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behind on making tax payments on the property. The HOLC eventually foreclosed on 20 percent of the loans that it refinanced. It tended to wait until the borrower had failed to make payments on the loan for more than a year before it foreclosed on the loan. When the HOLC foreclosed, it typically refurbished the home. In many cases it rented out the home until it could be resold. The HOLC tried to avoid selling too many homes quickly to avoid having negative effects on housing prices. Ultimately, more than 800,000 people repaid their HOLC loans, and many repaid them on time. HOLC officially ceased operations in 1951, when its last assets were sold to private lenders. HOLC was only applicable to nonfarm homes, worth less than $ 20,000. HOLC also assisted mortgage lenders by refinancing problematic loans and increasing the institutions' liquidity. When its last assets were sold in 1951, HOLC turned a small profit.
388:'s claim that they relied on the HOLC's maps to implement their own discriminatory practices has been widely repeated, the evidence is weak that private lenders had access to the maps. By contrast, it is well documented that private lenders understood which neighborhoods the FHA favored and disfavored; suburban greenfield developers often explicitly advertised the FHA-insurability of their properties in ads for prospective buyers. Redlining was an established practice in the real estate industry before the federal government had any significant role in it; to the extent that any federal agency is to blame for perpetuating the practice, it is the Federal Housing Administration and not the Home Owners' Loan Corporation.
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gained from selling the loans because the HOLC bought the loans by offering a value of bonds equal to the amount of principal owed by the borrower, plus unpaid interest on the loan, plus taxes that the lender paid on the property. This value of the loan was the amount of the loan that was refinanced for the borrower. The borrower gained because they were offered a loan with a longer time frame at a lower interest rate. It was rare to reduce the amount of principal owed.
337:
1935 until 1940. Perhaps ironically, HOLC had issued refinancing loans to
African American homeowners in its initial "rescue" phase before it started making its redlining maps. The racist attitudes and language found in HOLC appraisal sheets and Residential Security Maps created by the HOLC gave federal support to real-estate practices that helped segregate American housing throughout the 20th century.
303:
Between 1933 and 1935, the HOLC made slightly more than one million loans. At that point it stopped making new loans and then focused on the repayments of the loans. The typical borrower whose loan was refinanced by the HOLC was more than 2 years behind on payments of the loan and more than 2 years
364:
found that areas classified as high-risk on HOLC maps became increasingly segregated by race during the next 30–35 years, and suffered long-run declines in home ownership, house values, and credit scores. HOLC's evaluation of neighborhoods in the 1930s correlates with "health, employment, education,
294:
The HOLC issued bonds and then used the bonds to purchase mortgage loans from lenders. The loans purchased were for homeowners who were having problems making the payments on their mortgage loans "through no fault of their own". The HOLC refinanced the loans for the borrowers. Many of the lenders
373:
and three co-authors, issued in 2021, the blame placed on HOLC is misplaced. Far from "ironically" issuing a few loans to
African-Americans in an "initial phase" and then becoming a major promoter of redlining, HOLC actually refinanced mortgage loans for African-Americans in near proportion to the
336:
generated during the 1930s to assess credit-worthiness were color-coded by mortgage security risk, with majority
African-American areas disproportionately likely to be marked in red indicating designation as "hazardous." These maps were made as part of HOLC's City Survey project that ran from late
368:
Since the rediscovery of HOLC documents in the 1980s, there has been considerable debate about the exact role of HOLC and its maps in redlining: even as the neighborhood evaluations largely align with race and with ongoing disparities, it is unclear exactly how much of an effect HOLC itself had.
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Recommended restrictions should include provision for the following: Prohibition of the occupancy of properties except by the race for which they are intended
Schools should be appropriate to the needs of the new community and they should not be attended in large numbers by inharmonious racial
340:
The effects of redlining, as noted in HOLC maps, endures to the present time. A study released in 2018 found that 74 percent of neighborhoods that HOLC graded as high-risk or "hazardous" are low-to-moderate income neighborhoods today, while 64 percent of the neighborhoods graded "hazardous" are
225:
The HOLC created a housing appraisal system of color-coded maps that categorized the riskiness of lending to households in different neighborhoods. While the maps relied on various housing and economic measures, they also used demographic information (such as the racial, ethnic, and immigrant
374:
share of
African-American homeowners. The pattern of loans had basically no relationship to the "redlining" maps because the program to create the maps did not even begin until after 90% of HOLC refinancing agreements had already been concluded.
