625:
452:
168:
22:
377:
314:
86:
209:
196:, the pain and injuries they can cause have only recently been studied scientifically, particularly in the late 2010s. As recently as 2005, there was no data available on how horses behave during painful experiences with their bits. As the differences between the rating scales used by the authors of the publications made it difficult to compare results, veterinary surgeon Dr. Kati Tuomola (
562:
185:, but also to its sporting performance, as even slight discomfort can cause the animal to concentrate on its pain rather than its performance. Historically, there have been some very painful bits, for example with spiked barrels and central articulated bridges that can pierce the palate. Some modern bits are associated with more lesions: long shank bridle bits in
432:, but the majority are attributed to the use of the bit and equestrian equipment, an action on the reins connected to the bit causing the mucous membrane to slide over the horse's teeth with increased pressure. Medium-sized articulated bits are associated with a lower risk of mandibular injury than non-articulated bits. It is possible that over-tightening of the
130:, the horse is required to wear a bit in its mouth, connected to reins. The bit is often invasive for the animal. The setup of the bit and the forces exerted by the reins play a crucial role in the oral health and comfort of ridden or harnessed horses. The snaffle bit rests on the corner of the mouth. The palate or tongue bit acts on the
573:. Signals of bit-related pain overlap those observed in horses ridden in conflict with their rider, suggesting that bit-related oral pain is a major cause. On the other hand, severe oral pain makes veterinary examination of the horses concerned difficult, as they may strongly avoid being touched in the mouth.
71:
The animal's suffering due to bits is often ignored by both horse-riding and driving enthusiasts, not least because of habituation to behavioral signals of oral pain in horses, which are mistakenly passed off as normal. This phenomenon is known as bit-blindness. Researchers and veterinarians involved
518:
Of the 261 trotters examined by
Tuomola and colleagues in 2019, nine horses had tongue lesions, four had bitten their tongues during the race (1.5%), three had bruises under the tongue (1.1%), and two had bruises on the sides of the tongue (0.8%). However, it is unclear whether these lingual lesions
266:
Cook and Kibler compare the horse's suffering to that caused when the barrel of a pencil presses against the gums of a human being. Pinching the edge of the tongue between the bit and the bone is also painful, as is stretching the lips longitudinally to twice their normal length under the retracting
640:
Many riders mistakenly believe that horses cannot suffer from bit-related mouth pain. Many veterinarians consider it likely that pain signals emitted by horses are not recognized by the vast majority of human beings because they are frequently observed, and therefore considered normal, a phenomenon
522:
When oral bleeding is visible in a horse, it is often suggested that this is due to the horse biting its tongue. However, this explanation is not consistent with the results of the study, as only one of the four tongue-biting horses bled. The explanation for oral bleeding is more likely to be found
644:
Tuomola and colleagues recommend a systematic check of the bit-wearing area in horses by riders, as well as by show organizers. In their 2019 study of trotters, these researchers note that of the 20% of horses (51/261) with severe lesions (horses with either multiple lesions or large, deep lesions
348:
after a race (2019), shows that 84% of these horses have lesions in the bit area, of which 21% are mild, 43% moderate and 20% severe lesions according to the assessment scale proposed by these authors. In the bit area, 70% of horses showed bruising and 40% wounds. About 2% of horses showed visible
409:
The bit causes knocking on highly innervated, and therefore highly sensitive, teeth. Firstly, against the incisors when the bit is put in and taken out. ... The passage of the bit is directly subject to pain or apprehension of pain. ... The bit meets the wolf's teeth. These are small teeth called
648:
This team believes it is essential to "minimize these negative experiences by preventing or at least promptly diagnosing and treating injuries and ensuring conditions that avoid suffering", by carefully assessing when the horse can be considered fit to compete. Finnish racing guidelines require
552:
However, the persistence of an inflammatory response delays the healing of oral lesions, as does the presence of foreign bodies in the wound, a cause of intense inflammatory reaction that interferes with normal healing. For
