597:. There was a major cultural retraction of territory, and two significant episodes of reorganization. The first reorganization occurred around 1150 CE and was typified by a modest increase in population and near-universal adoption of pitroom architecture. These early pitrooms were built of perishable material covered with a thick adobe plaster, and the basal portion of the interior walls was often lined with upright slabs. Similar to the Preclassic period villages, these early Classic period homes were clustered around open courtyards. These courtyard groups were clustered near a large central locus, which often included small platform mounds. These platform mounds were rectangular, faced by post-reinforced adobe walls, and were filled with either sterile soil or refuse from Preclassic trash mounds. In the largest villages, the central locus included small platform mounds. The number of small and medium-sized settlements seem to have declined as the larger communities became increasingly more densely occupied.
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Sacaton 9:6 (GP), an adobe-walled compound situated on the extreme edge of the Casa Grande site, east of State Route 87, near the current entrance to the monument. Relatively large-scale excavations were carried out between 1930 and 1931, by Van Bergen-Los
Angeles Museum Expedition under the direction of Arthur Woodward and Irwin Hayden. This project concentrated on a 30-acre (120,000 m) parcel at the Grewe site, and Compound F located within the northeast corner of the Casa Grande National Monument. Overall, including the recovery of 172 burials and hundreds of thousands of artifacts, about 60 pithouses, numerous pits, 27 adobe pitrooms, and a ballcourt were excavated or tested during the course of this project.
351:, were apparently transplanted relatively intact from the Tucson basin during the early Formative Period. Throughout the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, individual homes were usually excavated approximately 40 cm (16 in) below ground level, had plastered or compacted floors of 12 to 35 m, and had a bowl-shaped, clay-lined hearth near the wall-entry. By 600 CE, a distinct Hohokam architectural tradition emerged that had similarities with Mesoamerica, such as ballcourts that also served as neighborhood gathering and trade spaces. By 1150 CE, pithouses were replaced by above-ground structures in the compound style with central courtyards. By 1200 CE, rectangular platforms mounds were being constructed.
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circular plazas. These appear to date to the sixth century CEand were located along and immediately upslope of the
Coolidge Canal system. By the eighth century CE, this dispersed hamlet had expanded nearly a kilometer south and developed into a full-fledged summer home for the priests and chieftain. At this point, the settlement consisted of densely packed yet discrete groups of pithouses clustered around small open courtyards. In turn these structures delineated a large central plaza. Adjoining the plaza was a medium-sized ballcourt, and overall, the village was affiliated with several smaller outlying settlements.
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905:, meaning 'the ovens') was initially investigated by Frank Cushing in 1887. With urban expansion, additional excavations were conducted in the 1970s, late 1980s, and throughout the 1990s. The results of these comprehensive archaeological projects have documented both a large Preclassic- and Classic-period village organized much the same as Snaketown and Pueblo Grande, respectively, yet on a somewhat smaller scale. Los Hornos appears to have started around 400 CE, as a small cluster of rectangular pithouses situated on the extreme western edge of the site, west of Priest Dr and south of US 60.
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836:. As the western portion of this settlement grew, large sections of the eastern half declined and were abandoned. By 1300 CE, the village was composed of about 19 adobe-walled residential compounds, several pitroom clusters, a platform mound, a great house, and numerous trash mounds. With most of the village contained within what is now the Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, after the middle of the 14th century, it began a rapid decline. Around 1400 or 1450 CE, the entire settlement was abandoned, except for a low-scale occupation associated with the Polvoron phase.
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largest and most comprehensive archaeological endeavor was conducted by
Northland Research Inc., from 1995 to 1997, on a 13-acre (53,000 m) parcel within portions of the Casa Grande, Grewe, and Horvath sites that paralleled State Routes 87 and 287. This project was directed by Douglass Craig, and resulted in the identification and/or excavation of 247 pithouses, 24 pitrooms, 866 pits, 11 canal alignments, a ballcourt, and portions of four adobe-walled compounds, as well as the recovery of 158 burials and over 400,000 artifacts.
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several formal cremation cemeteries, numerous trash mounds, and several hundred residential pithouses. The detailed excavation of 50 Preclassic period pithouses in the area located immediately south of US 60 and east of Priest Dr, provided invaluable information concerning residential architecture and the functional use of interior space. Additional information concerning the
Archaeological Consulting Services Ltd. excavation of a Preclassic occupation at Los Hornos can be found at the following site.
619:, similar to examples found in northern Mexico, and the production of bird-shaped effigy vessels. Examples of exotic stone and shell artifacts associated with high-status individuals – such as nose plugs, pendants, ear rings, bracelets, necklaces, and sophisticated shell inlays – indicate that the design and manufacture of jewelry reached its zenith during this phase. Other important developments were the significant increased procurement and manufacture of red ware, and the near-universal use of
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immediately west of the old Mesa
Hospital. Within this plot are the ruins of a large adobe compound and a nine-meters-high, relatively intact, platform mound. This is only one of the last three remaining Hohokam platform mounds in the greater Phoenix metro area. This parcel was transferred into public ownership in the mid-1980s, therefore the compound and mound were not destroyed and a full visitor center exists on the enclosed site that is open October–May annually.
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655:, these processes had less impact on Hohokam irrigation systems in the Gila River basin, yet these were abandoned, as well. Hohokam split into smaller groups, and the population declined slightly, at a peak rate 2 per 100 people between 1350 and 1400. This decline was previously greatly overestimated because smaller groups are harder to identify. Evidence that the human population was maintained are the unchanged prey animal populations.
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adobe-walled pitrooms, possibly associated with several utility structures. Overall, these communities were characterized by relatively compact clusters of 5 to 25 adobe-walled compounds, which tended to be grouped around a single very large and well-built compound that often had some form of large community structure, such as a platform mound or great house. Great house structures, as with the one preserved at
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archaeological sites. These include the Casa Grande, Grewe, Vahki Inn
Village, and Horvath sites. Occupied in the Preclassic and Classic periods, each of these sites was composed of between two and 20 large residential areas. Overall, the greater Grewe-Casa Grande archaeological site covered about 900 acres (3.6 km), centered on State Route 87 and immediately north of the modern city of Coolidge, Arizona.
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carbonous material. Hohokam Red wares were slipped with an iron-based pigment that turned red after the vessel was fired. The manufacture of decorated
Hohokam pottery was similar to that of the Plain wares. However, the clays tended to be of a finer quality and were tempered with caliche and limited amounts of very finely ground micaceous schist and small particles of vegetative material.
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most important
Hohokam population centers. At its height, the Grewe-Casa Grande village boosted about 100 trash mounds, several hundred residential pithouses, and four or five ballcourts. Regardless of its size, complexity, and significance along the middle Gila River, this settlement never seemed to have attained the status enjoyed by Snaketown, as it pertained to the Hohokam culture,
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abandoned between 1400 and 1450 CE, as was much of the Lower Salt River basin. Today, much of the Los Hornos village has been destroyed due to modern transportation, residential, and commercial development, or has been excavated. The only surface vestiges of this once significant
Hohokam city are the remains of several low trash mounds found in the Old Guadalupe Village Cemetery.
751:, which was authorized by Congress on October 21, 1972. Excavations conducted in the 1930s and again in the 1960s revealed that the site was inhabited from about 300 BCE to 1050 CE. At its height in the early 11th century, Snaketown was the center of both the Hohokam culture and the production of the distinctive Hohokam buff ware. Following the last excavations conducted by
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Grande red-on-buffs. The wide range of vessel forms used for decorated pottery was discarded for globular jars with necks. Production and use of
Hohokam buff wares decrease significantly. So did the procurement and trade of raw shell from northern Mexico and its manufacture into jewelry. There was a transition from pithouses to pitrooms and an introduction of spherical
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early in the Civano phases, from 1277 to 1325 CE. At this time, Los Hornos, now centered on Hardy Dr south of US 60 and north of Baseline Road, consisted of about 15 residential compounds, a large central plaza, a large rectangular platform mound with an associated compound, several large trash mounds, and numerous borrow pits and inhumation and cremation cemeteries.
