Ploidy - Knowledge (XXG)

384:. Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with 327: 1454:) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example. 575: 1461:(by asexual reproduction through mitosis), in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route. 707:(4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc. Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets), though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid"). 400:, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term 41: 862:. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology. 172:. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization. 1260:

of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive. Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability. Some studies suggest

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is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number.

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in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are

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Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: one copy of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23

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In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the

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In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the

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rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times

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The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species.

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Cells of the diploid structure quickly undergo meiosis to produce spores containing the meiotically halved number of chromosomes, restoring haploidy. These spores express either the mother's dominant gene or the father's recessive gene and proceed by mitotic division to build a new entirely haploid

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set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes.

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The original text in German is as follows: "Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich

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Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid. In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the

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organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and

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gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes, the condition is called

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may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.

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to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by Gerstein et al. 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under

438:, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another. 976:

is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with

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Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.

1248:. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei. 237:

may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45.

915:. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid 44:

A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the picture above, must belong to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, it must be of a tetraploid (four sets)

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about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the

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The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or

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in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents. All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display

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The diploid zygote proceeds by mitotic division to build a new entirely diploid organism. These cells possess both the purple and blue genes, but only the purple gene is expressed since it is dominant over the recessive blue

1036:. As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the 513:

are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general

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is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes

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chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the

522:. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2 1066:

differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid,

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Song, Xiaoming; Wei, Yanping; Xiao, Dong; Gong, Ke; Sun, Pengchuan; Ren, Yiming; Yuan, Jiaqing; Wu, Tong; Yang, Qihang; Li, Xinyu; Nie, Fulei; Li, Nan; Feng, Shuyan; Pei, Qiaoying; Yu, Tong (2021-02-04).

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Haploid sperm and egg carrying the recessive blue gene and the dominant purple gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes in the diploid germ cells.

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undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during

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describe having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with

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is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.

104:. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair, which chromosomes naturally exist as. 345:

Haploid egg and sperm carrying the dominant purple gene and the recessive blue gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by simple mitosis of cells in the germ line.

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Zahradka K, Slade D, Bailone A, Sommer S, Averbeck D, Petranovic M, Lindner AB, Radman M (2006). "Reassembly of shattered chromosomes in Deinococcus radiodurans".

1083: = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, 1319:, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more generally, the idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions – is cast into doubt by these results. 392:

An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes. In this case, the nucleus of a

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Edwards MJ; et al. (1994). "Mixoploidy in humans: two surviving cases of diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy and comparison with diploid-triploid mixoploidy".

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that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species. However, polyploidization is associated with an increase in

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is used with two distinct but related definitions. In the most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a

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When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in

3735: 3711: 434:. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During 176:

homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the

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offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of

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is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.

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U. R. Murty (1973). "Morphology of pachytene chromosomes and its bearing on the nature of polyploidy in the cytological races of Apluda mutica L.".

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There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the

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are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system

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with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.

871: 31: 4856: 777:, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand. 4072:"Relaxed purifying selection in autopolyploids drives transposable element over-accumulation which provides variants for local adaptation" 1334:, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of 1213:, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes. In 1721:

passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen."

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and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only

4031:"The mutation load under tetrasomic inheritance and its consequences for the evolution of the selfing rate in autotetraploid species" 4355: 4233: 3760: 2855: 2116: 625:. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat ( 164:), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian 3432:

Cosín, Darío J. Díaz; Novo, Marta; Fernández, Rosa (2011). "Reproduction of Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis".

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is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are

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chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be

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occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.

593: 3138:"Physiological responses of the halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. strain NRC1 to desiccation and gamma irradiation" 4882: 355:

The short-lived diploid state of haploid organisms, a zygote generated by the union of two haploid gametes during sex.

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of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds

457:. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like 168:). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of 2875: 4892: 4163: 1228: 675: 454: 4624: 2190: 1141: 670:

that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include

4328: 2938:"Brassica carinata genome characterization clarifies U's triangle model of evolution and polyploidy in Brassica" 2805:"Temperature dependence in Proliferation of tetraploid Meth-A cells in comparison with the parent diploid cells" 2429: 637:) have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any 4678: 4462: 2566:

Svartman, Marta; Stone, Gary; Stanyon, Roscoe (2005). "Molecular cytogenetics discards polyploidy in mammals".

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switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called

278:) means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped"). 2375: 2098: 1458: 1301: 806: 797: 4631: 4614: 4584: 4557: 2215: 627: 431: 98: 1297: 4887: 4619: 4517: 3633: 1181: 969: 633: 610: 582: 116:

organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"):

4839: 4764: 4749: 4579: 4527: 4502: 4442: 4290: 4083: 3987: 3932: 3873: 3791: 3662: 3094: 2872:"Genes involved in tissue and organ development: Polytene chromosomes, endoreduplication and puffing" 2234: 2168:. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung und Carl Ernst Poeschel Verlag GmbH. p. 169. 1569: 1550: 1289: 1262: 978: 708: 3828: 1204:, males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults. 4507: 1266: 1135: 1129: 568: 360:

The diploid zygote which has just been fertilized by the union of haploid egg and sperm during sex.

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zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of

469:, spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male 4185: 4127: 3809: 3782: 3686: 3621: 3339: 3168: 3118: 3067: 2995:"Multiplicity of genome equivalents in the radiation-resistant bacterium Micrococcus radiodurans" 2786:"Study of the fractional composition of the proteins in the compound fruit of polyploid mulberry" 2681:"Flow cytometry and GISH reveal mixed ploidy populations and Spartina nonaploids with genomes of 2305: 2250: 1979: 1877: 1836: 1790: 1343: 1300:

should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher

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Baduel, Pierre; Quadrana, Leandro; Hunter, Ben; Bomblies, Kirsten; Colot, Vincent (2019-12-20).