Tuomola et al. a bit can be likened to a foreign body in the mouth,
331:
In 2008, Tell and colleagues studied
Swedish horses ridden with a bit, concluding that ulcers near the first and second premolars and corners of the mouth are caused by the bit and bridle, uninfluenced by the teeth-floating routine. Odelros and Wattle examined the mouths of 144
222:
The whole of a horse's mouth is sensitive to pain. Wearing the bit stimulates numerous sensory receptors, particularly those in the interdental space, tongue, labial commissures and buccal mucosa. The interdental space (the bar) is particularly sensitive. The bite stimulates
611:
If a horse experiences regular oral pain from biting, it is likely to anticipate this pain by showing anxiety or even fear around it, especially if it is severe. Mellor identifies breathlessness as a consequence of bit-related mouth pain, particularly during
580:, "most horses show clear behavioral signs of aversion to a bit in the mouth, ranging from mild irritation to intense pain". These signals include the horse's resistance to being bridled and accepting the bit, mouth opening, teeth grinding, very profuse
349:
mouth bleeding at the end of the race, and 5% of bits examined showed blood when removed. The authors also conclude that the absence of blood outside the mouth does not exclude the existence of serious injuries inside. Injuries are often observed in
645:
likely to cause considerable pain and heal slowly), 65% (33/51) competed again within 2 weeks of the study, 13 competed within a week, and two competed again the following day. The lesions most likely did not have time to heal before the next race.
154:
or chain) and inert, it causes no particular pain, any pain being the result of the action of the rider's hands on the reins connected to the bit. The bit has been standard equestrian equipment for millennia, generally considered indispensable and
353:, whether pre-existing, acquired or aggravated by such racing, probably due to the very nature of these competitions: harnessed horses are controlled exclusively with reins and bits, with great potential tension being exerted via these reins.
410:
first premolars, positioned in front of the second large premolars in the upper jaw and the bars in the lower jaw. ... When they come into contact with the bit, these teeth become hypersensitive due to daily knocking, and cause lesions.
607:
beliefs and stereotypes associated with mares that attribute this type of behavior to their gender, which can compromise the mare's well-being if its behavior is interpreted solely according to these beliefs, or if it is ignored.
368:. Of all horses, 52% (109/208) showed acute oral lesions in the bit area, mild in 22% (45/208), moderate in 26% (55/208), and severe in 4% (9/208). No bleeding was observed outside the mouth, with only one horse bleeding inside.
588:(eyes rolled back, dilated nostrils), movements (tail whipping) and a "crabbed" gait of the whole body also help to identify it. This evidence of aversion is clearly visible when compared to the absence of these behaviors in
343:
in 2019, with the inside of the mouth not examined: six (7.5%) of 80 horses and one (3%) of 33 ponies have external lesions. The study by
Tuomola and colleagues, carried out on 261 trotting horses examined in
436:
or other equipment on trotters can press the mucous membranes against the teeth and contribute to mandibular injuries. Tightening of the noseband is associated with lesions of the outer corner of the mouth.
104:. Pain then acts as a warning system to minimize tissue damage. As horses are flighty animals, their reaction to pain stimuli will typically be to flee the source. This pain will generate associated
60:, these lesions receive little attention. Pain and lesions are accompanied by fear and anxiety in the animal. They potentially concern all horses wearing a bit manipulated by a human being via
391:
and racehorses concludes that racehorses with a snaffle bit have a significantly higher prevalence of commissure lesions and a higher rate of ulcerations than polo ponies with a bridle bit.
394:
Regular contact with the bit at the commissure of the outer lips leads to more or less marked depigmentation, which may result from prolonged pressure or previous inflammation, inhibiting
387:
A comparison of bit and bitless horses shows that lesions at the corner of the mouth are only present in horses that regularly wear a bit. The comparative study by Mata et al. between
506:
is controversial for repeatedly riding a horse whose tongue has turned blue: Akeem
Foldager in 2014 and Watermill Scandic in 2009 (a scandal for which he was cleared by the
624:
406:
About 26% of trotters examined by
Tuomola et al. in 2019 had injuries to the mandibular bars, compared with 31% of Icelandic horses examined by Björnsdóttir et al.in 2012.
