:, pp. 3–4.
1850:
1846:
1842:, pp. 1–2.
1838:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1795:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1760:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1720:
1634:James Callaghan
1559:
1547:Sir James Parke
1495:
1475:Tory government
1414:Oliver Cromwell
1408:that overthrew
1374:
1372:Stuart monarchs
1331:
1090:Bishop of Noyon
1048:French nobility
1038:The concept of
1036:
1000:writ of summons
949:earl of Chester
805:
798:Norman Conquest
794:
788:
745:David Carpenter
671:
668:
665:
604:
601:
598:
594:
589:
586:
576:
573:
570:
561:
549:) had replaced
538:
535:
532:
522:
519:
516:
512:
509:
506:
451:
449:5th–8th century
446:
441:
439:English peerage
429:hereditary peer
412:. Scottish and
343:British peerage
323:
294:
284:
282:
270:
259:
253:
252:
251:
227:Courtesy titles
196:
195:
186:
185:
184:
154:
153:
144:
143:
142:
122:
121:
112:
111:
110:
87:Earl / Countess
71:
70:
58:
57:Peerages in the
56:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2796:
2794:
2786:
2785:
2775:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2760:
2739:Adonis, Andrew
2734:
2731:
2730:
2729:
2723:
2705:
2699:
2679:
2670:
2664:
2644:
2638:
2622:
2616:
2598:
2566:
2553:
2548:978-1138786554
2547:
2532:
2526:
2508:
2502:
2484:
2479:978-0415755047
2478:
2460:
2454:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2398:
2391:
2383:The Edwardians
2370:
2358:
2343:
2314:
2287:
2265:
2236:
2224:
2209:, ed. (1911).
2207:Chisholm, Hugh
2198:
2186:
2184:, p. 156.
2171:
2156:, ed. (1911).
2154:Chisholm, Hugh
2145:
2129:
2114:, ed. (1911).
2112:Chisholm, Hugh
2103:
2091:
2087:Maddicott 2010
2079:
2067:
2065:, p. 152.
2055:
2043:
2041:, p. 109.
2031:
2019:
2007:
1992:
1990:, p. 224.
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1936:Carpenter 2003
1928:
1916:
1904:
1892:
1890:, p. 103.
1880:
1868:
1856:
1844:
1832:
1820:
1808:
1806:, p. 530.
1793:
1781:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1716:
1697:Duke of Sussex
1685:Prince William
1681:Earl of Wessex
1562:the Exchequer
1558:
1555:
1494:
1491:
1479:Harley's Dozen
1423:Lord Protector
1373:
1370:
1330:
1327:
1286:, was created
1270:, was created
1180:letters patent
1134:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1075:Bishop of Laon
1072:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1035:
1032:
988:great councils
972:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
942:
940:earl of Surrey
933:
924:
915:
906:
851:knight-service
790:Main article:
787:
784:
749:country gentry
687:Danish dynasty
662:NorĂ°leoda laga
611:(Old English:
560:
557:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
402:United Kingdom
394:United Kingdom
375:House of Lords
373:, forming the
339:United Kingdom
333:, a system of
325:
324:
322:
321:
314:
307:
299:
296:
295:
293:
292:
280:
267:
264:
263:
260:House of Lords
255:
254:
250:
249:
244:
239:
234:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
198:
197:
193:
192:
191:
188:
187:
183:
182:
180:United Kingdom
177:
172:
167:
162:
156:
155:
151:
150:
149:
146:
145:
141:
140:
138:Representative
135:
130:
124:
123:
119:
118:
117:
114:
113:
109:
108:
103:, replaced by
94:
89:
84:
79:
77:Duke / Duchess
73:
72:
68:
67:
66:
63:
62:
59:United Kingdom
52:
51:
41:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2795:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:0-19-820389-6
2755:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2724:9781847252395
2720:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2709:Williams, Ann
2706:
2702:
2700:0-8047-1307-3
2696:
2691:
2690:
2684:
2683:Warren, W. L.
2680:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2617:9780199585502
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2561:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2533:
2529:
2527:9780521193597
2523:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2499:
2496:. Routledge.