3360:"Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks" 936:, where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in 3653:

Crosland MW, Crozier RH (1986). "Myrmecia pilosula, an Ant with Only One Pair of Chromosomes".

4569: 4481: 4318: 4229: 4177: 4119: 4101: 4052: 4011: 4003: 3956: 3948: 3901: 3756: 3750: 3729: 3678: 3569: 3520: 3445: 3412: 3389: 3267: 3218: 3187: 3160: 3110: 3059: 3024: 2975: 2957: 2851: 2826: 2804: 2766: 2718: 2661: 2583: 2505: 2169: 2080: 2062: 2023: 1971: 1963: 1917: 1867: 1750: 1282: 1241: 1209: 756: 671: 651: 2921: 2845: 1457:

However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated

1012:, though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal 751:

Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many

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Historisches Worterbüch der Biologie - Geschichte und Theorie der biologischen Grundbegriffe

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Ramsey, Justin; Schemske, Douglas W. (November 2002). "Neopolyploidy in Flowering Plants".

2043:"Polyploidy and its effect on evolutionary success: old questions revisited with new tools" 1180:

Ploidy can also vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the

4651: 4472: 4420: 4271: 4172: 4150:"Integrating Networks, Phylogenomics, and Population Genomics for the Study of Polyploidy" 4149: 937: 741:, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called 294: 234: 2898:

Encyclopedia of the Life Sciences (2002) "Polyploidy" Francesco D'Amato and Mauro Durante

4294: 4087: 3991: 3936: 3877: 3795: 3666: 3098: 2238: 184:. The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the 4542: 4466: 4148:

Blischak, Paul D.; Mabry, Makenzie E.; Conant, Gavin C.; Pires, J. Chris (2018-11-02).

4114: 4071: 3564: 3539: 3384: 3359: 3262: 3237: 2970: 2937: 2713: 2680: 2656: 2627: 2220:"Homologous versus antithetic alternation of generations and the origin of sporophytes" 2135: 2075: 2042: 1531: 1339: 1004: 1003:

In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a single

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chromosome pairs. It also shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two

271: 251: 86: 4313: 4278: 3999: 3896: 3861: 3019: 2994: 2785: 418:) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a 389:

These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.

4876: 4522: 4131: 3804: 3777: 3607: 3238:"46,XX/69,XXX diploid-triploid mixoploidy with hypothyroidism and precocious puberty" 2541: 2524: 2308: 2286: 2269: 2254: 2018: 2001: 1896: 1335: 1331: 1189: 1175: 1163: 1084: 1008:

report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a

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In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced

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Pehu E (1996). "The current status of knowledge on the cellular biology of potato".

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has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.

4497: 4371: 3172: 3122: 2605: 2430:"Primo supplemento alle tavole cromosomiche delle Pteridophyta di Alberto Chiarugi" 2350: 1742: 1511: 1051: 773: 752: 727:

can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm

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Strasburger, Eduard; Allen, Charles E.; Miyake, Kilchi; Overten, James B. (1905).

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In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in

262:. "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (- 40: 4331:, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists) 1322:

Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient

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databases and other sources which may list the ploidy levels of many organisms:

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Bender K (1963). "Über die Erzeugung und Entstehung dihaploider Pflanzen bei

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Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid,

792: 720: 716: 643: 638: 599: 585: 578: 393: 218: 4322: 4123: 4015: 3960: 3905: 3682: 3573: 3524: 3393: 3164: 3114: 3063: 2979: 2830: 2770: 2722: 2665: 2587: 2525:"Whole-genome duplications in South American desert rodents (Octodontidae)" 2509: 2084: 2002:"'Why polyploidy is rarer in animals than in plants': myths and mechanisms" 1975: 968:

Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of

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of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid. Ploidy of systems such as the

309:. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through 229:

again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes.

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A haploid organism is on the left and a diploid organism is on the right.

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word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single", from ἁ- (ha-, "one, same"). διπλόος (

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is often used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes.

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in predominantly haploid organisms and predominantly diploid organisms.

213: 3515: 3498: 940:, where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid 313:'s 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues. 4754: 4405: 4401: 2480:"Molecular cytogenetics and allotetraploidy in the red vizcacha rat, 1506: 1447: 1114: 822:

double-strand breaks. This resistance appears to be due to efficient

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species (Brassicaceae)? Evidence from genomic in situ hybridization"

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It is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by

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Dierschke T, Mandáková T, Lysak MA, Mummenhoff K (September 2009).

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in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on

205: 165: 101: 39: 3829:"Ecologists find genomic clues to invasive and endangered plants" 1858:(4th ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. p. 434. 1811:

Tuguo Tateoka (May 1975). "A contribution to the taxonomy of the

1162:– for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the 768: 478: 470: 458: 450: 4344: 3311:. Edited by B.M. Johri. Springer, Berlin, Germany. pp. 475–518. 3136:

Kottemann M, Kish A, Iloanusi C, Bjork S, DiRuggiero J (2005).

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It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the

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Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics: Classical and Molecular

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of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.

567:"Diploid" redirects here. For the geometrical construct, see 3776:

Pandit, M. K.; Pocock, M. J. O.; Kunin, W. E. (2011-03-28).

3752:

The Development and Regenerative Potential of Cardiac Muscle

2628:"A bicontinental origin of polyploid Australian/New Zealand 874:(where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes). 1252:

Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy

73: 3921:"The significance of responses of the genome to challenge" 3236:

Järvelä, IE; Salo, MK; Santavuori, P; Salonen, RK (1993).