301:. They found a reduction in pain signals in 65 of the 66 bitless horses, with an average of 87% fewer pain signals; however, the results of this study are limited by
507:
100:
Like all mammals, the horse has a conscious experience of pain, which it seeks to avoid in favor of comfort. This sensation of pain is triggered by a noxious
356:
A study carried out by the
Finnish team on horses and ponies after a cross-country event in 2021 concluded that injuries were more frequently observed in
297:
Cook and Kibler compared the behavior of 66 horses with and without a bit, using a questionnaire sent to riders who had switched from a bit bridle to a
451:
398:
function. Such depigmentation is therefore characteristic of old, repeated lesions. They are more frequently observed in eventers than in trotters.
167:
1581:
565:
Physical signs of mouth pain: mouth opening, head lifting (incensing), eye rolled back and towards rider's hand, dilated nostrils, tail wagging
376:
25:
French
Trotter mare showing signs of venous compression on its tongue, due to the pressure of the reins connected to the two bits in its mouth
2150:
968:
1527:
150:
passes under the barrel of the bit. According to
Guillaume Henry, when a modern bit is correctly fitted (without excessive tightening of a
21:
2179:
1355:
466:
The horse tongue is highly sensitive, and therefore vulnerable to injury. The main cause of lingual injuries in horses is the bit.
641:
known as bit-blindness. Tuomola et al. note that racehorse coaches were surprised to learn that their animals had severe lesions.
958:
200:) and her colleagues created a lesion measurement scale in 2019 to facilitate the creation of statistics in subsequent studies.
72:
in this field recommend regular checks to ensure that there are no serious injuries in the horse mouth or labial commissures.
138:
is in contact with the corner of the mouth. Finally, the bit's barrel rests in all cases on an interdental space between the
2140:
313:
32:
refers to the various painful sensations of varying intensity and duration that horses may experience from the use of a
1473:
1966:"Mouth Pain in Horses: Physiological Foundations, Behavioural Indices, Welfare Implications, and a Suggested Solution"
1556:
1500:
2169:
2051:"Oral Lesions in the Bit Area in Finnish Trotters After a Race: Lesion Evaluation, Scoring, and Occurrence"
1001:"Behavioural assessment of pain in horses and donkeys: application to clinical practice and future studies"
495:
Jacques
Laurent believes that, over time, compromised vascularization of the horse tongue leads to lingual
328:
According to various authors of scientific publications, oral lesions caused by bit-wearing are "common".
197:
2184:
584:
and tongue movements. The position of the head and neck (movements to escape the bit), a characteristic
413:
These lesions are generally located close to the maxillary teeth; those in the area of the lower second
101:
2011:"The prevalence of oral ulceration in Swedish horses when ridden with bit and bridle and when unridden"
1375:
1608:
481:
Dr. Jacques Laurent identifies three possible forms of vascularization changes in the horse's tongue:
1416:
570:
290:
always causes the animal severe pain. A particularly painful situation is when the bit rests on the
2174:
1348:
Métamorphose : les secrets d'une équitation sans mors basée sur les lois naturelles du cheval
1245:"Lesions associated with the use of bits, nosebands, spurs and whips in Danish competition horses"
286:
and bleeding bars can cause a horse to try to slide its tongue over the bit. Sudden action on the
1910:
1376:"Damage by the bit to the equine interdental space and second lower premolar: Damage by the bit"
421:(formation of bone spurs) often forms in the bar of domestic horses, with erosion of enamel and
218:
showing physical signs of mouth pain (eye rolled back, ears back, mouth open and tongue visible)
1442:
1225:
Odelros, E.; Wattle, O. (2018). "Influence of racing on oral health in Standardbred trotters".