341:
minority neighborhoods today. "It's as if some of these places have been trapped in the past, locking neighborhoods into concentrated poverty," said Jason
Richardson, director of research at the NCRC, a consumer advocacy group.
274:, by EO 9070, February 24, 1942. Its board of directors was abolished by Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1947, effective July 27, 1947, and HOLC was assigned, for purposes of liquidation, to the Home Loan Bank Board within the
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381:. But, the FHA already had its own discriminatory program of systematically rating urban neighborhoods and the HOLC used the FHA's discriminatory guidelines for its maps.
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1016:
White, Anna G.; Guikema, Seth D.; Logan, Tom M. (July 2021). "Urban population characteristics and their correlation with historic discriminatory housing practices".
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278:. It was terminated by order of Home Loan Bank Board Secretary, effective February 3, 1954, pursuant to an act of June 30, 1953 (67
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Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and
Valuation Procedure Under Title II of the National Housing Act With Revisions to February 1938
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found that HOLC led to substantial and persistent increases in racial residential segregation. A 2021 study in the
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Brennana, John F. "The Impact of
Depression-era Homeowners' Loan Corporation Lending in Greater Cleveland, Ohio,"
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Connolly, N. D. B.; Winling, LaDale; Nelson, Robert K.; Marciano, Richard (2018-01-19), "Mapping inequality",
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814:"How the City Survey's Redlining Maps Were Made: A Closer Look at HOLC's Mortgagee Rehabilitation Division"
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853:"New Perspectives on New Deal Housing Policy: Explicating and Mapping HOLC Loans to African Americans"
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266:, effective July 1, 1939. It was assigned with other components of abolished FHLBB to the
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925:"HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality"
496:"We Built This: Consequences of New Deal Era Intervention in America's Racial Geography"
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However, the HOLC shared their maps with the other major New Deal housing program, the
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709:"In U.S. Cities, The Health Effects Of Past Housing Discrimination Are Plain To See"
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of 1933, June 13, 1933. It was transferred with FHLBB and its components to the
219:
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Aaronson, Daniel; Hartley, Daniel; Mazumder, Bhashkar; Stinson, Martha (2022).
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in the 1980s, a number of studies have found that HOLC was a key promoter of
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Colored
Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America
813:
349:
329:
321:
231:
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Annual reports of the Home Owners' Loan
Corporation from 1933 through 1952
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Security maps of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation for several U.S. cities
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Fishback, Price; Rose, Jonathan; Snowden, Kenneth; Storrs, Thomas (2021).
733:"Racist housing policies have created some oppressively hot neighborhoods"
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978:
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944:"Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today"
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1089:"New Evidence on Redlining by Federal Housing Programs in the 1930s"
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composition of neighborhoods) to categorize creditworthiness. Since
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634:
Fishback, Price; Rose, Jonathan; Snowden, Kenneth (October 2013).
623:(1st ed.). New York: National Bureau of Economic Research: 1.
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417:"Renovation of the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) Building"
365:
and income measures" in these same neighborhoods decades later.
202:) was a government-sponsored corporation created as part of the
1242:
1194:
Well Worth Saving: How the New Deal Safeguarded Home Ownership.
961:
Aaronson, Daniel; Hartley, Daniel; Mazumder, Bhashkar (2021).
636:
Well Worth Saving: How the New Deal Safeguarded Home Ownership
535:
Aaronson, Daniel; Hartley, Daniel; Mazumder, Bhashkar (2021).
458:"The Long-Run Effects of the 1930s Redlining Maps on Children"
29:
591:"Records of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board [FHLBB]"
617:"History and Policies of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation"
1235:, included in reports of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board
1170:"Redlining Didn't Happen Quite the Way We Thought It Did"
924:
442:
First Annual Report of the Federal Home Loan Bank Board
638:(1st ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Corporations chartered by the United States Congress
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Price Fishback, Jonathan Rose, and Kenneth Snowden,
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222:, as well as to expand home buying opportunities.