2300:

Strasburger, E.; Noll, F.; Schenck, H.; Karsten, G. 1908.

1768: 1766: 396:

cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of

3042:

Soppa J (2011). "Ploidy and gene conversion in Archaea".

2270:"Biological relevance of polyploidy: ecology to genomics" 767:(cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the 4279:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy" 3862:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy" 1901:. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's son & co. p. 60. 990:

azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.)

4862:

International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature

1470:

Examples of various ploidy levels in species with x=11

200:) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a 4143: 4141: 893:, which are homozygous and used for genetic research. 3778:"Ploidy influences rarity and invasiveness in plants" 1385:

Number of chromosomes found in a single complete set

581:

of a typical human cell, showing a diploid set of 22

217:

equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human

4155:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

70: 64: 61: 4832: 4735: 4697: 4667: 4595: 4451: 4382: 58: 4204:"The Biology of Solanum tuberosum (L.) (Potatoes)" 1158:accumulate, these changes become less apparent by 270:, "form, likeness"). The principal meaning of the 3407:Books, Elsevier Science & Technology (1950). 1395:Total number of chromosomes in all sets combined 850:, because only part of the genome is amplified. 3587:Qiu Y.-L., Taylor A. B., McManus H. A. (2012). 3358:Sprague G.F.; Russell W.A.; Penny L.H. (1960). 1854:Rieger, R.; Michaelis, A.; Green, M.M. (1976). 4206:. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2012-03-05. 3436:. Soil Biology. Vol. 24. pp. 69–86. 1749:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 177. 877:Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by 4356: 3307:Nogler, G.A. 1984. Gametophytic apomixis. In 1942:"The Evolutionary Consequences of Polyploidy" 1912:D. Peter Snustad; Michael J. Simmons (2012). 1589:List of common organisms by chromosome count 36:Chromosome § Number in various organisms 8: 3638:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3589:"Evolution of the life cycle in land plants" 2478:Gallardo MH, González CA, Cebrián I (2006). 2136:"Histologische Beiträge zur Vererbungsfrage" 1075: = 42 (where the monoploid number 1044:), and is distinct from the haploid number ( 810:. These two species are highly resistant to 230: 2331:. Bar Harbor, Maine: The Jackson Laboratory 1995: 1993: 1440:Chromosome number of a tetraploid organism 919:would consequentially be a multiple of the 4694: 4363: 4349: 4341: 3540:"The dynamic nature of eukaryotic genomes" 3191:. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012, p. 217. 2894: 2892: 2452:"LECTURE 10: CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER" 1747:Essential Genetics: A Genomics Perspective 920: 4312: 4302: 4171: 4113: 4095: 4046: 3895: 3885: 3803: 3615: 3563: 3514: 3497:Schmid, M; Evans, BJ; Bogart, JP (2015). 3383: 3261: 3018: 2969: 2820: 2760: 2739:Kim E. Hummer; et al. (March 2009). 2734: 2732: 2712: 2679:Simon Renny-Byfield; et al. (2010). 2655: 2550: 2540: 2529:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2499: 2285: 2274:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2074: 2017: 2006:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 1957: 1806: 1804: 488:In some cases there is evidence that the 461:. More recently evolved plants, like the 3974:Matzke, M.A; Matzke, A.J.M (June 1998). 2922:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150437 2910:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2355:National Human Genome Research Institute 2140:Jahrbücher für Wissenschaftliche Botanik 1587: 1468: 1430:Chromosome number of a diploid organism 1353: 1048:) in the organism as it now reproduces. 952:, used for euploid karyotypes), such as 846:In ciliates, the macronucleus is called 3472:. University of Toronto. Archived from 2844:Kiichi Fukui; Shigeki Nakayama (1996). 1895:Darlington, C. D. (Cyril Dean) (1937). 1734: 1700: 1420:Number of chromosomes found in gametes 1405:Number of chromosomes in zygotic cells 1154:Over evolutionary time scales in which 650:diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the 530: = 42, so that the haploid number 27:Number of sets of chromosomes of a cell 4335:Chromosome number and ploidy mutations 3734:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3727: 3631: 2307:, rev. with the 8th German ed. (1906) 1916:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 115. 1079: = 7 and the haploid number 755:are polyploid due to a process called 4852:List of organisms by chromosome count 4173:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032302 3749:John O. Oberpriller; A Mauro (1991). 3538:Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Katz LA (2008). 2874:. The Interactive Fly. Archived from 2847:Plant Chromosomes: Laboratory Methods 1294:ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis 795:is a characteristic of the bacterium 662:(egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes ( 32:List of organisms by chromosome count 7: 3596:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 3467:"Dikaryons, diploids, and evolution" 2523:Gallardo M. H.; et al. (2004). 