85:
2146:
2127:
2072:
2030:
1987:
1945:
1893:
1875:
1770:
1752:
1696:
1351:
1264:
1028:
1020:
964:
869:
585:
275:
248:
189:, Crescendo bits, straight non-articulated mullen bits and straight plastic bits in trotters.
44:. These pains are frequently associated with oral lesions, particularly in the corners of the
1852:
Björnsdóttir, Sigríður; Frey, Rebecka; Kristjansson, Thorvaldur; Lundström, Torbjörn (2014).
2117:
2107:
2080:
2062:
2022:
1995:
1977:
1935:
1883:
1865:
1760:
1742:
1686:
1387:
1256:
1012:
877:
859:
808:
681:
577:
542:
339:
Uldahl and Clayton examine the outer corners of the mouth of Danish eventing horses after a
260:
228:
127:
41:
545:
has been estimated at 52–75 days for the skin, 41–57 days for the gums and 25 days for the
537:
In principle, the abundant blood supply and moist environment of the horse's mouth promote
64:, whether mounted or harnessed, in particular by the application of great tension in these
240:
186:
1923:
1675:"Equine Welfare during Exercise: An Evaluation of Breathing, Breathlessness and Bridles"
1244:
796:
2122:
2095:
2085:
2050:
2000:
1965:
1888:
1853:
1765:
1730:
882:
676:
629:
298:
270:
Mouth pain caused by biting results from tissue compression, laceration or stretching,
252:
2163:
1914:
1391:
847:
666:
538:
532:
503:
302:
182:
143:
37:
654:
650:
633:
446:
429:
350:
333:
322:
271:
208:
175:
147:
53:
1747:
848:"Bit type exerts an influence on self-controlled rein tension in unridden horses"
846:
Kau, Silvio; Potz, Isabella Katharina; Pospisil, Katharina; Sellke, Lina (2020).
2010:
671:
593:
546:
425:, whereas these lesions do not exist in wild horses that have never worn a bit.
418:
380:
Depigmentation of the corners of a horse mouth at the point of contact with the
121:
33:
2026:
1016:
864:
797:"Freedoms and frameworks: How we think about the welfare of competition horses"
278:. The repeated rubbing or impact of the bit can cause bruises, cuts, tears and
2112:
2049:
Tuomola, Kati; Mäki-Kihniä, Nina; Kujala-Wirth, Minna; Mykkänen, Anna (2019).
1870:
589:
561:
496:
475:
459:
395:
381:
244:
236:
224:
193:
171:
94:
2076:
2067:
2034:
1991:
1949:
1879:
1756:
1700:
1268:
1024:
873:
259:
to monitor all substances entering the horse's mouth, the entry point to its
1729:
Fenner, Kate; Caspar, Georgina; Hyde, Michelle; Henshall, Cathrynne (2019).
1000:
388:
357:
318:
2131:
1897:
1774:
1032:
40:, due to poor adaptation of the equipment to their morphology or excessive
613:
433:
414:
340:
151:
135:
90:
57:
49:
1982:
2094:
Tuomola, Kati; Mäki-Kihniä, Nina; Valros, Anna; Mykkänen, Anna (2021).
2009:
Tell, Anna; Egenvall, Agneta; Lundström, Torbjörn; Wattle, Ove (2008).
1691:
1674:
485:
arterial compression alone, which gives the tongue a white color ;
365:
345:
139:
105:
1940:
1823:
1645:
1633:
1582:"Patrick Kittel escapes disciplinary action by FEI over 'blue tongue'"
1291:
1260:
1189:
1103:
1057:
813:
763:
1924:"Behavioural assessment of pain in 66 horses, with and without a bit"
1201:
604:
597:
581:
456:
422:
291:
156:
131:
181:
The problem of the pain caused by the bit is linked not only to the
146:, made up of jawbones covered by a mucous membrane, the "bar". The
1731:"It's all about the sex, or is it? Humans, horses and temperament"
623:
560:
450:
375:
312:
283:
279:
256:
207:
166:
84:
20:
960:
Eperonnerie et parure du cheval : de l'Antiquité à nos jours
294:, without the support of the corners of the mouth or the tongue.