2495:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2472:. Routledge.
2471:
2470:
2465:
2464:Crouch, David
2461:
2457:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2392:0-316-72537-4
2388:
2384:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2213:
2212:"Baron"
2208:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2166:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2146:
2143:, p. 224
2142:
2138:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2124:
2118:
2117:"Baron"
2113:
2107:
2104:
2101:, p. 12.
2100:
2095:
2092:
2089:, p. 77.
2088:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2068:
2064:
2063:Jolliffe 1961
2059:
2056:
2053:, p. 56.
2052:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:
2029:, p. 29.
2028:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1945:
1942:, p. 28.
1941:
1940:Huscroft 2016
1937:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1924:Williams 2008
1920:
1917:
1914:, p. 28.
1913:
1912:Huscroft 2016
1908:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1876:Williams 2008
1872:
1869:
1866:, p. 29.
1865:
1864:Huscroft 2016
1860:
1857:
1853:
1852:Williams 2008
1848:
1845:
1841:
1840:Williams 2008
1836:
1833:
1829:
1828:Williams 2008
1824:
1821:
1817:
1816:Williams 2008
1812:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1770:
1763:
1755:
1754:landed gentry
1751:
1744:
1741:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1691:in 2011, and
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:Prince Edward
1674:
1670:
1669:Prince Andrew
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:George Thomas
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1626:Harold Wilson
1622:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1572:H. H. Asquith
1569:
1565:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1551:life peerages
1548:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
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1253:royal dukedom
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1199:
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170:Great Britain
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2626:Morris, Marc
2606:
2577:
2573:
2559:
2537:
2516:
2492:
2468:
2440:
2414:. Retrieved
2382:
2373:
2361:
2334:. Retrieved
2330:the original
2305:
2278:. Retrieved
2268:
2256:. Retrieved
2252:the original
2227:
2216:
2201:
2189:
2163:
2148:
2137:Sanders 1960
2132:
2121:
2106:
2094:
2082:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2034:
2022:
2010:
2005:, p. 8.
1983:
1978:, p. 7.
1971:
1959:
1954:, p. 4.
1947:
1931:
1926:, p. 3.
1919:
1907:
1902:, p. 6.
1895:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1830:, p. 2.
1823:
1818:, p. 5.
1811:
1784:
1772:
1743:
1708:Earl Marshal
1701:
1695:was created
1693:Prince Harry
1687:was created
1679:was created
1673:Duke of York
1671:was created
1666:
1630:Edward Heath
1623:
1615:
1609:
1599:
1576:
1560:
1535:
1528:
1520:
1507:
1496:
1487:Peerage Bill
1483:Peace policy
1468:
1440:
1427:
1417:
1403:
1383:
1375:
1351:
1347:
1332:
1311:
1307:
1292:
1257:
1235:eldest son,
1233:Edward III's
1214:
1210:
1172:
1164:
1142:
1137:
1037:
1015:per baroniam
1009:per baroniam
1004:
973:
913:earl of Kent
878:
873:
870:David Crouch
855:
842:per baroniam
795:
753:
733:
676:
661:
643:
618:
608:
562:
526:
492:
461:migrated to
459:Anglo-Saxons
452:
422:
392:to form the
379:
330:
328:
211:
44:
29:
2570:Loyn, H. R.
2308:, 11th ed.
2232:Crouch 1992
2194:Crouch 1992
2051:Warren 1987
2039:Crouch 1992
2015:Crouch 1992
1789:Morris 2021
1777:Morris 2021
1583:World War I
1435:Titus Oates
1400:on one day.