2312:Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen 509:. As an example, the chromosomes of 81:) is the number of complete sets of 4226:An introduction to genetic analysis 2351:"Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms" 1914:Principles of Genetics, 6th edition 89:, and hence the number of possible 4228:, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York 592:(at bottom right), as well as the 25: 3980:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3465:James B. Anderson; Linda M Kohn. 4244:Some eukaryotic genome-scale or 3805:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01838.x 3608:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2012.00188.x 3291:Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung 2542:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00331.x 2287:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00328.x 2019:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00332.x 1219:, the ploidy level varies from 4 1184:. In some insects it differs by 944:are given names with the suffix 860:coexist within the same organism 834:Depending on growth conditions, 551:haploid number. Thus in humans, 148:(7 sets), etc. The generic term 54: 4473:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome 3827:Gilbert, Natasha (2011-04-06). 2310:, translation by W. H. Lang of 1207:In the Australian bulldog ant, 534:is 21 and the monoploid number 4277:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004). 3860:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004). 2484:(Rodentia, Octodontidae)]" 999:More than one nucleus per cell 1: 4268:Protist genome-scale database 4000:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01390-1 3919:McClintock, B. (1984-11-16). 3675:10.1126/science.231.4743.1278 1819:complex (Poaceae) in Japan". 1711:, from the Latin for "-fold". 830:Variable or indefinite ploidy 3976:"Polyploidy and transposons" 2803:Fujikawa-Yamamoto K (2001). 2784:Talyshinskiĭ, G. M. (1990). 2380:Genomics Education Programme 2268:Bennett, Michael D. (2004). 1105:species, and also occurs in 1093:(four sets of chromosomes, 2 426:pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2 297:'s conception of the id (or 4263:Fungal genome size database 4253:Animal genome size database 4029:Ronfort, J. (August 1999). 3442:10.1007/978-3-642-14636-7_5 3011:10.1128/JB.134.1.71-75.1978 2809:Cell Structure and Function 2580:10.1016/j.ygeno.2004.12.004 2501:10.1016/j.ygeno.2006.02.010 1898:Recent advances in cytology 1145:, 8n=72), and dodecaploid ( 913:sex-determining chromosomes 866:Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy 759:, where duplication of the 631:) and golden viscacha rat ( 596:(to scale at bottom left). 4909: 4513:Dinoflagellate chromosomes 4283:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 4258:Plant genome size database 4097:10.1038/s41467-019-13730-0 3866:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1959:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.022 1370:Number of chromosome sets 1350:Glossary of ploidy numbers 1235:Tissue-specific polyploidy 1229:Alternation of generations 1173: 1117:. For example, species of 1058:) is an organism in which 869: 824:homologous recombinational 689: 676:human T-lymphotropic virus 597: 566: 455:alternation of generations 29: 4857:List of sequenced genomes 4625:Chromosomal translocation 4498:A chromosome/B chromosome 4489:(or accessory chromosome) 4048:10.1017/S0016672399003845 3376:10.1093/genetics/45.7.855 3309:Embryology of angiosperms 3157:10.1007/s00792-005-0437-4 2304:, 3rd English ed. (1908) 2247:10.1007/s12229-008-9012-x 1864:10.1007/978-3-642-96327-8 1821:Journal of Plant Research 1707:Compare the etymology of 1411:Haploid or gametic number 1156:chromosomal polymorphisms 972:. For example, homoploid 923:, which in humans is 23. 818:, conditions that induce 4679:Telomere-binding protein 4493:Supernumerary chromosome 3945:10.1126/science.15739260 3499:"Polyploidy in Amphibia" 2376:"Homologous chromosomes" 2329:Mouse Genome Informatics 1324:whole genome duplication 1307:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1246:cellular differentiation 1227:in a single population. 870:Not to be confused with 4304:10.1073/pnas.0403151101 3887:10.1073/pnas.0403151101 3215:10.1002/ajmg.1320520314 2164:Toepfer, Georg (2011). 2117:"Greek Word Study Tool" 2099:"Greek Word Study Tool" 1302:surface-to-volume ratio 1123:(African toads) form a 1020:Ancestral ploidy levels 897:Euploidy and aneuploidy 807:Halobacterium salinarum 798:Deinococcus radiodurans 788:In bacteria and archaea 617:, usually one from the 281:Polish-German botanist 231:Euploidy and aneuploidy 4615:Structural alterations 4337:YouTube tutorial video 3755:. Taylor&Francis. 2954:10.1093/plphys/kiab048 2482:Tympanoctomys barrerae 1481:Number of chromosomes 1133:, 2n=20), tetraploid ( 1028:, which can result in 970:homologous chromosomes 628:Tympanoctomys barrerae 603: 373: 46: 4632:Numerical alterations 4620:Chromosomal inversion 4518:Homologous chromosome 4076:Nature Communications 3841:10.1038/news.2011.213 3556:10.1093/molbev/msn032 3503:Cytogenet. Genome Res 3434:Biology of Earthworms 3254:10.1136/jmg.30.11.966 2121:www.perseus.tufts.edu 2103:www.perseus.tufts.edu 2000:Mable, B. K. (2004). 1597:Number of chromosomes 1290:unicellular organisms 1273:deleterious alleles. 1139:, 4n=36), octaploid ( 1127:, featuring diploid ( 634:Pipanacoctomys aureus 598:Further information: 577: 329: 322:Haploid and monoploid 182:chromosome complement 43: 4840:Extrachromosomal DNA 4528:Satellite chromosome 4503:Lampbrush chromosome 4443:Nuclear organization 3409:Advances in Genetics 2743:Fragaria iturupensis 2602:"Human Retroviruses" 2314:. Macmillan, London. 2302:A Textbook of botany 2227:The Botanical Review 2189:Battaglia E (2009). 1570:Opuntia ficus-indica 1551:Sequoia sempervirens 1265:content and relaxed 1263:transposable element 1151:, 12n=108) species. 1101:) is common in many 985:Zygoidy and azygoidy 979:polyploid speciation 709:Polytene chromosomes 658:) and human haploid 594:mitochondrial genome 157:sexually reproducing 4533:Centromere position 4508:Polytene chromosome 4478:Circular chromosome 4329:Supporting Data Set 4295:2004PNAS..10111036N 4289:(30): 11036–11039. 4088:2019NatCo..10.5818B 3992:1998TEcoE..13R.241M 3937:1984Sci...226..792M 3878:2004PNAS..10111036N 3872:(30): 11036–11039. 3796:2011JEcol..99.1108P 3667:1986Sci...231.1278C 3188:Eukaryotic microbes 3107:10.1038/nature05160 3099:2006Natur.443..569Z 3044:Biochem. Soc. Trans 2762:10.3732/ajb.0800285 2382:. 