2096:"Bit-Related Lesions in Event Horses After a Cross-Country Test"
1835:
1333:
1318:
1306:
1168:
986:
488:
venous compression, which turns the tongue blue and swollen; and
361:
287:
232:
215:
212:
109:
65:
61:
1528:"Andreas Helgstrand guilty of 'improper use of bit and bridle'"
317:
Different types of lesions inside the corners of the mouth of
45:
474:
When the vascularity of a horse tongue is compromised by its
999:
Ashley, F. H.; Waterman-Pearson, A. E.; Whay, H. R. (2010).
93:, caused by the rider's hands on the reins connected to its
1213:
1474:"Comment se constitue le phénomène de la " langue bleue ""
336:
trotters in 2018, and found that 88% had mouth lesions.
239:, the most sensitive part of the bone. The horse's oral
1350:(in French). Bordeaux: Editions Yoshiaki. p. 176.
56:. Rarely visible from the outside, for example through
1501:"Maltraitance : la langue bleue d'Akeem Foldager"
1227:
Poster Presentation, Nordic Equine Veterinary Congress
1854:"Bit-related lesions in Icelandic competition horses"
1609:"Aux JEM : une nouvelle affaire de langue bleue"
1443:"Everything You Need to Know About the Equine Tongue"
1417:"14 facts you need to know about your horse's tongue"
523:
in other pre-existing lesions during harness racing.
957:
La Boisselière, Eliane; La Boisselière, Guy (2005).
1907:
The effect of the bit on the behaviour of the horse
657:, but only if they show bleeding from the mouth.
364:. Mares are also at greater risk of lesions than
1499:Tsaag Valren, Amélie; Bataille, Lætitia (2014).
499:and impaired epi-critical and deep sensitivity.
569:In the event of oral pain, the horse sends out
508:International Federation for Equestrian Sports
491:a mixed form, which is also the most frequent.
428:A few oral injuries may be due to sharp tooth
192:While bits have been used on horses since the
1557:"'Blue tongue' leads to social media outrage"
963:(in French). Lannoo Uitgeverij. p. 245.
8:
1151:
1076:
782:
718:
231:in the lips, tongue, teeth and bones. The
2121:
2111:
2084:
2066:
1999:
1981:
1939:
1887:
1869:
1764:
1746:
1690:
1673:Mellor, David; Beausoleil, Ngaio (2017).
881:
863:
812:
636:at Saint-Jean-des-Prés racecourse in 2017
89:Guatemalan horse with compression of the
693:
462:, showing the tongue in normal coloring
417:are reputed to be difficult to detect.
1811:
1799:
1787:
1716:
1712:
1710:
1660:
1656:
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1550:
1548:
1467:
1465:
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1410:
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1329:
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1287:
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1115:
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1085:
929:
703:
553:potentially preventing wound healing.
1139:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1053:
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1049:
982:
980:
944:
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914:
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7:
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834:
778:
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735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
714:
712:
699:
697:
247:(mucosal epithelium) and underlying
1243:Uldahl, M.; Clayton, H. M. (2019).
592:and domestic horses ridden without
541:. The time required to replace all
372:Injuries to the corner of the mouth
134:, the upper wall of the mouth. The
14:
2106:(2297–1769). Veterinary Science.
620:Human perception and pain control
1922:Cook, W. R.; Kibler, W. (2019).
1392:10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00167.x
243:consists of stratified squamous
2100:Frontiers in Veterinary Science
2055:Frontiers in Veterinary Science
576:According to David Mellor and
519:are always caused by the bit.
