824:
43:
653:, the state had various measures which could be decreed in the case of an emergency. The main problems facing the republic in the suppression of insurrections and other emergencies were three-fold. First, the state did not have at its disposal a standing army or police force to maintain public order. Second, the use of force to maintain public order was illegal inasmuch as all citizens had
916:, however, persisted: when a usurper could not immediately be suppressed or a coup was displacing the current emperor, a few cases emerge where the senate declared the usurper or former emperor enemy of the state. The emergence of autocratic rule also degraded the normal protections available to Roman citizens.
692:
Magistrates operating under the decree gained political cover to take whatever illegal actions thought necessary to resolve a crisis. Actions taken under such decree were not legal or immunised, but magistrates prosecuted for crimes – usually the crime of killing a citizen without trial – committed
628:
would urge the magistrates to break the laws to ensure the safety of the state, usually with the promise of political and legal cover if the magistrates were later brought to account. A further decree was introduced where the senate stripped targets of their citizenship rights, allowing magistrates
617:
who would take charge of the emergency with relatively loose bounds of action and resolve that crisis before resigning. Through the republic, various decrees allowed dictators and magistrates to conduct emergency levies of troops and suspend public business. During the late republic, the
850:) declaration was a statement by the senate, sometimes ratified by a popular assembly, purporting to declare that certain named citizens were enemies of the state and were stripped of their citizenship. Stripping citizenship meant that a citizen could not raise
973:
appeals were passed to the emperor, diminishing their impact, and senators and other free men were subject to torture, in violation of the normal prohibition thereof. Other emperors executed alleged conspirators after secret trials or without trial at all.
632:
The fall of the republic and the emergence of autocracy made most of the republican decrees obsolete. The problems of public order they were meant to resolve were themselves resolved by the introduction of police forces. Various people, usually deposed
796:, all civilian public business – including the operation of the public treasury – was suspended; this was ostensibly to allow the Roman people to concentrate their efforts on the levy. It was normally proclaimed by a magistrate – usually a
657:
rights allowing them to appeal to the people against magisterial coercion. Third, the ability to hold rioters accountable through standard judicial process was slow and also could be itself disrupted by political mobs.
771:
were also first armed at state expense. In the later republic, the declaration remained a means to admit volunteers and quickly raise an army for the duration of the emergency. For the declaration's duration,
689:
and his supporters, the senate could urge magistrates to break the laws and employ force to suppress unspecified public enemies. Such decrees were similar to modern declarations of emergencies.
881:
objected to such a vote in the first instance against Marius, and later, some senators sought not to attend meetings of the senate where such declarations were likely to be proposed.
920:
declarations also were used against provincial revolts, which had the effect of classifying provincial rebellions in terms of foreign wars rather than internal security measures.
909:, large-scale urban riots became more rare. Moreover, the military autocracy made it unnecessary to have legal justifications for violent crackdowns against rioters and revolts.
593:
742:. Tumults also were declared against slave uprisings and, in the late republic, may have been declared by the senate or on consular authority alone after passage of a
776:
also were sometimes asked to turn a blind eye to the enforcement of laws exempting certain classes of people, such as the elderly, from military service.
960:
during his term as plebeian tribune to stop all public business was debated by scholars: Mommsen termed it one; modern scholars, however, disagree.
586:
190:
1483:
1462:
1375:
180:
351:
823:
173:
156:
1516:
641:), but as the use of force became a normal part of imperial rule, various decrees authorising that use of force became unnecessary.
579:
151:
610:
state encountered various kinds of external and internal emergencies. As such, they developed various responses to those issues.
168:
161:
715:
also was normally declared, closing the law courts and suspending other civilian public business. The authority to declare a
804:– at the recommendation of the senate. It could only be rescinded by the magistrate that proclaimed it. Proclamations of a
878:
566:
711:, state officials wore military dress, all military leave was cancelled, and citizens were levied into the military. A
1231:
1098:
was passed, the consul Cicero would have considered himself free to employ any measure he considered useful.. and the
854:(the right to appeal to the people against death penalties or physical punishment) and could be killed without trial.