788:. Akimel O'odham oral tradition records that before the appearance of the Coyote People appeared, this massive structure was built by an important chieftain called Sial Teu-utak Sivan, (turqoise Leader) or "Chief Turquoise". In the ancient hohokam language, the great house and the associated prehistoric ruins found north of Coolidge were collectively referred to as
562:, once central to the culture, was suddenly abandoned. Parts of this large village seem to have burned, and it was never reoccupied. This period also saw the construction of large and prestigious structures in the Salt-Gila Basin. These included large, rectangular, adobe-walled compounds with platform mounds and great houses, such as the example found at the
639:, were built only at the largest communities. These stone or adobe buildings had up to four stories, and were probably used by the managerial or religious elites. They may have also been constructed to align with astronomical observations. Trade with Mexico appears to have declined, but an increased number of trade goods arrived from
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which was established as the nation's first archeological reserve in 1892, and declared a national monument in 1918. Visitors can enjoy an interpretative center, walk among the stabilized ruins of Compound A, and closely view the great house, which has been protected since 1932 from the elements by a distinctively modern-looking roof.
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380:, not to regions outside that area, called Hohokam Peripheries. Within these regions, the basic period designations are retained; however, local phases are often used to note significant differences, and, to some extent, represents communities influenced by their Ancestral Puebloan and Mogollon neighbors.
91:, Mexico. It existed between 300 and 1500 CE, with cultural precursors possibly as early as 300 BCE. Archaeologists disagree about whether communities that practiced the culture were related or politically united. According to local oral tradition, Hohokam societies may be the ancestors of the historic
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Today, about 60% of the Grewe-Casa Grande site has been either destroyed due to agricultural and commercial development, excavated, or remains relatively intact buried under fields used to grow cotton. About 40% of this once huge settlement can be found within the Casa Grande Ruins National Monument,
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This phase is characterized by widespread use and manufacture of Salado polychrome, with both Gila and Tonto polychromes. After 1375 CE, the Hohokam abandoned most villages and canal systems in the lower Salt River basin. The area continued to be occupied, but on a far smaller scale. The few villages
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Hohokam burial practices varied over time, but cremation was a defining cultural characteristic of the Hohokam Core. Cremation has been used by archaeologists to suggest cultural interaction through trade or immigration with neighboring communities. An example is the Mogollan, at the Continental site
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Hohokam irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by 1300 CE. Archaeologists working at a major archaeological dig in the 1990s in the Tucson Basin, along the Santa Cruz River, identified a culture and people that may have been the ancestors of the Hohokam. This prehistoric
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In the 10th century, at least two large secondary villages and about a dozen new hamlets were founded to the west of the main settlement. With the abandonment of Snaketown and the transition from the Preclassic to Classic periods, the greater Grewe-Casa Grande community became one of the largest and
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Based on the results of these projects, the history of the greater Grewe-Casa Grande site can be reconstructed with at least some degree of precision. The genesis of this important village appears to have been associated with several groups of pithouses organized around a series of relatively small,
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recorded in the early 20th century, several O'odham oral traditions note that Sial Teu-utak was an important leader of the Casa Grande community, before the overthrow of the Suwu'Ki O'odham, or "Vulture People". Eusebio Francesco Chini (Father Kino) arrived in the middle Gila River valley in 1694 to
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The true measure of the Hohokam can only be derived from the sum of their material culture. This is best gleaned from a review of their principal population centers, or more appropriately, major villages or giant cities. Although sharing a common cultural expression, each of these major villages has
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It was once thought that Hohokam pottery material varied by location, since communities used local resources. Recently, studies on the temper revealed a variety of origins where pottery was manufactured and traded. Several palettes, from different periods, were found in the Gila Bend Region. This is
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The diagnostic ceramic type for this phase was Casa Grande red-on-buff. This Hohokam buff ware was characterized exclusively by jars with necks, decorated with a limited variety of geometric and textual designs. This pottery type appears to have been manufactured at several locales in the Gila River
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whorls similar to examples used in northern Mexico. Conceptually, this episode had the relatively sudden and widespread abandonment or relocation of many Hohokam villages and a short-lived population decline. Vast internal changes, the rejection of the Hohokam ballcourt system, and the peripheries'
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Prior to the middle of the 14th century CE, with the rise of Los Muertos located several miles to the southeast, the Los Hornos community appears to have spiraled into a precipitous decline. Although greatly reduced in scale and importance, the city continued to be occupied until it was effectively
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At its peak in the late Preclassic and early Classic periods, this settlement may have consisted of as many as 20 discrete residential areas and covered several hundred acres. Today, due to massive urban development, the surface remains of the village have been reduced to a 6.4-acre parcel situated
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This phase was initially proposed as part of the Gladwinian scheme, but recently has fallen out of favor with many Hohokam archaeologists. The primary reason for this view is that the Hohokam buff ware type once classified as Santan red-on-buff is now listed as either a late form of Sacaton or Casa
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with a variety of materials including micaceous, phyllite, or Squaw Peak schist, as well as granite, quartz, quartzite, and arkosic sands. Analytically, based on the type of temper used, these are classified as to the geographic setting of their manufacture, and are referred to as Gila (Gila River
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Some archaeologists interpret the sudden appearance of pottery as new trade or immigration into the Phoenix area, resulting in the rise of the Hohokam. Other archaeologists classify many of the defining, cultural characteristics as already within the indigenous farming communities by Hohokam rise.
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After a short period of population loss and community reorganization in the late 11th and early 12th centuries CE, Los Hornos continued to shift east and south in the Classic period. This large village appears to have recovered somewhat and again became an important settlement late in the Soho or
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Between 1350 and 1375 CE, the Hohokam tradition lost vitality and stability, and many of the largest settlements were abandoned. Climate change apparently greatly affected Hohokam agriculture and so dispersed its large communities. Repeated floods in the mid-14th century greatly deepened the Salt
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in the north. There appears to have been an elite class, as well as an increase in social status for craftsman. Platform mounds similar to those in central Mexico appear, and may be associated with an upper class and have some religious function. Trade items from the Mexican heartland included
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Over time, the Los Hornos settlement expanded along a series of large secondary canals to the east and southeast. At the height of the Preclassic occupation in the Sacaton phase, which was contemporary with the zenith of Snaketown, this settlement had one large ball court, a large central plaza,
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made further descriptions of this area. Between 1906 and 1912, Fewkes conducted excavations and stabilization of this portion of the site. In 1927, Harold Gladwin excavated stratified tests of several trash mounds at both the Grewe and Casa Grande sites. He also defined and excavated portions of
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Hohokam ceramics are defined by a distinct Plain, Red, and Decorated buffware tradition, and were made using a technique called coiling. A small, fine clay base was connected to a series of coils. These coils were then thinned and shaped using a paddle and anvil. Hohokam Plain and Red wares were
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networks rivaled the complexity of those of ancient Near East, Egypt, and China. They were constructed using relatively simple tools and engineering technology, yet achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. The Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize,
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Altogether, the greater Grewe-Casa Grande Site represented the largest Hohokam community located within the middle Gila River valley. Situated between two primary canals (on the north, Canal Casa Grande and to the south Canal Coolidge), over time, this community was recorded as several separate
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directed by Russell Hastings in 1933 and 1934. The excavation of 15 pithouses, three pits, 32 burials, and portions of four trash mounds demonstrated the presence of significantly large late Preclassic and early Classic period components within the area covered by the monument. Yet, by far the
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The surfaces of Plain wares were smoothed to some extent and many were polished, or slipped, with other minerals or clays. After the vessels were fired, these sometimes turned a color that ranged from light or dark brown, gray, to orange. Later, the interiors of bowls were slipped with a black
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Overall, Snaketown boasted two ball courts, numerous trash mounds, a small ceremonial mound, a large central plaza, several large community houses, and hundreds of residential pithouses, and may have been home to at least several thousand people. After Snaketown was abandoned, several minor
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ruin, located in Mesa, Arizona, represents another large Hohokam village that was occupied both in the Preclassic and Classic periods, from around 200 to 1450 CE. Although this settlement appears to have been very important, it has had little archaeological work, other than the mapping and
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Basin, in the 13th century. These compounds were composed of a large, rectangular exterior wall that partially (sometimes completely) enclosed a series of adjacent courtyards and plazas separated by partition walls. In turn, each courtyard may have contained one to four large, rectangular,
499:. Area and canal systems expanded, and tobacco and agave production began. Mexican influence increased. In larger communities, the first Hohokam ball courts were constructed and served as focal points for games and ceremonies. Pottery was embellished by the addition of an iron-stained
435:("Hohokam agave"), on large areas of rocky, dry ground. Agave became a major food source for the Hohokam to augment the food grown in irrigated areas. Engineering improved access to river water and the inhabitants excavated canals for irrigation. Evidence of trade networks include
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its own unique history of emergence, growth, and eventual abandonment. Including outlines of archaeological exploration, provided below are brief descriptions of the largest and most important prehistoric villages, towns, and cities found within the so-called Hohokam core area.