255:. This oral mucosa is densely
1:
1858:Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica
1607:Tsaag Valren, Amélie (2014).
1748:10.1371/journal.pone.0216699
478:, the tongue changes color.
30:Horse pain caused by the bit
1928:Equine Veterinary Education
1380:Equine Veterinary Education
174:with long branches used in
16:Injury caused by horse tack
2201:
2027:10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.09.020
1441:Kitchener, Nicole (2019).
1017:10.2746/042516405775314826
865:10.1038/s41598-020-59400-w
653:to examine horses after a
530:
444:
163:Problems caused by the bit
119:
2139:Henry, Guillaume (2017).
2113:10.3389/fvets.2021.651160
1964:Mellor, David J. (2020).
1871:10.1186/s13028-014-0040-8
1472:Laurent, Jacques (2014).
1249:Equine Veterinary Journal
1202:Björnsdóttir et al. (2014
1154:, pp. 551, 554, 558)
1005:Equine Veterinary Journal
801:Equine Veterinary Journal
795:Campbell, M.L.H. (2016).
81:Pain management in horses
2180:Horse tack and equipment
2068:10.3389/fvets.2019.00206
2145:(in French). Humensis.
1790:, pp. 1, 2, 3, 16)
1346:Mirac, Colette (2021).
1152:Cook & Kibler (2019
1077:Cook & Kibler (2019
783:Cook & Kibler (2019
719:Cook & Kibler (2019
557:Behavioral pain signals
510:), then again in 2014.
502:Swedish dressage rider
470:Compromised vascularity
2015:The Veterinary Journal
1555:Heath, Sophia (2014).
1526:Heath, Sophia (2015).
637:
566:
463:
384:
325:
282:in the horse's mouth.
219:
198:University of Helsinki
178:
97:
48:, interdental spaces,
26:
627:
564:
454:
379:
316:
211:
170:
88:
24:
1836:Tuomola et al. (2021
1824:Tuomola et al. (2019
1646:Tuomola et al. (2019
1634:Tuomola et al. (2019
1415:Clark, Aimi (2016).
1374:Cook, W. R. (2011).
1334:Tuomola et al. (2021
1319:Tuomola et al. (2021
1307:Tuomola et al. (2021
1292:Tuomola et al. (2019
1190:Tuomola et al. (2019
1169:Tuomola et al. (2021
1104:Tuomola et al. (2019
1058:Tuomola et al. (2019
987:Tuomola et al. (2021
764:Tuomola et al. (2019
649:official racecourse
628:Mouth bleeding of a
1983:10.3390/ani10040572
1118:, pp. 1, 3, 7)
402:Mandibular injuries
358:warm-blooded horses
267:effect of the bit.
1692:10.3390/ani7060041
1214:Tell et al. (2008)
852:Scientific Reports
638:
571:behavioral signals
567:
464:
385:
326:
220:
179:
98:
27:
2152:978-2-410-01052-7
2142:L'usage des mains
1941:10.1111/eve.12916
1905:Cook, W. (2006).
1586:Horse & Hound
1561:Horse & Hound
1532:Horse & Hound
1421:Horse & Hound
1261:10.1111/evj.12827
970:978-2-87386-391-3
814:10.1111/evj.12598
586:facial expression
276:blood circulation
249:connective tissue
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1615:(in French) (56)
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1131:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1101:
1080:
1074:
1061:
1055:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1039:
996:
990:
984:
975:
974:
954:
948:
942:
933:
927:
918:
912:
895:
894:
892:
890:
885:
867:
843:
837:
832:
826:
825:
823:
821:
816:
792:
786:
780:
767:
761:
722:
716:
707:
701:
682:Crop (implement)
578:Ngaio Beausoleil
543:epithelial cells
455:Parade horse in
261:digestive system
229:trigeminal nerve
227:mediated by the
187:Icelandic horses
126:When riding and
2200:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2170:Pain in animals
2160:
2159:
2153:
2138:
2093:
2048:
2039:
2037:
2008:
1963:
1954:
1952:
1934:(10): 551–560.