23 September 2021 2239:2008BotRv..74..395H 2059:10.1038/hdy.2012.79 2041:Madlung, A (2012). 1590: 1471: 1298:nutrient limitation 1267:purifying selection 569:Dyakis dodecahedron 332:sexual reproduction 4883:Classical genetics 3783:Journal of Ecology 3411:. Academic Press. 3336:10.1007/bf02357948 3056:10.1042/BST0390150 2993:Hansen MT (1978). 2822:10.1247/csf.26.263 2705:10.1093/aob/mcq008 2648:10.1093/aob/mcp161 1833:10.1007/bf02491243 1813:Agrostis mertensii 1787:10.1007/bf00119108 1588: 1469: 812:ionizing radiation 604: 507:fundamental number 374: 311:William Henry Lang 283:Eduard Strasburger 47: 4893:Genetics concepts 4870: 4869: 4828: 4827: 4565:Centromere number 4482:Linear chromosome 4220:Griffiths, A. J. 4035:Genetics Research 3931:(4676): 792–801. 3516:10.1159/000431388 3451:978-3-642-14635-0 3418:978-0-12-017603-8 3287:Solanum tuberosum 3093:(7111): 569–573. 2428:Fabbri F (1963). 2175:978-3-476-02317-9 1923:978-0-470-90359-9 1873:978-3-540-07668-1 1756:978-0-7637-7364-9 1692: 1691: 1605:Vinegar/fruit fly 1586: 1585: 1465:Specific examples 1452:Solanum tuberosum 1444: 1443: 1436:Tetraploid number 1391:Chromosome number 1283:triploid syndrome 1242:endoreduplication 1210:Myrmecia pilosula 1148:X. ruwenzoriensis 1056:Triticum aestivum 757:endoreduplication 672:human foamy virus 621:and one from the 559: = 23. 518:is a multiple of 285:coined the terms 212:cell produced by 178:chromosome number 16:(Redirected from 4900: 4695: 4659:Polyploidization 4487:Extra chromosome 4402:Genetic material 4365: 4358: 4351: 4342: 4326: 4316: 4306: 4208: 4207: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4175: 4145: 4136: 4135: 4117: 4099: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4050: 4026: 4020: 4019: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3899: 3889: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3847: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3807: 3790:(5): 1108–1115. 3773: 3767: 3766: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3733: 3725: 3723: 3722: 3716: 3710:. Archived from 3709: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3637: 3629: 3619: 3593: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3567: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3518: 3509:(3–4): 315–330. 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3484: 3478: 3471: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3387: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3318: 3312: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3265: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3198: 3192: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3142: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3022: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2973: 2942:Plant Physiology 2932: 2926: 2925: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2883: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2824: 2800: 2794: 2793: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2764: 2736: 2727: 2726: 2716: 2693:Annals of Botany 2676: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2636:Annals of Botany 2623: 2617: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2604:. Archived from 2598: 2592: 2591: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2554: 2544: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2503: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2466: 2465: 2459:Mcb.berkeley.edu 2456: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2425: 2419: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2392: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2372: 2366: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2321: 2315: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2224: 2212: 2206: 2205: 2195: 2186: 2180: 2179: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2152: 2151: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2113: 2107: 2106: 2095: 2089: 2088: 2078: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2021: 1997: 1988: 1987: 1961: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1909: 1903: 1902: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1851: 1845: 1844: 1808: 1799: 1798: 1770: 1761: 1760: 1739: 1722: 1718: 1712: 1705: 1591: 1472: 1376:Monoploid number 1354: 1244:as an aspect of 1038:monoploid number 891:doubled haploids 497:, also known as 495:monoploid number 330:A comparison of 225:, the resulting 186:monoploid number 80: 79: 76: 75: 72: 69: 66: 63: 60: 21: 4908: 4907: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4873: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4824: 4731: 4693: 4663: 4652:Paleopolyploidy 4597: 4591: 4447: 4421:Heterochromatin 4384: 4378: 4369: 4276: 4272:Ensembl Genomes 4242: 4217: 4212: 4211: 4202: 4201: 4197: 4147: 4146: 4139: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4028: 4027: 4023: 3973: 3972: 3968: 3918: 3917: 3913: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3845: 3843: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3775: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3726: 3720: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3705:"Archived copy" 3703: 3702: 3698: 3652: 3651: 3647: 3630: 3591: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3496: 3495: 3491: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3452: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3324:Potato Research 3321: 3319: 3315: 3306: 3302: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3248:(11): 966–967. 