364:
680:
620:
429:
131:
753:
emergency levy was the only time that citizens without sufficient property to qualify for military service (the
33:
1420:
1407:
1521:
1451:
Kelly, Benjamin (2016). "Repression, resistance, and rebellion". In du
Plessis, Paul J; et al. (eds.).
1435:
1394:
1102:
declaration is one he might immediately have thought of that
Catiline... had taken the field with an army".
467:
874:
1251:
831:
109:
244:
1511:
929:
502:
141:
746:. To that end, it was repurposed as a means to raise militias to put down armed insurrections.
693:
in executing such a decree could escape punishment if they were able to justify their actions.
1489:
1479:
1458:
1381:
1371:
953:
934:
773:
421:
414:
217:
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894:
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516:
345:
324:
269:
254:
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118:
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was a state of emergency declared under threat of hostile attack. During the duration of a
259:
843:
801:
686:
667:
650:
614:
548:
495:
339:
314:
223:
71:
1505:
634:
444:
294:
62:
862:
797:
755:
734:
referring to a war in Italy – which in the late republic meant a civil war – and a
625:
607:
357:
309:
279:
205:
80:
1452:
764:
400:
42:
890:
812:, but could otherwise be declared at the start of a military campaign or war.
481:
211:
91:
1493:
1385:
787:
553:
523:
389:
371:
334:
1473:
488:
378:
289:
200:
98:
905:
474:
453:
304:
284:
1238:. New York: American Book Company – via Perseus Digital Library.
17:
763:) were enrolled into the military; in 281 BC, responding to the
723:
509:
299:
866:
827:
822:
739:
1008:
1006:
637:
or provincial rebels, continued to be declared public enemies (
460:
407:
719:
usually rested with a dictator, if in office, or the senate.
1114:, p. 145. "It is also likely at this time a state of
613:
When faced with an emergency, the early republic appointed
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
726:, the early republic distinguished between two kinds of
1189:
1187:
1126:
1124:
889:
The need for various declarations declined during the
869:'s consulship in 88 BC; later, Sulla was voted
1250:
1012:
685:Starting in 121 BC with the repression of
1366:Hornblower, Simon; et al., eds. (2012).
1055:
587:
8:
1454:The Oxford handbook of Roman law and society
1043:
1475:Crisis management during the Roman republic
1252:"The "hostis" declaration of 88 and 87 BC"
594:
580:
28:
1370:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
808:were usually concurrent with those of a
1419:Momigliano, Arnaldo; Lintott, Andrew. "
990:
945:
830:was declared a public enemy during the
436:
388:
323:
268:
233:
189:
140:
53:
31:
1273:
1217:
1205:
1193:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1111:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1024:
873:by the senate under the domination of
1349:
1337:
1325:
1313:
1301:
1285:
1130:
997:
7:
1439:
1426:
1411:
1398:
897:and a regular police force with the
865:and eleven of his supporters during
893:. Because of the formation of the
629:to treat them as foreign enemies.
25:
1393:Berger, Adolf; Lintott, Andrew. "
877:. Its passage was controversial:
41:
1368:The Oxford classical dictionary
912:A declaration that someone was
1478:. Cambridge University Press.
1236:An Elementary Latin Dictionary
738:referring to an attack by the
1:
1434:Treve, Piero; Cornell, Tim. "
1013:Momigliano & Lintott 2012
879:Quintus Mucius Scaevola Augur
857:The first men to be declared
749:In the middle republic, the
1457:. Oxford University Press.
1538:
1472:Golden, Gregory K (2013).
785:
678:
665:
1422:senatus consultum ultimum
1230:Lewis, Charleton (1890).
1096:senatus consultum ultimum
1056:Berger & Lintott 2012
792:During the duration of a
744:senatus consultum ultimum
681:Senatus consultum ultimum
674:Senatus consultum ultimum
621:senatus consultum ultimum
430:Senatus consultum ultimum
325:Extraordinary magistrates
1517:Ancient Roman government
1288:, p. 377. See Cic.
1044:Treve & Cornell 2012
34:Politics of ancient Rome
1094:, p. 84. "One the
875:Lucius Cornelius Cinna
847:
835:
828:Lucius Cornelius Sulla
191:Political institutions
826:
1276:, p. 120 n. 56.