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Hohokam chronological sequence (HCS) is an archaeological construct that divides Hohokam history into phases of significant cultural changes. It uses two main methods of expression: Gladwinian and Cultural Horizon. The latter is an adaptation of the chronological scheme used in
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River bed and destroyed canal heads, which required their continuous extension upstream. Soon, additional flooding removed irreplaceable segments of these extensions, which effectively rendered hundreds of miles of canals virtually useless. Because of differences in
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The Mesa Grande Temple Mound is located in the Mesa Grande Cultural Park at 1000 N. Date St. Built by the Hohokam in 1100 CE, the walls are made of caliche, the calcium carbonate hardpan that forms under the desert soils. The mound is longer and wider than a modern
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their dead, very similar to the traditions documented among the historic Patayan culture to the west along the Lower Colorado River. Although the particulars of the practice changed somewhat, cremation remained the main practice in Hohokam until around 1300 CE.
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basin), Wingfield (Agua Fria basin, the Northern Periphery, or Lower Verde area), Piestewa Peak (Phoenix metro area north of the Salt River), South Mountain (Phoenix metro area south of the Salt River), or Salt (Salt or Verde River basins) Plain and Red wares.
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Further population increase brought significant changes. Irrigation canals and structures became larger and required more maintenance. More land came under cultivation, and Southwestern pigweed was grown. House design evolved into post-reinforced
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The Phoenix Basin was the Hohokam Core Area, and the Hohokam Periphery were adjacent areas where the Hohokam culture extended. Collectively, the Core and Peripheries formed the greater Hohokam Regional System, which occupied the northern or Upper
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Crop, agricultural skill, and cultural refinements increased between 300 and 500 CE as the Hohokam acquired a new group of cultivated plants, presumably from trade with peoples in the area of modern Mexico. These acquisitions included cotton,
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is located on Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) land and is under tribal ownership. It covers nearly 1,700 acres (688 ha) (6.9 km²). The GRIC has decided not to open this extremely sensitive prehistoric site to the public.
455:. Ceramics appeared shortly before 300 CE, with pots of unembellished brown used for storage and cooking, and as containers for cremated remains. Materials produced for ritual use included fired clay human and animal figures and
405:, usually less than 10 feet (3 m) deep, were dug for domestic water supplies. Early Hohokam homes were built of branches that were bent, covered with twigs or reeds and heavily applied mud, and other available materials.
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and helps to supply the city's water. The original canals were dirt ditches and required routine maintenance; those currently in use are lined with concrete. When Hohokam society collapsed, the dirt canals fell into disrepair.
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There are several official spelling variants for the name, including Hobokam, Huhugam, and Huhukam. The spellings are commonly thought to be interchangeable, but they have different meanings. In the 1930s, archaeologist
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Growth is the major characteristic of the Colonial period. Villages grew larger, with clusters of houses opening on a common courtyard. Some evidence exists of social stratification in larger homes and more ornate
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As farmers of corn and beans, early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle Gila River. The communities were located near arable land, and dry farming was common early in this period.
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group may have occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE, and in the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals.
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stabilization projects conducted by the Southwest Archaeology Team (SWAT). The SWAT's indispensable volunteer work at the Mesa Grande ruin began in the middle 1990s and continues today.
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in Tucson. Initially, the main method was flexed inhumation, similar to the southern Mogollon culture neighboring to the east. By the late Formative and Preclassic periods, the Hohokam
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find the monumental great house abandoned and already in a state of decay and decomposition. Despite its condition, later Jesuit missionaries and he used the great house to hold
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provided one of the first detailed archaeological maps and descriptions of Classic period architecture at the central locus, or Compound A, of the Casa Grande site, in 1884.
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was the archetypical Preclassic period settlement and preeminent community centered within the core of the Hohokam culture area. Today, Snaketown is situated within the
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Seymour, Deni J., 2008a "Delicate Diplomacy on a Restless Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri Social And Economic Relations in Northwestern New Spain, Part II",
534:. Artisans produced jewelry from shell, stone, and bone, and began to carve stone figures. Cotton textile work flourished. Red-on-buff pottery was widely produced.
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for food and fiber. Their agricultural strategies were vital in the inhospitable desert, and allowed the aggregation of rural populations into complex urban centers.
110:, but it was also influenced by the Northern Pueblo culture. Hohokam settlements were located on trade routes that extended past the Hohokam area, as far east as the
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Seymour, Deni J., 2007b "Delicate Diplomacy on a Restless Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri Social And Economic Relations in Northwestern New Spain, Part I".
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The earliest sedentary agricultural settlements in central Arizona date from 1000 to 500 BCE, yet the first ceramics appear just before the Hohokam rise in 300 CE.
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Dean, Rebecca M. (July 2005). "Site-Use Intensity, Cultural Modification of the Environment, and the Development of Agricultural Communities in Southern Arizona".
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This growth brought a need for increased organization, and perhaps authority. The regional culture spread widely, extending from near the Mexican border to the
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species had been gathered for food and fiber for thousands of years by southwestern peoples, and around 600, the Hohokam began cultivating agave, particularly
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displaying overt indications of belligerence towards the core area, followed by their cultural realignment, suggests that this was a very important episode.
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The HCS and the methods to establish its calendrical reference are applied only to the Hohokam Core Area, which is the Gila-Salt River basin associated with
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may have been the most influential factor on the society. Despite cultural exchange at trade centers, self-sufficiency and local resources were emphasized.
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613:, primarily Gila polychrome. This ceramic type was either manufactured locally or procured as a trade ware. This phase also had the introduction the
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396:(in the background): The hiking trail is located on a portion of a canal which the Hohokam built in 700 CE. The canal is now filled with soil.
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coast. Hohokam societies received a remarkable amount of immigration. Some communities established significant markets, such as that in
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Hill, J. Brett (October 2004). "Prehistoric demography in the Southwest: migration, coalescence, and Hohokam population decline".
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209:, in its common mistranslation as "all used up" or "those who are gone", to classify the remains that he was excavating in the
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Seymour, Deni J., 2007a "A Syndetic Approach to Identification of the Historic Mission Site of San Cayetano Del Tumacácori",
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The following Hohokam archaeological sites and museums are open to the public, except for Hohokam Pima National Monument.