3235: 3234: 3230: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3185:Schaechter, M. 3184: 3180: 3140: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3084: 3083: 3079: 3041: 3040: 3036: 2992: 2991: 2987: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2907: 2906: 2902: 2897: 2890: 2881: 2879: 2870: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2843: 2842: 2838: 2802: 2801: 2797: 2783: 2782: 2778: 2741:"Decaploidy in 2738: 2737: 2730: 2683:S. alterniflora 2678: 2677: 2673: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2611: 2609: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2565: 2564: 2560: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2477: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2461: 2454: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2427: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2385: 2383: 2374: 2373: 2369: 2359: 2357: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2334: 2332: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2299: 2295: 2267: 2266: 2262: 2222: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2193: 2188: 2187: 2183: 2176: 2163: 2162: 2158: 2149: 2147: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2097: 2096: 2092: 2040: 2039: 2035: 1999: 1998: 1991: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1924: 1911: 1910: 1906: 1894: 1893: 1889: 1874: 1853: 1852: 1848: 1810: 1809: 1802: 1772: 1771: 1764: 1757: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1726: 1725: 1719: 1715: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1688:2 or polyploid 1467: 1352: 1254: 1237: 1178: 1172: 1022: 1001: 996: 987: 966: 938:Turner syndrome 899: 875: 868: 856: 832: 790: 763:occurs without 694: 688: 613:copies of each 609:cells have two 602: 590:sex chromosomes 572: 565: 503:cardinal number 367: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 336: 335: 324: 319: 317:Types of ploidy 301:), hence haplo- 295:August Weismann 266:), from εἶδος ( 244: 235:Turner syndrome 99:pseudoautosomal 57: 53: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4906: 4904: 4896: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4875: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4848: 4847: 4836: 4834: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4825: 4823: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4741: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4703: 4701: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4671: 4669: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4656: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4622: 4612: 4607: 4601: 4599: 4593: 4592: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4562: 4561: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4543:Submetacentric 4540: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4484: 4475: 4470: 4469:or heterosome) 4463:Sex chromosome 4455: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4408: 4399: 4394: 4388: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4370: 4368: 4367: 4360: 4353: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4332: 4274: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4241: 4240:External links 4238: 4237: 4236: 4216: 4213: 4210: 4209: 4195: 4164:Annual Reviews 4137: 4062: 4021: 3966: 3911: 3852: 3819: 3768: 3761: 3741: 3696: 3661:(4743): 1278. 3645: 3602:(3): 171–194. 3579: 3550:(4): 787–794. 3530: 3489: 3457: 3450: 3424: 3417: 3399: 3370:(7): 855–866. 3349: 3330:(3): 429–435. 3313: 3300: 3277: 3228: 3209:(3): 324–330. 3203:Am J Med Genet 3193: 3178: 3151:(3): 219–227. 3128: 3077: 3050:(1): 150–154. 3034: 2985: 2948:(1): 388–406. 2927: 2916:(1): 589–639. 2900: 2888: 2863: 2856: 2836: 2815:(5): 263–269. 2795: 2776: 2755:(3): 713–716. 2728: 2699:(4): 527–533. 2671: 2642:(4): 681–688. 2618: 2593: 2574:(4): 425–430. 2558: 2535:(4): 443–451. 2515: 2494:(2): 214–221. 2470: 2443: 2420: 2411: 2402: 2400:Langlet, 1927. 2393: 2367: 2342: 2325:"MGI Glossary" 2316: 2293: 2280:(4): 411–423. 2260: 2233:(3): 395–418. 2207: 2181: 2174: 2156: 2126: 2108: 2090: 2033: 2012:(4): 453–466. 1989: 1952:(3): 452–462. 1938:Otto, Sarah P. 1929: 1922: 1904: 1887: 1872: 1846: 1800: 1781:(2): 234–243. 1762: 1755: 1733: 1732: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1713: 1699: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1600:Ploidy number 1598: 1595: 1584: 1583: 1576: 1573: 1565: 1564: 1557: 1554: 1546: 1545: 1538: 1535: 1532:Coffea arabica 1527: 1526: 1519: 1516: 1503: 1502: 1495: 1492: 1483: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1466: 1463: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1426:Diploid number 1422: 1421: 1418: 1407: 1406: 1403: 1401:Zygotic number 1397: 1396: 1393: 1387: 1386: 1383: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1351: 1348: 1344:fungal history 1340:mesopolyploidy 1296:suggests that 1253: 1250: 1236: 1233: 1190:social insects 1174:Main article: 1171: 1168: 1097: = 4 1071: = 6 1021: 1018: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 986: 983: 965: 962: 921:haploid number 898: 895: 879:haploidisation 867: 864: 855: 852: 831: 828: 789: 786: 782:haploidisation 713:salivary gland 690:Main article: 687: 684: 564: 561: 543: = 3 323: 320: 318: 315: 252:back-formation 243: 240: 194:haploid number 162:social insects 155:Virtually all 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4905: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4831: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4734: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4666: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4634: 4633: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4598:and evolution 4594: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4567: 4566: 4563: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4523:Isochromosome 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4413: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4366: 4361: 4359: 4354: 4352: 4347: 4346: 4343: 4336: 4333: 4330: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4247: 4239: 4235: 4234:0-7167-3520-2 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4151: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4049: 4044: 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3325: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3189: 3182: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3145:Extremophiles 3139: 3132: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2931: 2928: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2878:on 2005-05-04 2877: 2873: 2867: 2864: 2859: 2857:9780849389191 2853: 2850:. CRC Press. 