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1053:"Federal 'redlining' maps: A critical reappraisal"
328:HOLC is often cited as the originator of mortgage
250:HOLC was established as an emergency agency under
206:. The corporation was established in 1933 by the
188:20,000 (1935) and declined to less than 500 (1950)
1228:Mapping Inequality: Redlining in New Deal America
851:Michney, Todd M; Winling, LaDale (January 2020).
678:"Crossney and Bartelt 2006 Housing Policy Debate"
659:Crossney and Bartelt 2005 Urban Geography article
1780:Mortgage industry companies of the United States
963:"The Effects of the 1930s HOLC "Redlining" Maps"
537:"The Effects of the 1930s HOLC "Redlining" Maps"
218:home mortgages currently in default to prevent
27:United States government-sponsored corporation
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8:
1211:National Archives and Records Administration
1207:Records of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation
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1080:
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92:
1196:Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
369:According to a paper by economic historian
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967:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
763:The Routledge Companion to Spatial History
541:American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
419:. John C. Grimberg Company. Archived from
98:
91:
929:National Community Reinvestment Coalition
511:
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
1765:1933 establishments in the United States
1131:"Part II, Section 9, Rating of Location"
902:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
343:
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299:Loan repayments and foreclosure policies
43:This article includes a list of general
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268:Federal Home Loan Bank Administration
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108:of the Home Owners' Loan Corporation
210:under the leadership of President
49:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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812:Michney, Todd M (November 2022).
264:Reorganization Plan No. I of 1939
208:Home Owners' Loan Corporation Act
117:Government-sponsored corporation
34:
1051:Markley, Scott (July 7, 2023).
765:, Routledge, pp. 502–524,
384:As for private lenders, though
276:Housing and Home Finance Agency
1141:Federal Housing Administration
923:Mitchell, Bruce (2018-03-20).
494:Faber, Jacob W. (2020-08-21).
462:Journal of Economic Literature
379:Federal Housing Administration
236:racial residential segregation
1:
196:Home Owners' Loan Corporation
93:Home Owners' Loan Corporation
1270:Housing in the United States
1030:10.1016/j.apgeog.2021.102445
739:. 2020-09-02. Archived from
500:American Sociological Review
358:American Sociological Review
252:Federal Home Loan Bank Board
18:Home Owners Loan Corporation
898:Freund, David M.P. (2007).
818:Journal of Planning History
615:Harriss, C. Lowell (1951).
254:(FHLBB) supervision by the
106:former federal headquarters
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1093:Journal of Urban Economics
150:February 4, 1954
1069:10.1177/00420980231182336
830:10.1177/15385132211013361
801:. University of Richmond.
362:American Economic Journal
228:Kenneth T. Jackson's work
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1556:Northern Mariana Islands
869:10.1177/0096144218819429
857:Journal of Urban History
771:10.4324/9781315099781-29
513:10.1177/0003122420948464
240:racial wealth inequality
398:Federal Home Loan Banks
272:National Housing Agency
242:in the United States.
135:June 13, 1933
64:more precise citations.
1722:Missing middle housing
1636:Housing discrimination
1617:San Francisco Bay Area
1189:(2015) 36#1 pp: 1-28.
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246:Organizational history
1272:by state or territory
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256:Home Owners' Loan Act
214:. Its purpose was to
212:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1737:Single-family zoning
1172:. 21 September 2021.
1139:. Washington, D.C.:
979:10.1257/pol.20190414
795:"Mapping Inequality"
743:on September 3, 2020
553:10.1257/pol.20190414
356:A 2020 study in the
1566:U.S. Virgin Islands
423:on January 24, 2013
260:Federal Loan Agency
184:Number of employees
94:
1697:Subsidized housing
1641:Housing insecurity
1221:2015-03-31 at the
799:Mapping Inequality
793:Nelson, Robert K.
386:Kenneth T. Jackson
354:
352:HOLC redlining Map
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126:Financial services
1770:New Deal agencies
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1018:Applied Geography
909:978-0-226-26276-5
595:National Archives
371:Price V. Fishback
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