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Clemensen, A., 1992 Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, Arizona: A Centennial History of the First Prehistoric Reserve.
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contains preserved ruins and artifact exhibits. Archaeological finds have been recorded along the track of the adjacent
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The roof shown was built in 1932, to protect the Great House or Casa Grande, at the Casa Grande Ruins National Monument.
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settlements were founded within the general vicinity and continued to be occupied until the early 14th century CE. The
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burial in the area north of the Gila River, both similar to the practices and traditions used by the historic O'odham.
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tradition and instead call Hohokam the Oasisamericans. Nevertheless, Hohokam are one of the four major cultures of the
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applied to avoid the interpretive bias inherent in the Gladwinian scheme (i.e. Pioneer, Colonial, Sedentary periods).
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that remained were quite small, and were concentrated along the Gila River, with the notable exception of the lower
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The Hohokam Core was located along rivers, and as such inhabited a prime trade position. Trade occurred between the
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2007-036 General COP Treatment Plan; Pueblo Grande Museum Project 2007–95; City of Phoenix Project No. ST87350010;
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differentiated Hohokam culture from others in the region. He applied the existing O'odham term for the culture,
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1646:"Lake Pleasant (Images of America)", Author: Gerard Giordano; Page: 13; Arcadia Publishing; 978-0-7385-7176-8
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Immediately after 1300 CE, Hohokam villages were reorganized along the lines experienced in the Lower Verde,
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20:
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Lekson, Stephen H., 2008 A History of the Ancient Southwest. School for Advanced Research Press, Santa Fe.
798:
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etching, daubing shells with pitch and bathing them in acid most likely made out of fermented cactus juice
467:
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527:, with evidence of increased communal activity. Large common ovens were used to cook bread and meat.
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994:
323:
The Hohokam used the waters of the Salt and Gila Rivers to build an assortment of simple canals with
254:
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drainage. This period is the aftermath of the Hohokam cultural collapse and a critical stage in the
4990:
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2310:
1542:. Maney Publishing on behalf of the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society, Oct. 1965, p. 8.
1160:
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808:
301:
190:
174:
133:, the Hohokam are recognized for their large-scale irrigation networks. Their canal network in the
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1823:
1784:
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684:
Hohokam Sacaton red-on-buff plate, ca. 950-1150 CE. On display at Pueblo Grande museum, Phoenix.
610:
576:
440:
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142:
2536:
2079:
1970:
The Grewe Archaeological Research Project, Volume 1: Project Background and Feature Descriptions
1571:
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1290:
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1199:
1193:
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A large plaza in front of the Mesa Grande Temple Mound which was enclosed by a large adobe wall.
792:, literally meaning the "Abandoned House", or "Village of the king/chieftain", respectively. As
482:
106:
The origin of the culture is debated. Most archaeologists either argue it emerged locally or in
221:
refers to past human life and not to objects such as ruins. Therefore, the archaeological term
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4852:
4818:
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4019:
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3245:
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2689:
2471:
2403:
2004:
1980:
1768:
1674:
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1203:
868:
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society encouraged trade throughout northern Arizona and into southwest Colorado and southern
297:
210:
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147:
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96:
92:
1323:
1316:
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This period is generally considered as a time of growth and social change. The community of
4965:
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1815:
1760:
1717:
852:
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709:
631:
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566:. Additionally, evidence of Hohokam influence in a broader context decreased significantly.
377:
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134:
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47:
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772:
550:
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Crafts were greatly refined. By about 1000 CE , the Hohokam were the first to master acid
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1932:
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862:
748:
500:
24:
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red-on-buff continued to be produced, the pottery type that characterized this phase was
1907:
784:
Most observers are attracted to the four-story great house found near the center of the
19:
This article is about the prehistoric culture. For the freeway in Phoenix, Arizona, see
4778:
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1110:
984:
970:
898:
471:
431:
418:
341:
281:
262:
178:
159:
123:
2094:
755:, the site was completely recovered with earth, leaving nothing visible above ground.
4959:
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3215:
3107:
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3037:
3027:
3022:
2772:
2649:
2461:
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2220:
2215:
1827:
1788:
1737:
1347:
819:
Additional excavations were performed in the southeast corner of the monument by the
652:
155:
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4315:
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3167:
3122:
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2887:
2867:
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2747:
2732:
2551:
2423:
2269:
1963:
In the Shadow of South Mountain: The Pre-Classic Hohokam of La Ciudad de los Hornos
1165:
856:
669:
445:
270:
182:
111:
4199:
2052:
Wood, J. Scott 1987 "Checklist of Pottery Types for the Tonto National Forest",
4711:
4701:
4572:
4516:
4320:
4251:
4104:
4074:
3781:
3673:
3553:
3276:
3157:
3137:
3002:
2862:
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2737:
2481:
2294:
2262:
2230:
2190:
960:
951:
881:
665:
627:
606:
538:
496:
443:, and parrot bones from central Mexico. Seeds and grains were prepared on stone
393:
370:
107:
141:
Western Hemisphere. A portion of the ancient canals has been renovated for the
4749:
4587:
4567:
4194:
4009:
3801:
3563:
3313:
3210:
3082:
2997:
2912:
2822:
2372:
2274:
2252:
2180:
2175:
2019:
752:
620:
402:
328:
285:
250:
177:, and is used by archaeologists to identify groups of people who lived in the
2114:
Hohokam Irrigation Canals, Pueblo Grande Museum, Phoenix, Maricopa County, AZ
2105:
Archaeology Southwest: Pieces of the Puzzle – "What happened to the Hohokam?"
1977:
Chaco & Hohokam: Prehistoric Regional Systems in the American Southwest.
1772:
4770:
4766:
4741:
4491:
3826:
3716:
3087:
2917:
2245:
2195:
2049:
Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 160, 1983, University of Arizona.
2042:
Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series 155, 1981, University of Arizona.
945:
740:
648:
559:
524:
513:
436:
356:
348:
347:
Many features of earlier Hohokam domestic architecture, such as rectangular
337:
119:
4275:
3945:
1669:
Billard, Jules, B. (1989). "Jesse D. Jennings, "Across an Arctic Bridge"".
1389:"Record Heat Waves And Droughts Can't Dry Up This Native Garden In Phoenix"
1318:
Dead pool: Lake Powell, global warming, and the future of water in the West
213:. Similarly, in the 1970s, archaeologist Hardy translated the O'odham word
1819:
1657:
Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolumbian Americas.
4757:
4607:
4169:
4149:
4144:
4034:
4014:
3286:
3250:
3200:
3062:
2847:
2205:
1493:
181:. Other archaeologists prefer to identify ancient Arizona as part of the
150:
settlers later infilled some canals, while others renovated, as with the
2113:
1780:
30:
4753:
4290:
4219:
4174:
3915:
3811:
3786:
3771:
3691:
3686:
3643:
3618:
3293:
2777:
2654:
2349:
2339:
2235:
2185:
2161:
2152:
2095:
Tucsoncitizen.com: "Hohokam stargazer may have recorded 1006 supernova"
1925:
1729:
1067:
542:
copper bells, mosaics, stone mirrors, and ornate birds such as macaws.
531:
517:
456:
277:
266:
151:
115:
84:
1671:
The World of the American Indian, A volume in the Story of Man Library
4696:
4686:
4582:
4557:
4069:
4064:
3989:
3925:
3806:
3756:
3746:
3721:
2639:
2100:
Skytonight.com: "Experts question Hohokam "supernova" interpretation"
1764:
640:
451:
289:
88:
2089:
1884:
1721:
1655:
Fish, Suzanne K. "Hohokam Impacts on Sonoran Desert Environment" in
936:
2085:
National Park Service: Casa Grande Ruins National Monument homepage
700:
Hence, pottery helps to fuel the controversy over Hohokam origins.