2849: 2848: 2840: 2837: 2832: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2796: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2744: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2675: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2631: 2622: 2619: 2608:on 2003-03-30 2607: 2603: 2597: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2559: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2519: 2516: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2483: 2474: 2471: 2460: 2453: 2447: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2421: 2418:Manton, 1932. 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2397: 2394: 2381: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2356: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2330: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2297: 2294: 2288: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2192: 2185: 2182: 2177: 2171: 2167: 2160: 2157: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2130: 2127: 2122: 2118: 2112: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2053:(2): 99–104. 2052: 2048: 2044: 2037: 2034: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1933: 1930: 1925: 1919: 1915: 1908: 1905: 1900: 1899: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1850: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1769: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1738: 1735: 1728: 1717: 1714: 1710: 1704: 1701: 1694: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1669: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1647: 1643: 1641:34, 51, or 68 1640: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1630:32, 34, or 42 1629: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1581: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1552: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1508: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1473: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1419: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1408: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1366:Ploidy number 1364: 1363: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1336:neopolyploidy 1333: 1332:allopolyploid 1330:proven to be 1329: 1328:Baker's yeast 1325: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1217: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1177: 1176:Haplodiploidy 1170:Haplodiploidy 1169: 1167: 1165: 1164:2R hypothesis 1161: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1143: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1131: 1130:X. tropicalis 1126: 1125:ploidy series 1122: 1121: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1086: 1085:einkorn wheat 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1019: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1006: 998: 994:Special cases 993: 991: 984: 982: 980: 975: 974:hybridization 971: 963: 961: 959: 955: 951: 948:(rather than 947: 943: 939: 935: 934:Down syndrome 930: 929: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 907: 903: 896: 894: 892: 886: 882: 880: 873: 872:haplodiploidy 865: 863: 861: 853: 851: 849: 844: 841: 837: 829: 827: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 808: 804: 800: 799: 794: 787: 785: 783: 778: 776: 775: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 753:somatic cells 749: 747: 745: 740: 734: 732: 731: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 685: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 640: 636: 635: 630: 629: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 601: 595: 591: 587: 584: 580: 576: 570: 562: 560: 558: 555: = 554: 548: 546: 542: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 491: 486: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 439: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 403: 399: 395: 390: 387: 386:more than one 383: 379: 370: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 333: 328: 321: 316: 314: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 241: 239: 236: 232: 228: 224: 223:fertilization 220: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 173: 171: 167: 163: 158: 153: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 106:Somatic cells 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 78: 51: 42: 37: 33: 19: 4888:Cytogenetics 4641: 4564: 4532: 4396: 4372:Cytogenetics 4286: 4282: 4243: 4225: 4221: 4198: 4159: 4153: 4079: 4075: 4065: 4041:(1): 31–42. 4038: 4034: 4024: 3983: 3979: 3969: 3928: 3924: 3914: 3869: 3865: 3855: 3844:. Retrieved 3832: 3822: 3787: 3781: 3771: 3751: 3744: 3719:. Retrieved 3712:the original 3699: 3658: 3654: 3648: 3634:cite journal 3599: 3595: 3582: 3547: 3543: 3533: 3506: 3502: 3492: 3481:. Retrieved 3474:the original 3460: 3433: 3427: 3408: 3402: 3367: 3363: 3352: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3308: 3303: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3280: 3245: 3241: 3231: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3186: 3181: 3148: 3144: 3131: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3005:(1): 71–75. 3002: 2999:J. Bacteriol 2998: 2988: 2945: 2941: 2930: 2913: 2909: 2903: 2880:. Retrieved 2876:the original 2866: 2846: 2839: 2812: 2808: 2798: 2789: 2779: 2752: 2748: 2742: 2696: 2692: 2686: 2682: 2674: 2639: 2635: 2629: 2621: 2610:. Retrieved 2606:the original 2596: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2552:11336/102012 2532: 2528: 2518: 2491: 2487: 2481: 2473: 2462:. Retrieved 2458: 2446: 2437: 2433: 2423: 2414: 2409:Winge, 1917. 2405: 2396: 2384:. Retrieved 2379: 2370: 2358:. Retrieved 2354: 2345: 2333:. 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Retrieved 2143: 2139: 2129: 2120: 2111: 2102: 2093: 2050: 2046: 2036: 2009: 2005: 1949: 1945: 1932: 1913: 1907: 1897: 1890: 1855: 1849: 1827:(2): 65–87. 