624:emerged wherein the
270:Ordinary magistrates
765:invasion of Pyrrhus
645:During the republic
1340:, pp. 378–79.
1249:Bauman, R (1973).
1220:, pp. 88, 93.
1000:, pp. 374–75.
930:State of emergency
836:
503:Triumvir monetalis
437:Titles and honours
1485:978-1-107-05590-2
1464:978-0-1987-2868-9
1377:978-0-19-954556-8
1208:, pp. 87–88.
954:Tiberius Gracchus
935:Roman citizenship
885:During the empire
834:(83–81 BC).
832:Sulla's civil war
774:plebeian tribunes
736:tumultus Gallicus
732:tumultus Italicus
604:
603:
422:Quaestio perpetua
415:Senatus consultum
218:Roman citizenship
16:(Redirected from
1529:
1497:
1468:
1443:
1430:
1415:
1402:
1389:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1254:
1246:
1240:
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1221:
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1209:
1203:
1197:
1191:
1182:
1176:
1170:
1164:
1158:
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1128:
1119:
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1103:
1089:
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1077:
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1059:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1001:
995:
975:
967:
961:
950:
900:cohortes urbanae
895:Praetorian Guard
596:
589:
582:
538:Pontifex maximus
531:Princeps senatus
517:Magister militum
352:Consular tribune
346:Magister equitum
174:Augustan reforms
45:
29:
21:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1486:
1471:
1465:
1450:
1433:
1418:
1406:Cornell, Tim. "
1405:
1392:
1378:
1365:
1361:
1356:
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1344:
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1185:
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1149:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1122:
1118:was in effect".
1110:
1106:
1090:
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1078:
1074:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1031:
1023:
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1004:
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992:
988:
983:
978:
968:
964:
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947:
943:
926:
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821:
790:
784:
701:
683:
677:
670:
664:
647:
600:
571:
567:Other countries
558:
427:
384:
319:
264:
229:
185:
162:Sullan republic
127:
123:
114:
105:
101:
94:
84:
75:
66:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1535:
1533:
1525:
1524:
1522:Emergency laws
1519:
1514:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1484:
1469:
1463:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1431:
1416:
1403:
1376:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1352:, p. 383.
1342:
1330:
1328:, p. 378.
1318:
1316:, p. 380.
1306:
1304:, p. 379.
1294:
1278:
1266:
1241:
1222:
1210:
1198:
1183:
1171:
1169:, p. 103.
1159:
1147:
1135:
1133:, p. 377.
1120:
1104:
1084:
1072:
1060:
1048:
1029:
1027:, p. 148.
1017:
1002:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
976:
969:Specifically,
962:
944:
942:
939:
938:
937:
932:
925:
922:
886:
883:
820:
814:
786:Main article:
783:
778:
700:
695:
687:Gaius Gracchus
679:Main article:
676:
671:
668:Roman dictator
666:Main article:
663:
660:
651:Roman republic
646:
643:
602:
601:
599:
598:
591:
584:
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569:
563:
560:
559:
557:
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541:
534:
527:
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499:
496:Vigintisexviri
492:
485:
478:
471:
464:
457:
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433:
426:
425:
418:
411:
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266:
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224:Cursus honorum
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96:
95:27 BC – AD 284
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85:27 BC – AD 395
77:
72:Roman Republic
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32:
24:
14:
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1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
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1363:
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1331:
1327:
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1310:
1307:
1303:
1298:
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1275:
1270:
1267:
1263:: 270 et seq.
1262:
1258:
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1245:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1199:
1196:, p. 88.
1195:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1181:, p. 87.
1180:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1160:
1157:, p. 45.
1156:
1151:
1148:
1145:, p. 48.
1144:
1139:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1085:
1082:, p. 70.
1081:
1076:
1073:
1070:, p. 44.