4336:
4280:
4271:
4159:
3736:
3383:
2284:
1659:
ed by David L. Lentz. New York: Columbia U Press, 2000, pp.251–280
861:
771:
687:
679:
549:
520:
481:
466:
426:
387:
236:
29:
1492:. Arizona Museum of Natural History, City of Mesa. Archived from
3343:
2240:
2200:
1979:
School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1991.
1038:(The small brown ones) found in the ruins on top of Indian Mesa.
333:
324:
309:
3459:
2376:
2123:
1864:"Virtual Hohokam Chronology Building and Research: Los Hornos"
704:
evidence that the Hohokam stayed in one area for a long time.
1623:"Drawing the Line on Hohokam: The Continental Site Revisited"
68:
4918:
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2070:
University of Arizona: "Hohokam Indians of the Tucson Basin"
1673:. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society. p. 47.
2084:
1926:
Phoenix Parks Dept: Pueblo Grande Museum Archeological Park
59:
53:
23:. For the Oakland Athletics' spring training facility, see
1852:. Hingham, U.S.: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 169.
987:– Hohokam Fort on top of a foothill in Carefree, Arizona.
901:, the Hohokam settlement of Los Hornos (from the Spanish
1961:
Chenault, Mark, Rick Ahlstrom, and Tom Motsinger, 1993
1895:
304:
in Northern Arizona. From 900 to 1150 CE, neighboring
4913:
Painting in the Americas before European colonization
2090:
National Park Service: Hohokam Pima National Monument
65:
2038:Wilcox, David R., C. Sternberg, and T. R. McGuire.
1896:
Arizona Museum of Natural History: Mesa Grande Ruins
1022:
The ruins of a Hohokam village on top of Indian Mesa
948:), Gila River Indian Reservation (closed to public).
296:
in Eastern Arizona; Southwest New Mexico; Northwest
4784:
4707:
4682:
4653:
4628:
4603:
4578:
4553:
4522:
4497:
4472:
4441:
4404:
4379:
4342:
4311:
4286:
4257:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4233:
3840:
3672:
3529:
3493:
3259:
3191:
2723:
2452:
2303:
2168:
71:
62:
56:
50:
16:
Prehistoric culture in the North American Southwest
1315:
523:. Rancheria-like villages grew up around common
503:, which produced a distinctive red-on-buff ware.
249:Hohokam society is primarily associated with the
2016:International Journal of Historical Archaeology,
1082:Petroglyphs at the Painted Rock Petroglyph Site.
1054:in the Tucson Basin, with distinctive red paint.
1975:Crown, Patrica L. and Judge, James W, editors.
486:Sears-Kay Ruin Fort rooms with square corners,
4893:Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
4878:Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas
2003:. Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997.
1898:— the ruins are under direction of the museum.
507:Sedentary period/Sacaton phase (950–1050/1150)
229:, the reverence of ancestors and descendants.
3471:
2388:
2135:
1804:"Hohokam Pallettes from the Gila Bend Region"
8:
2047:Hohokam Ballcourts and Their Interpretation.
1693:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1630:Bulletin of Old Pueblo Archaeological Center
801:, between the late 17th and 18th centuries.
327:for agriculture. From 800 to 1400 CE, their
217:to mean "that which has perished." However,
2020:https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10761-007-0031-9
241:Map of Hohokam and neighboring cultures in
4861:
3478:
3464:
3456:
2395:
2381:
2373:
2142:
2128:
2120:
2080:Encyclopædia Britannica: "Hohokam Culture"
1949:Excavations at Snaketown, Material Culture
1935:— Pueblo Grande Ruin and Irrigation Sites.
1636:: 1–25 – via Old Pueblo Archaeology.
1322:. University of California Press. p.
463:Colonial/Preclassic period (750–1050/1150)
316:, northern Arizona, and the Phoenix area.
4883:Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas
2903:Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
2001:Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest
1956:The Hohokam: Desert Farmers and Craftsmen
1540:Snaketown: 1964–1965, Kiva Vol. 31, No. 1
1387:Pietrorazio, Gabriel (October 10, 2022).
1362:"O'odham explanation of the term Huhugam"
5006:1450s disestablishments in North America
4986:Archaeological cultures of North America
3487:Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures
1570:. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.
1484:
1482:
1461:. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.
1289:. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.
1258:. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.
1198:. London: Thames & Hudson. pp.
1156:Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest
1181:
1012:
979:Pueblo Grande Museum Archeological Park
849:Pueblo Grande Museum Archeological Park
478:1050 CE: This room had rounded corners.
2364:List of Indian reservations in Arizona
2169:Contemporary peoples native to Arizona
1686:
1551:
2045:Wilcox, David R., and C. Sternberg.
1420:
1418:
269:. The Hohokam also extended into the
83:in what is now part of south-central
7:
2110:Historic American Engineering Record
1247:
1245:
1187:
1185:
280:, who were situated along the Lower
3911:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela
3374:Norse colonization of North America
2056:21, Arizona Archaeological Society.
1908:Mesa Parks Dept: Park of the Canals
1596:"Hohokam Traditions and Lifestyles"
1171:List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples
937:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
933:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
786:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
727:List of dwellings of Pueblo peoples
721:Major core area villages and cities
643:peoples to the north and the east.
637:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
564:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
384:Pioneer/Formative period (1–750 CE)
154:pioneers settling the Lehi area of
36:Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
4976:Native American history of Arizona
4903:Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
3882:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia
975:Park of the Canals, Mesa, Arizona.
897:Located within the modern city of
659:Polvoron phase (1350/1375–1450 CE)
546:Classic period (1050/1150–1450 CE)
14:
3894:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador
3865:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia
1791:– via Gale General OneFile.
1740:– via Gale General OneFile.
1430:Arizona Museum of Natural History
1066:Hohokam corner-notched arrowhead
1007:Images related to Hohokam culture
991:White Tank Mountain Regional Park
4935:
3887:Archaeological sites in Colombia
3860:Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil
2151:
1990:Russell, Frank, 2006 (reprint),
1134:
1118:
1103:
1087:
1075:
1059:
1043:
1027:
1015:
692:Hohokam pottery from Casa Grande
601:Civano phase (1300–1350/1375 CE)
554:Hohokam turquoise mosaic jewelry
284:and in southern California; the
257:drainages in the Phoenix basin.
46:
3870:Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile
3394:Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
2304:Prehistoric cultures in Arizona
1314:Powell, James Lawrence (2008).
1885:Hohokam Pima National Monument
1850:The Archaeologist's Laboratory
942:Hohokam Pima National Monument
761:Hohokam Pima National Monument
745:Hohokam Pima National Monument
584:Soho phase (1050/1150–1300 CE)
1:
4814:Spanish Conquest of Guatemala
3875:Archaeological sites in Chile
2033:New Mexico Historical Review,
2026:New Mexico Historical Review,
4908:Mesoamerican writing systems
3904:Archaeological sites in Peru
3359:Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
3309:Eastern Agricultural Complex
967:Painted Rock Petroglyph Site
225:should not be confused with
137:was the most complex in the
4804:Spanish Conquest of Yucatán
2743:Bandelier National Monument
2617:List of Mississippian sites
2404:Pre-Columbian North America
570:Santan phase (1050–1150 CE)
5022:
5001:1st-century establishments
4830:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
4733:Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil
3163:West Oak Forest Earthlodge
2768:The Bluff Point Stoneworks
2477:Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)
893:Las Colinas and Los Hornos
871:field and is 27 feet high.
821:Civil Works Administration
724:
18:
4931:
4873:
4864:
4228:
4055:Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)
3432:
3404:Three Sisters agriculture
2410:
2358:
2054:The Arizona Archaeologist
1947:Gladwin, Harold S., 1965
1621:Dart, Allen (June 2014).