1396:Queen Anne
1139:Magna Carta
980:amercements
864:, the only
760:archbishops
741:shire court
729:East Anglia
725:Northumbria
602:aristocrats
468:Old English
414:Irish peers
242:Family seat
2665:0297761056
2503:0415148839
2455:0140148248
2429:References
1888:Green 2017
1662:John Major
1511:Lord North
1430:Charles II
1268:Richard II
1184:Henry VIII
1176:Richard II
996:Parliament
796:After the
425:life peers
371:Parliament
217:Privileges
128:Hereditary
2416:7 January
2336:7 January
2280:7 January
2258:7 January
1804:Loyn 1955
1764:Citations
1752:class or
1683:in 1999,
1675:in 1986,
1648:in 1984,
1531:Old Sarum
1410:Charles I
1376:In 1603,
1264:favourite
1258:In 1385,
1247:was made
1156:Edward II
1062:Magnates
1059:Prelates
992:Henry III
835:who held
817:feudalism
800:of 1066,
711:. During
679:ealdormen
627:shillings
541:; Latin:
536:companion
510:high born
152:Divisions
2777:Category
2765:, 1901.
2741:, 1993.
2711:(2008).
2685:(1987).
2628:(2021).
2604:(2010).
2514:(2017).
2490:(1996).
2466:(1992).
2438:(2003).
2381:(2004).
2304:(1896).
1750:knightly
1718:See also
1610:suo jure
1543:Victoria
1458:and the
1418:de facto
1335:mormaers
1280:viscount
1020:Edward I
872:defined
858:baronage
792:Baronage
776:prelates
737:Sheriffs
644:Not all
623:weregeld
574:free men
559:900–1066
410:Scotland
384:to form
382:Scotland
367:viscount
359:marquess
335:nobility
202:Nobility
165:Scotland
101:Scotland
47:a series
45:Part of
1724:Peerage
1644:became
1387:baronet
1315:treason
1040:peerage
821:vassals
764:bishops
709:magnate
647:ceorlas
579:), and
566:ceorlas
488:Britons
474:ceorlas
390:Ireland
363:England
212:History
175:Ireland
160:England
2756:
2749:
2721:
2697:
2662:
2636:
2614:
2594:558038
2592:
2545:
2524:
2500:
2476:
2452:
2389:
1710:, the
1416:, the
1303:patent
1293:Under
1262:, the
947:, the
938:, the
929:, the
920:, the
911:, the
902:, the
881:manors
847:tenure
768:abbots
727:, and
721:Mercia
717:Wessex
629:for a
619:gesith
591:thegns
582:Ăľegnas
528:gesith
484:Slaves
194:Topics
2590:JSTOR
1735:Notes
1545:made
1225:duchy
874:baron
825:fiefs
780:witan
683:shire
657:ceorl
638:ceorl
632:ceorl
609:Thegn
545:comes
520:noble
347:baron
222:Robes
207:Welsh
120:Types
69:Ranks
2754:ISBN
2747:ISBN
2719:ISBN
2695:ISBN
2660:ISBN
2634:ISBN
2612:ISBN
2543:ISBN
2522:ISBN
2498:ISBN
2474:ISBN
2450:ISBN
2418:2007
2387:ISBN
2338:2007
2282:2007
2260:2007
1608:, a
1593:and
1513:and
1471:Anne
1352:The
1231:was
1229:duke
1143:peer
1028:writ
976:jury
862:earl
766:and
703:jarl
696:eorl
691:earl
614:þeġn
552:eorl
501:eorl
480:hide
408:and
357:and
355:duke
351:earl
349:and
329:The
231:list
133:Life
99:(in
2582:doi
1266:of
853:.
849:by
731:.
607:).
2779::
2588:.
2578:70
2576:.
2444:.
2401:^
2346:^
2317:^
2290:^
2239:^
2215:.
2174:^
2162:.
2120:.
1995:^
1796:^
1664:.
1621:.
1589:,
1526:.
1466:.
1425:.
1345:.
1255:.
1200:,
1162:.
807:r.
762:,
723:,
719:,
597:,
515:,
470::
377:.
49:on
2727:.
2703:.
2668:.
2642:.
2620:.
2596:.
2584::
2551:.
2530:.
2506:.
2482:.
2458:.
2420:.
2395:.
2340:.
2284:.
2262:.
1756:.
839:(
819:—
804:(
758:(
672:'
666:'
664:(
605:'
599:'
595:'
587:'
585:(
577:'
571:'
569:(
539:'
533:'
531:(
523:'
517:'
513:'
507:'
505:(
466:(
318:e
311:t
304:v
233:)
229:(
107:)
20:)
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