1069:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1021:
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991:
985:
980:
972:
966:
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956:proclaimed a
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946:
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933:
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928:
927:
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892:
884:
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845:
841:
833:
829:
825:
818:
815:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
789:
782:
779:
777:
775:
770:
767:, the levied
766:
762:
758:
757:
752:
747:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
722:According to
720:
718:
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690:
688:
682:
675:
672:
669:
661:
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630:
627:
623:
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616:
611:
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608:ancient Roman
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295:Promagistrate
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63:Roman Kingdom
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44:
40:
39:
35:
30:
27:
19:
1474:
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1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:
1289:
1281:
1269:
1260:
1256:
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1225:
1213:
1201:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1115:
1107:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1075:
1063:
1051:
1020:
993:
970:
965:
957:
948:
917:
913:
911:
904:
898:
888:
870:
863:Gaius Marius
858:
856:
851:
848:public enemy
839:
837:
816:
809:
805:
793:
791:
780:
768:
760:
756:capite censi
754:
750:
748:
743:
735:
731:
727:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
702:
697:
691:
684:
673:
662:Dictatorship
654:
648:
638:
631:
619:
612:
605:
536:
529:
522:
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508:
501:
494:
487:
480:
473:
466:
459:
452:
428:
420:
413:
406:
399:
377:
370:
363:
356:
344:
222:
210:
206:Collegiality
142:Constitution
130:
119:
110:
81:Roman Empire
79:
70:
61:
26:
1274:Golden 2013
1218:Golden 2013
1206:Golden 2013
1194:Golden 2013
1179:Golden 2013
1167:Golden 2013
1155:Golden 2013
1143:Golden 2013
1112:Golden 2013
1092:Golden 2013
1080:Golden 2013
1068:Golden 2013
1025:Golden 2013
819:declaration
649:During the
401:Mos maiorum
181:Late Empire
124:AD 395–1453
1506:Categories
1440:OCD (2012)
1427:OCD (2012)
1412:OCD (2012)
1399:OCD (2012)
1350:Kelly 2016
1338:Kelly 2016
1326:Kelly 2016
1314:Kelly 2016
1302:Kelly 2016
1286:Kelly 2016
1131:Kelly 2016
998:Kelly 2016
981:References
971:provocatio
891:Principate
852:provocatio
769:proletarii
761:proletarii
655:provocatio
482:Praefectus
390:Public law
245:Centuriate
235:Assemblies
212:Auctoritas
115:AD 395–476
102:AD 284–641
92:Principate
67:753–509 BC
1512:Roman law
1494:842919750
1395:iustitium
1386:959667246
1257:Athenaeum
986:Citations
958:justitium
806:justitium
794:justitium
788:Justitium
781:Justitium
751:tumultus'
713:iustitium
615:dictators
524:Imperator
372:Decemviri
365:Triumviri
335:Corrector
76:509–27 BC
1436:tumultus
1232:"hostis"
1116:tumultus
1100:tumultus
952:Whether
924:See also
810:tumultus
802:dictator
728:tumultus
717:tumultus
709:tumultus
705:tumultus
698:Tumultus
635:emperors
554:Tetrarch
544:Augustus
489:Vicarius
468:Officium
379:Interrex
340:Dictator
315:Governor
290:Quaestor
255:Plebeian
201:Imperium
157:Republic
132:Timeline
99:Dominate
1359:Sources
906:vigiles
475:Praeses
454:Legatus
445:Emperor
305:Tribune
285:Praetor
250:Curiate
152:Kingdom
120:Eastern
111:Western
54:Periods
1492:
1482:
1461:
1438:". In
1425:". In
1410:". In
1408:police
1397:". In
1384:
1374:
918:Hostis
914:hostis
871:hostis
859:hostis
840:hostis
817:Hostis
798:consul
724:Cicero
639:hostis
626:senate
549:Caesar
510:Lictor
310:Censor
300:Aedile
280:Consul
260:Tribal
169:Empire
18:Hostis
941:Notes
867:Sulla
861:were
844:Latin
740:Gauls
1490:OCLC
1480:ISBN
1459:ISBN
1382:OCLC
1372:ISBN
1292:, 4.
1290:Cat.
903:and
730:: a
606:The
800:or
759:or
461:Dux
408:Ius
358:Rex
1508::
1488:.
1380:.
1261:51
1259:.
1255:.
1234:.
1186:^
1123:^
1032:^
1005:^
846::
838:A
703:A
1496:.
1467:.
1442:.
1429:.
1414:.
1401:.
1388:.
1058:.
1046:.
1015:.
842:(
595:e
588:t
581:v
20:)
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