859:light-rail construction.
135:Phoenix metropolitan area
4942:Civilizations portal
3899:Cultural periods of Peru
2943:Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site
2502:Buttermilk Creek complex
2112:(HAER) No. AZ-89, "
1968:Craig, Douglas B., 2001
1808:Journal of the Southwest
413:, sieva and jack beans,
392:Hiking trail leading to
195:Southwestern archaeology
81:North American Southwest
4836:Hernán Pérez de Quesada
3682:Mesoamerican chronology
3143:Town Creek Indian Mound
3113:Sierra de San Francisco
2968:Meadowcroft Rockshelter
1931:April 13, 2010, at the
1526:March 24, 2014, at the
1348:"Definition of HOHOKAM"
122:. The harshness of the
79:) was a culture in the
34:The Great House at the
21:Arizona State Route 143
4981:Pre-Columbian cultures
3539:Archaeological periods
2798:Coso Rock Art District
2685:Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
2588:List of Hopewell sites
1848:Banning, E.B. (2000).
1432:. 2019. Archived from
872:
777:
693:
685:
555:
491:
479:
397:
246:
38:
4971:Oasisamerica cultures
4842:List of Conquistadors
4729:Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal
4140:Quebrada de Humahuaca
3559:Caddoan Mississippian
3206:Arlington Springs Man
3048:Portsmouth Earthworks
1913:May 27, 2010, at the
1820:10.1353/jsw.2010.0019
1802:White, Devin (2010).
1600:Archaeology Southwest
1567:Ancient North America
1564:Fagan, Brian (2005).
1458:Ancient North America
1455:Fagan, Brian (2005).
1366:Archaeology Southwest
1286:Ancient North America
1283:Fagan, Brian (2005).
1255:Ancient North America
1252:Fagan, Brian (2005).
1228:Archaeology Southwest
1224:"Hohokam or Huhugam?"
1195:Ancient North America
1192:Fagan, Brian (2005).
1166:Oasisamerica cultures
935:, Coolidge, Arizona.
865:
775:
725:Further information:
691:
683:
553:
485:
470:
391:
240:
173:is borrowed from the
167:National Park Service
87:, United States, and
33:
4809:Francisco de Montejo
4737:Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I
3850:Andean civilizations
3777:Shaft tomb tradition
3414:Transoceanic contact
3304:Container Revolution
2878:Gila Cliff Dwellings
2843:Etowah Indian Mounds
2116:", 3 data pages
2040:Snaketown Revisited.
2018:Vol. 11(3):269–296.
1496:on November 30, 2012
1436:on November 13, 2015
995:White Tank Mountains
981:, Phoenix, Arizona.
924:Archaeological sites
474:Mystery Room before
423:southwestern pigweed
4775:Manco Inca Yupanqui
4080:Manteño-Huancavilca
3549:Ancestral Puebloans
3334:Green Corn Ceremony
3148:Turkey River Mounds
2938:Lake Jackson Mounds
2758:Blue Spring Shelter
1161:Ancestral Puebloans
1070:in the Tucson Basin
809:Jesse Walter Fewkes
672:of modern O'odham.
472:Sears-Kay Ruin Fort
302:Ancestral Puebloans
4898:Columbian exchange
4888:Portal:Mesoamerica
4040:La Tolita (Tumaco)
3855:Indigenous peoples
3594:Hopewell tradition
3521:Indigenous peoples
3419:Underwater panther
3093:Rosenstock Village
2963:Marmes Rockshelter
2948:L'Anse aux Meadows
2158:Indigenous peoples
1954:Haury, Emil, 1978
1753:American Antiquity
1710:American Antiquity
1554:, pp. 32, 33.
873:
778:
694:
686:
556:
492:
480:
441:Gulf of California
439:, shells from the
398:
300:, Mexico; and the
247:
187:American Southwest
143:Salt River Project
39:
4953:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4923:Pre-Columbian art
4859:
4858:
4853:Francisco Pizarro
4819:Pedro de Alvarado
4135:Pucará de Tilcara
3453:
3452:
3445:Pre-Columbian era
3246:Spirit Cave mummy
3043:Plum Bayou Mounds
2953:Lynch Quarry Site
2472:Ancient Beringian
2370:
2369:
2035:Volume 83, No. 2.
2028:Volume 82, No. 4.
1992:The Pima Indians.
1965:", Part I and II.
1866:. mc.maricopa.edu
1581:978-0-500-28532-9
1472:978-0-500-28532-9
1333:978-0-520-25477-0
1300:978-0-500-28532-9
1269:978-0-500-28532-9
1209:978-0-500-28532-9
1113:at Huerfano Butte
961:Mesa Grande Ruins
768:Grewe-Casa Grande
676:Ceramic tradition
611:Salado polychrome
211:Lower Gila Valley
203:Harold S. Gladwin
165:According to the
148:European-American
5013:
4940:
4939:
4938:
4862:
4848:Spanish Conquest
4825:Spanish Conquest
4800:Spanish Conquest
4789:Spanish Conquest
4231:
4230:
3480:
3473:
3466:
3457:
3389:Projectile point
3226:Leanderthal Lady
3153:Upward Sun River
3128:Stallings Island
3118:Shell ring sites
3068:Recapture Canyon
2983:Moorehead Circle
2828:El Fin del Mundo
2813:Cueva de la Olla
2619:
2606:Maritime Archaic
2590:
2420:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2374:
2319:
2311:Ancestral Pueblo
2156:
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1999:Plog, Stephen.
1936:
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1520:Cultural Context
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963:, Mesa, Arizona.
813:Cosmos Mindeleff
805:Adolph Bandelier
595:Sacaton, Arizona
378:Phoenix, Arizona
314:Colorado Plateau
294:Mogollon culture
175:O'odham language
114:and west to the
101:Southern Arizona
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4748:
4746:Quemuenchatocha
4744:
4735:
4731:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4675:
4544:
4453:
4427:
4416:
4363:Human Sacrifice
4360:
4352:Human Sacrifice
4349:
4323:
4296:Mayan Languages
4224:
3836:
3668:
3525:
3506:Genetic history
3489:
3484:
3454:
3449:
3440:Genetic history
3428:
3282:Ceremonial pipe
3255:
3236:Minnesota Woman
3193:
3187:
3008:Ocmulgee Mounds
2988:Morrison Mounds
2933:Kolomoki Mounds
2923:Kimball Village
2783:Candelaria Cave
2725:
2719:
2700:Suwannee Valley
2635:Old Cordilleran
2615:
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2226:Southern Paiute
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1944:
1942:Further reading
1939:
1933:Wayback Machine
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749:Santan, Arizona
747:, located near
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603:
586:
572:
548:
516:, covered with
509:
465:
386:
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235:
193:, according to
191:Northern Mexico
49:
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28:
25:Hohokam Stadium
17:
12:
11:
5:
5019:
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4996:Sonoran Desert
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4709:
4708:Notable Rulers
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4677:Neo-Inca State
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3364:Mound Builders
3361:
3356:
3351:
3349:Medicine wheel
3346:
3341:
3339:Horned Serpent
3336:
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3105:
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3080:
3078:Roberts Island
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
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3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3013:Old Stone Fort
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2978:Moaning Cavern
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
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2935:
2930:
2928:Kincaid Mounds
2925:
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2915:
2910:
2905:
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2895:
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2885:
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2870:
2865:
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2808:Cuarenta Casas
2805:
2800:
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2770:
2765:
2763:Bluefish Caves
2760:
2755:
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2729:
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2724:Archaeological
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2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2522:Caloosahatchee
2519:
2514:
2509:
2507:Caborn-Welborn
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2453:Archaeological
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2321:
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2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2280:Western Apache
2277:
2272:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2263:Akimel O'odham
2260:
2258:Tohono Oʼodham
2250:
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2074:an online book
2065:
2064:External links
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1759:(3): 403–431.