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1778: 1774: 1746: 1743:Daniel Hartl 1737: 1716: 1703: 1619:14, 28 or 42 1579: 1568: 1560: 1549: 1541: 1530: 1522: 1510: 1498: 1486: 1459:vegetatively 1456: 1451: 1445: 1435: 1425: 1414: 1410: 1400: 1390: 1379: 1375: 1365: 1360:Description 1321: 1305: 1287: 1275: 1255: 1238: 1224: 1220: 1214: 1208: 1206: 1192:, including 1179: 1153: 1146: 1140: 1134: 1128: 1124: 1118: 1098: 1094: 1089: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1052:Common wheat 1050: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1023: 1002: 988: 967: 949: 945: 926: 925: 908: 901: 900: 887: 883: 876: 857: 847: 845: 833: 805: 796: 791: 779: 774:Ophioglossum 772: 750: 743: 735: 728: 704: 700: 696: 695: 668:Retroviruses 663: 655: 639:polyploidism 632: 626: 606: 605: 556: 552: 549: 544: 540: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511:common wheat 506: 502: 498: 494: 489: 487: 483:haplodiploid 440: 427: 423: 406: 401: 391: 385: 377: 375: 368: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 306: 302: 290: 286: 280: 275: 267: 263: 259: 255: 247: 245: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 174: 154: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 49: 48: 4585:Polycentric 4575:Monocentric 4558:Holocentric 4553:Acrocentric 4548:Telocentric 4538:Metacentric 4416:Euchromatin 4376:chromosomes 4246:genome size 4166:: 253–278. 4082:(1): 5818. 3242:J Med Genet 2745:(Rosaceae)" 2687:S. maritima 1685:100 or more 1627:Crocodilian 1446:The common 1091:Tetraploidy 836:prokaryotes 816:desiccation 801:and of the 730:Bombyx mori 725:trophoblast 467:angiosperms 463:gymnosperms 398:chromosomes 83:chromosomes 4877:Categories 4737:Centromere 4668:Structures 4647:Polyploidy 4637:Aneuploidy 4438:Nucleosome 4428:Chromosome 3986:(6): 241. 3846:2011-04-07 3721:2014-02-18 3483:2012-12-16 3297:: 141–166. 2882:2012-12-16 2792:(5): 8–10. 2749:Am. J. Bot 2612:2008-05-14 2464:2022-03-10 2440:: 237–335. 2434:Caryologia 2216:David Haig 2198:Caryologia 2150:2017-03-11 1729:References 1644:2, 3 or 4 1622:2, 4 or 6 1537:Tetraploid 1488:Eucalyptus 1313:phosphorus 1258:karyotypes 1182:life cycle 1107:amphibians 1034:speciation 942:karyotypes 928:Aneuploidy 917:karyotypes 854:Mixoploidy 848:ampliploid 793:Polyploidy 705:tetraploid 703:(3 sets), 697:Polyploidy 692:Polyploidy 686:Polyploidy 644:polyploidy 615:chromosome 611:homologous 583:homologous 432:homologous 394:eukaryotic 305:and diplo- 299:germ plasm 170:speciation 146:septaploid 142:heptaploid 140:(6 sets), 136:(5 sets), 134:pentaploid 132:(4 sets), 130:tetraploid 128:(3 sets), 124:(2 sets), 114:individual 30:See also: 4689:Protamine 4596:Processes 4580:Dicentric 4433:Chromatid 4411:Chromatin 4392:Karyotype 4182:1543-592X 4132:209420359 4106:2041-1723 4057:1469-5073 4008:0169-5347 3953:0036-8075 2962:0032-0889 2255:207403936 2067:0018-067X 2028:0024-4066 1968:0092-8674 1682:Gold fish 1575:Octoploid 1556:Hexaploid 1278:aneuploid 1271:recessive 1216:Entamoeba 1160:karyotype 1142:X. wittei 1136:X. laevis 1030:polyploid 1010:syncytium 964:Homoploid 721:endosperm 717:elaiosome 600:Karyotype 586:autosomal 579:Karyogram 526: = 6 445:and many 402:monoploid 376:The term 366:organism. 246:The term 242:Etymology 219:germ cell 150:polyploid 138:hexaploid 120:(1 set), 118:monoploid 95:autosomal 18:Homoploid 4833:See also 4675:Telomere 4642:Euploidy 4570:Acentric 4467:allosome 4459:Autosome 4385:concepts 4323:15252199 4190:92205236 4124:31862875 4016:21238281 3961:15739260 3906:15252199 3814:38197332 3730:cite web 3691:25465053 3683:17839565 3626:40564254 3574:18258610 3525:26112701 3394:17247970 3364:Genetics 3344:32122774 3165:15844015 3115:17006450 3072:31385928 3064:21265763 2980:33599732 2831:11831358 2771:21628226 2723:20150197 2666:19589857 2630:Lepidium 2588:15780745 2568:Genomics 2510:16580173 2488:Genomics 2386:10 March 2218:(2008). 2204:(4): 48. 2085:23149459 2047:Heredity 1984:10054182 1976:17981114 1940:(2007). 1882:10163081 1841:38029072 1817:flaccida 1795:45850598 1775:Genetica 1745:(2011). 1518:Triploid 1317:nitrogen 1202:termites 1111:reptiles 1026:germline 1014:dikaryon 958:monosomy 902:Euploidy 840:bacteria 838:such as 826:repair. 803:archaeon 746:triangle 744:Brassica 701:triploid 654:number, 348:4 and 5) 343:2 and 3) 260:diploidy 256:haploidy 126:triploid 45:species. 4845:Plasmid 4699:Histone 4610:Meiosis 4605:Mitosis 4291:Bibcode 4215:Sources 4115:6925279 4084:Bibcode 3988:Bibcode 3933:Bibcode 3925:Science 3874:Bibcode 3792:Bibcode 3663:Bibcode 3655:Science 3565:2933061 3385:1210096 3272:8301657 3263:1016611 3223:7810564 3173:8391234 3123:4412830 3095:Bibcode 2971:8154070 2714:2850792 2689:origin" 2657:2729636 2235:Bibcode 2076:3554449 1671:Chicken 1594:Species 1494:Diploid 1475:Species 1120:Xenopus 1115:insects 1005:nucleus 954:trisomy 950:-ploidy 765:mitosis 739:gametes 660:gametes 652:somatic 607:Diploid 563:Diploid 436:meiosis 408:Gametes 378:haploid 291:diploid 287:haploid 276:diplóos 214:meiosis 192:). The 122:diploid 110:tissues 91:alleles 4406:Genome 4397:Ploidy 4321: 4314:503737 4311: 4232: 4224:2000. 4222:et al. 4188: 4180: 4130: 4122: 4112: 4104: 4055: 4014: 4006: 3959: 3951: 3904: 3897:503737 3894: 3833:Nature 3812: 3759: 3689: 3681: 3624: 3572: 3562: 3523: 3448: 3415: 3392: 3382: 3342: 3270: 3260: 3221: 3171: 3163: 3121: 3113: 3087:Nature 3070: 3062: 3029:649572 3027: 3020:222219 3017: 2978: 2968: 2960: 2854: 2829: 2769: 2721: 2711: 2664: 2654: 2586: 2508: 2360:6 July 2335:6 July 2253: 2172: 2083: 2073: 2065: 2026: 1982: 1974: 1966: 1920: 1880: 1870: 1839: 1793: 1753: 1507:Banana 1478:Ploidy 1448:potato 1200:, and 1113:, and 771:genus 761:genome 723:, and 678:, and 623:father 619:mother 477:, and 459:mosses 443:plants 420:zygote 382:gamete 248:ploidy 227:zygote 202:gamete 112:, and 50:Ploidy 4683:TINF2 4452:Types 4383:Basic 4186:S2CID 4162:(1). 4128:S2CID 3810:S2CID 3715:(PDF) 3708:(PDF) 3687:S2CID 3622:S2CID 3592:(PDF) 3477:(PDF) 3470:(PDF) 3340:S2CID 3169:S2CID 3141:(PDF) 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