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1716:(4): 689–716.
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1538:Haury, Emil W
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899:Tempe, Arizona
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432:Agave murpheyi
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292:, Mexico; the
282:Colorado River
263:Sonoran Desert
234:
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179:Sonoran Desert
129:In modern-day
124:Sonoran Desert
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4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3842:South America
3839:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3664:Weeden Island
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3639:Poverty Point
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3604:Mississippian
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3531:North America
3528:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3501:Paleo-Indians
3499:
3498:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3476:
3474:
3469:
3467:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3324:Falcon dancer
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3260:Miscellaneous
3258:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3231:Melbourne Man
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3221:La Brea Woman
3219:
3217:
3216:Kennewick Man
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3108:Serpent Mound
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3058:Pueblo Bonito
3056:
3054:
3053:Poverty Point
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3038:Pinson Mounds
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3028:Painted Bluff
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:Horr's Island
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2838:Effigy Mounds
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2803:Crystal River
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2715:Weeden Island
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2680:Safety Harbor
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2670:Poverty Point
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2650:Paleo-Indians
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2611:Mississippian
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2393:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2009:0-500-27939-X
2006:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:0-933452-76-4
1982:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1889:
1886:
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1878:
1865:
1859:
1856:
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1844:
1841:
1829:
1825:
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1798:
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1778:
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1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
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1711:
1704:
1701:
1696:
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1682:
1676:
1672:
1665:
1662:
1658:
1652:
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1643:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1614:
1601:
1597:
1591:
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1583:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1511:
1508:
1495:
1491:
1490:"The Hohokam"
1485:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1451:
1448:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1426:"The Hohokam"
1421:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1406:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1279:
1276:
1271:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1256:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1216:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1085:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1052:pottery sherd
1046:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1025:
1018:
1013:
1000:
996:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
972:
968:
965:
962:
959:
957:
953:
950:
947:
943:
940:
938:
934:
931:
930:
929:
923:
921:
918:
914:
910:
906:
904:
900:
892:
890:
886:
883:
875:
870:
864:
860:
858:
854:
851:near central
850:
844:Pueblo Grande
843:
841:
837:
835:
829:
825:
822:
817:
814:
810:
806:
802:
800:
795:
794:Frank Russell
791:
787:
782:
774:
767:
765:
762:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
735:
733:
728:
720:
718:
714:
711:
705:
701:
697:
690:
682:
675:
673:
671:
667:
658:
656:
654:
653:geomorphology
650:
644:
642:
638:
633:
629:
624:
622:
618:
617:
612:
608:
600:
598:
596:
592:
583:
581:
578:
569:
567:
565:
561:
552:
545:
543:
540:
535:
533:
528:
526:
522:
519:
515:
506:
504:
502:
498:
489:
484:
477:
473:
469:
462:
460:
458:
454:
453:
448:
447:
442:
438:
434:
433:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
406:
404:
395:
390:
383:
381:
379:
374:
372:
363:
361:
358:
352:
350:
345:
343:
339:
335:
330:
326:
321:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
274:
272:
268:
264:
258:
256:
252:
244:
239:
232:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
76:
43:
37:
32:
26:
22:
4933:
4866:
4716:Moctezuma II
4673:Inca history
4598:Andean Music
4542:Architecture
4537:Architecture
4532:Architecture
4527:Architecture
4523:Architecture
4517:Gender Roles
4262:Tenochtitlan
4185:Timoto–Cuica
4180:Tierradentro
3965:Casma–Sechin
3697:Chalcatzingo
3588:
3424:Water glyphs
3379:Oasisamerica
3369:N.A.G.P.R.A.
3329:Folsom point
3319:Effigy mound
3299:Clovis point
3267:Aridoamerica
3168:Wickiup Hill
3123:Spiro Mounds
3103:Salmon Ruins
3098:Russell Cave
2893:Helen Blazes
2888:Grimes Point
2868:Fort Juelson
2858:Fort Ancient
2833:El Vallecito
2793:Chaco Canyon
2733:Angel Mounds
2695:Steed-Kisker
2645:Paleo-Arctic
2576:
2567:Glacial Kame
2552:Fort Ancient
2444:Post-Classic
2415:
2360:
2329:
2275:Southern Ute
2270:Tonto Apache
2073:
2053:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2025:
2015:
2000:
1991:
1976:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1948:
1921:
1903:
1891:
1880:
1868:. Retrieved
1858:
1849:
1843:
1833:November 15,
1831:. Retrieved
1814:(2–3): 311.
1811:
1807:
1797:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1670:
1664:
1656:
1651:
1642:
1633:
1629:
1616:
1604:. Retrieved
1599:
1590:
1566:
1559:
1547:
1539:
1534:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1500:November 30,
1498:. Retrieved
1494:the original
1457:
1450:
1438:. Retrieved
1434:the original
1429:
1412:-wni hohokam
1408:
1396:. Retrieved
1392:
1382:
1370:. Retrieved
1365:
1356:
1342:
1317:
1309:
1285:
1278:
1254:
1232:. Retrieved
1227:
1218:
1194:
927:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
896:
887:
879:
857:Valley Metro
847:
838:
833:
830:
826:
818:
803:
790:Sivan Vah'Ki
789:
783:
779:
757:
739:
730:
715:
706:
702:
698:
695:
670:ethnogenesis
662:
645:
625:
614:
604:
587:
573:
557:
536:
529:
510:
493:
487:
475:
450:
444:
430:
419:warty squash
407:
399:
375:
367:
353:
346:
322:
318:
275:
271:Mogollon Rim
259:
248:
242:
226:
222:
218:
214:
206:
199:
183:Oasisamerica
170:
164:
160:Red Mountain
128:
112:Great Plains
105:
41:
40:
4779:Túpac Amaru
4763:Manco Cápac
4712:Moctezuma I
4623:Agriculture
4618:Agriculture
4613:Agriculture
4604:Agriculture
4547:Road System
4436:Mathematics
4301:Muysc Cubun
4155:San Agustín
4105:Monte Verde
3782:Teotihuacan
3674:Mesoamerica
3569:Coles Creek
3554:Anishinaabe
3511:Archaeology
3409:Thunderbird
3277:Black drink
3241:Peñon woman
3178:Winterville
3158:Velda Mound
3138:Taos Pueblo
3033:Parkin Park
3018:Orwell site
3003:Nodena site
2898:Holly Bluff
2873:Four Mounds
2863:Fort Center
2788:Casa Grande
2738:Anzick site
2630:Monongahela
2557:Fort Walton
2532:Coles Creek
2497:Belle Glade
2482:Anishinaabe
2325:Basketmaker
2191:Halchidhoma
1552:Powell 2008
1398:October 10,
952:Indian Mesa
882:Mesa Grande
876:Mesa Grande
666:Queen Creek
628:Tonto Basin
607:Casa Grande
539:Verde River
497:grave goods
411:tepary bean
403:Water wells
394:Indian Mesa
371:Mesoamerica
169:, the word
139:pre-contact
108:Mesoamerica
99:Oʼodham in
4991:Gila River
4960:Categories
4750:Tisquesusa
4724:Cuauhtémoc
4720:Cuitláhuac
4050:Lauricocha
4020:Gran Chaco
4010:Cupisnique
3995:Chinchorro
3970:Chachapoya
3960:Caral–Supe
3802:Tlaxcaltec
3792:Teuchitlán
3707:Chupícuaro
3634:Plum Bayou
3629:Plaquemine
3599:Marksville
3564:Chichimeca
3354:Metallurgy
3314:Eden point
3211:Buhl Woman
3083:Rock Eagle
3073:River Styx
2998:Mummy Cave
2993:Moundville
2973:Mesa Verde
2958:Marksville
2705:Tchefuncte
2665:Plaquemine
2601:Las Palmas
2517:Calf Creek
2512:Cades Pond
2181:Chiricahua
2176:Chemehuevi
1680:0870447998
1177:References
1129:shell art.
1127:Glycymeris
903:los hornos
753:Emil Haury
708:primarily
621:inhumation
525:courtyards
514:pit-houses
329:irrigation
286:Trincheras
255:Salt River
253:and lower
4771:Atahualpa
4767:Pachacuti
4742:Nemequene
4608:Chinampas
4430:Astronomy
4419:Astronomy
4399:Mythology
4394:Mythology
4389:Mythology
4384:Mythology
4380:Mythology
4210:Wankarani
4200:Tuncahuán
4090:Marajoara
4045:Las Vegas
3931:Atacameño
3827:Xochipala
3767:Purépecha
3727:Epi-Olmec
3717:Cuicuilco
3659:Troyville
3649:St. Johns
3399:Stickball
3088:Rock Hawk
2918:Key Marco
2710:Troyville
2690:St. Johns
2675:Red Ocher
2434:Formative
2361:See also:
2317:dwellings
2246:Hopi-Tewa
2196:Havasupai
1828:109408200
1789:163554279
1773:0002-7316
1738:162245875
1689:cite book
1393:Next City
946:Snaketown
741:Snaketown
736:Snaketown
649:hydrology
605:Although
560:Snaketown
459:burners.
437:turquoise
349:pithouses
298:Chihuahua
120:Snaketown
4867:See also
4785:Conquest
4758:Zoratama
4425:Calendar
4414:Calendar
4409:Calendar
4405:Calendar
4374:Religion
4369:Religion
4358:Religion
4347:Religion
4343:Religion
4332:Numerals
4326:Numerals
4287:Language
4267:Multiple
4205:Valdivia
4190:Tiwanaku
4150:Saladoid
4145:Quimbaya
4035:Kuhikugu
4015:Diaguita
4005:Chorrera
3822:Veraguas
3817:Veracruz
3797:Tlatilco
3609:Mogollon
3516:Cultures
3494:Americas
3287:Chanunpa
3272:Ballgame
3251:Vero man
3201:Anzick-1
3173:Windover
3133:SunWatch
3063:Rassawek
2883:Glenwood
2773:Brewster
2625:Mogollon
2596:La Jolla
2582:Hopewell
2542:Deptford
2455:cultures
2335:Mogollon
2211:Maricopa
2206:Hualapai
1929:Archived
1911:Archived
1870:July 30,
1781:40035307
1524:Archived
1150:See also
1125:Hohokam
1050:Hohokam
1034:Hohokam
869:football
710:tempered
591:Florence
357:cremated
233:Overview
207:huhu-kam
4966:Hohokam
4754:Tundama
4683:Peoples
4668:History
4663:History
4658:History
4654:History
4648:Cuisine
4643:Cuisine
4638:Cuisine
4633:Cuisine
4629:Cuisine
4487:Warfare
4482:Warfare
4477:Warfare
4473:Warfare
4467:Society
4462:Economy
4451:Society
4446:Society
4442:Society
4312:Writing
4306:Quechua
4291:Nahuatl
4258:Capital
4195:Toyopán
4175:Tairona
4085:Mapuche
4000:Chiripa
3975:Chancay
3946:Cañaris
3921:Amotape
3916:El Abra
3832:Zapotec
3812:Totonac
3787:Tepanec
3772:Quelepa
3742:Mezcala
3732:Huastec
3702:Cholula
3692:Capacha
3687:Acolhua
3644:Sinagua
3619:Patayan
3589:Hohokam
3579:Fremont
3436:Related
3294:Chunkey
3194:remains
3183:Wupatki
3023:Paquime
2913:Huápoca
2778:Cahokia
2748:Bastian
2655:Patayan
2577:Hohokam
2562:Fremont
2537:Comondú
2492:Baytown
2487:Avonlea
2467:Alachua
2439:Classic
2429:Archaic
2417:Periods
2350:Sinagua
2340:Patayan
2330:Hohokam
2290:Yavapai
2253:Oʼodham
2236:Quechan
2186:Cocopah
2162:Arizona
1730:4128444
1068:in situ
1001:Gallery
853:Phoenix
632:Safford
577:spindle
518:caliche
490:1050 CE
457:incense
452:metates
364:History
278:Patayan
267:Arizona
227:huhugam
223:Hohokam
219:huhugam
215:huhugam
171:Hohokam
131:Phoenix
116:Pacific
85:Arizona
42:Hohokam
4697:Muisca
4692:Mayans
4687:Aztecs
4321:Script
4316:Script
4276:Bacatá
4247:Muisca
4130:Pucará
4125:Piaroa
4120:Paiján
4115:Omagua
4070:Lupaca
4065:Lokono
4030:Kalina
4025:Huetar
3985:Chavín
3980:Chango
3955:Nariño
3951:Capulí
3941:Calima
3936:Aymara
3926:Arawak
3807:Toltec
3757:Olmecs
3752:Nicoya
3747:Mixtec
3722:Diquis
3624:Picosa
3614:Oshara
3584:Glades
3574:Dorset
2853:Folsom
2818:Cutler
2753:Benson
2640:Oneota
2572:Glades
2547:Folsom
2527:Clovis
2424:Lithic
2345:Salado
2221:Navajo
2216:Mohave
2007:
1983:
1826:
1787:
1779:
1771:
1736:
1728:
1677:
1606:May 1,
1602:. 2019
1578:
1469:
1440:May 1,
1372:May 1,
1368:. 2019
1330:
1297:
1266:
1234:May 1,
1230:. 2019
1206:
834:per se
641:Pueblo
630:, and
421:, and
415:cushaw
338:squash
336:, and
290:Sonora
152:Mormon
97:Tohono
93:Akimel
89:Sonora
4702:Incas
4593:Music
4588:Music
4583:Music
4579:Music
4512:Women
4507:Women
4502:Women
4498:Women
4456:Trade
4337:Quipu
4281:Cusco
4272:Hunza
4237:Aztec
4170:Taíno
4165:Sican
4160:Shuar
4110:Nazca
4100:Mollo
4095:Moche
4075:Luzia
3990:Chimú
3762:Pipil
3737:Izapa
3712:Coclé
3654:Thule
3544:Adena
3384:Piasa
3192:Human
2823:Eaker
2726:sites
2660:Plano
2462:Adena
2285:Yaqui
1824:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1777:JSTOR
1734:S2CID
1726:JSTOR
1626:(PDF)
616:comal
521:adobe
488:circa
476:circa
446:manos
427:Agave
342:agave
334:beans
325:weirs
306:Chaco
243:circa
158:near
4492:Army
4274:and
4252:Inca
4242:Maya
4220:Zenú
4215:Wari
4060:Lima
3344:Kiva
2295:Zuni
2241:Tewa
2231:Pima
2201:Hopi
2005:ISBN
1981:ISBN
1872:2008
1835:2019
1769:ISSN
1695:link
1675:ISBN
1608:2019
1576:ISBN
1517:p. 9
1502:2012
1467:ISBN
1442:2019
1400:2022
1374:2019
1328:ISBN
1295:ISBN
1264:ISBN
1236:2019
1204:ISBN
880:The
811:and
799:Mass
651:and
593:and
501:slip
449:and
417:and
310:Utah
251:Gila
245:1350
189:and
156:Mesa
95:and
4573:Art
4568:Art
4563:Art
4558:Art
4554:Art
2848:Eva
2160:of
1816:doi
1761:doi
1718:doi
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1463:336
1291:349
1260:350
1200:347
288:of
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