1921:
1904:
1851:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1838:, pp. 1–2)
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1786:
1782:
1741:(5): e0216699.
1728:
1727:
1723:
1715:
1708:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1636:, pp. 6–7)
1632:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1589:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1536:
1534:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1510:
1508:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1483:
1481:
1471:
1470:
1461:
1451:
1449:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1423:
1414:
1413:
1406:
1396:
1394:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1298:
1290:
1283:
1273:
1271:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1208:
1200:
1196:
1188:
1175:
1167:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1102:
1083:
1075:
1064:
1056:
1047:
1037:
1035:
998:
997:
993:
985:
978:
971:
956:
955:
951:
943:
936:
928:
921:
913:
898:
888:
886:
845:
844:
840:
833:
829:
819:
817:
794:
793:
789:
781:
770:
762:
725:
717:
710:
706:, pp. 1–2)
702:
695:
690:
663:
622:
603:There are also
559:
535:
529:
516:
514:Lingual lesions
472:
449:
443:
441:Tongue injuries
404:
374:
311:
206:
165:
124:
118:
83:
78:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2198:
2196:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2162:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2136:
2091:
2046:
2021:(3): 405–410.
2006:
1961:
1919:
1902:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1828:
1816:
1804:
1792:
1780:
1721:
1706:
1665:
1650:
1638:
1626:
1599:
1573:
1544:
1518:
1491:
1459:
1433:
1404:
1386:(7): 355–360.
1363:
1356:
1338:
1323:
1311:
1296:
1281:
1255:(2): 154–162.
1232:
1217:
1206:
1194:
1173:
1156:
1144:
1132:
1120:
1108:
1081:
1079:, p. 556)
1062:
1045:
1011:(6): 565–575.
991:
976:
969:
949:
934:
919:
896:
838:
827:
807:(5): 540–542.
787:
785:, p. 551)
768:
723:
721:, p. 558)
708:
692:
691:
689:
686:
685:
684:
679:
677:Bitless bridle
674:
669:
662:
659:
630:French Trotter
621:
618:
558:
555:
528:
525:
515:
512:
493:
492:
489:
486:
471:
468:
442:
439:
403:
400:
373:
370:
310:
307:
299:bitless bridle
253:lamina propria
205:
202:
164:
161:
117:
114:
82:
79:
77:
74:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2197:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2143:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1817:
1814:, p. 13)
1813:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1725:
1722:
1719:, p. 12)
1718:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1666:
1663:, p. 16)
1662:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1627:
1614:
1613:Cheval Savoir
1610:
1603:
1600:
1587:
1583:
1577:
1574:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1549:
1545:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1506:
1505:Cheval Savoir
1502:
1495:
1492:
1479:
1478:Cheval Savoir
1475:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1448:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:9782492395024
1353:
1349:
1342:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1282:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1145:
1142:, p. 17)
1141:
1136:
1133:
1130:, p. 11)
1129:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
992:
988:
983:
981:
977:
972:
966:
962:
961:
953:
950:
947:, p. 15)
946:
941:
939:
935:
931:
926:
924:
920:
917:, p. 16)
916:
911:
909:
907:
905:
903:
901:
897:
884:
879:
875:
871:
866:
861:
857:
853:
849:
842:
839:
836:
831:
828:
815:
810:
806:
802:
798:
791:
788:
784:
779:
777:
775:
773:
769:
766:, p. 10)
765:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
732:
730:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
700:
698:
694:
687:
683:
680:
678:
675:
673:
670:
668:
667:Horse welfare
665:
664:
660:
658:
656:
652:
651:veterinarians
646:
642:
635:
631:
626:
619:
617:
615:
609:
606:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
572:
563:
556:
554:
550:
548:
544:
540:
539:wound healing
534:
533:Wound healing
526:
524:
520:
513:
511:
509:
505:
504:Patrik Kittel
500:
498:
490:
487:
484:
483:
482:
479:
477:
469:
467:
461:
458:
453:
448:
440:
438:
435:
431:
426:
424:
420:
416:
411:
407:
401:
399:
397:
392:
390:
383:
378:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
347:
342:
337:
335:
329:
324:
320:
319:Finnish horse
315:
308:
306:
304:
303:sampling bias
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
274:and impaired
273:
268:
264:
262:
258:
254:
251:, called the
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
217:
214:
210:
204:Painful areas
203:
201:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
183:horse welfare
177:
173:
169:
162:
160:
158:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
123:
115:
113:
111:
107:
103:
96:
92:
87:
80:
75:
73:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
23:
19:
2185:Horse health
2141:
2103:
2099:
2058:
2054:
2038:. Retrieved
2018:
2014:
1973:
1969:
1953:. Retrieved
1931:
1927:
1906:
1861:
1857:
1846:Bibliography
1831:
1826:, p. 8)
1819:
1812:Mellor (2020
1807:
1802:, p. 1)
1800:Mellor (2020
1795:
1788:Mellor (2020
1783:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1717:Mellor (2020
1682:
1678:
1668:
1661:Mellor (2020
1648:, p. 7)
1641:
1629:
1617:. Retrieved
1612:
1602:
1590:. Retrieved
1585:
1576:
1564:. Retrieved
1560:
1535:. Retrieved
1531:
1521:
1509:. Retrieved
1504:
1494:
1482:. Retrieved
1477:
1450:. Retrieved
1447:Horse Canada
1446:
1436:
1424:. Retrieved
1420:
1395:. Retrieved
1383:
1379:
1347:
1341:
1336:, p. 9)
1321:, p. 8)
1314:
1309:, p. 5)
1294:, p. 5)
1272:. Retrieved
1252:
1248:
1226:
1220:
1209:
1204:, p. 1)
1197:
1192:, p. 1)
1171:, p. 1)
1147:
1135:
1128:Mellor (2020
1123:
1116:Mellor (2020
1111:
1106:, p. 9)
1060:, p. 2)
1036:. Retrieved
1008:
1004:
994:
989:, p. 2)
959:
952:
932:, p. 7)
930:Mellor (2020
887:. Retrieved
855:
851:
841:
830:
818:. Retrieved
804:
800:
790:
704:Mellor (2020
655:horse racing
647:
643:
639:
610:
602:
575:
568:
551:
536:
521:
517:
501:
494:
480:
473:
465:
447:Horse tongue
427:
412:
408:
405:
393:
386:
355:
351:horse racing
338:
334:Standardbred
330:
327:
296:
272:inflammation
269:
265:
221:
191:
180:
176:show jumping
148:horse tongue
125:
99:
70:
29:
28:
18:
1507:(in French)
1140:Henry (2017
945:Henry (2017
915:Henry (2017
858:(1): 2420.
835:Cook (2006)
672:Bit (horse)
590:wild horses
547:oral mucosa
419:Periostitis
389:polo ponies
341:competition
225:nociceptors
159:justified.
122:Bit (horse)
2175:Horse tack
2164:Categories
1976:(4): 572.
1685:(12): 41.
1619:2 November
1592:28 October
1566:28 October
1537:28 October
1511:2 November
1484:2 November
1452:2 November
1426:2 November
688:References
616:sessions.
582:salivation
531:See also:
497:amyotrophy
445:See also:
396:melanocyte
257:innervated
245:epithelium
237:periosteum
194:Bronze Age
120:See also:
58:hemorrhage
2077:2297-1769
2035:1090-0233
1992:2076-2615
1955:18 August
1950:0957-7734
1915:196591934
1880:1751-0147
1864:(1): 40.
1757:1932-6203
1701:2076-2615
1397:18 August
1274:18 August
1269:0425-1644
1038:18 August
1025:0425-1644
874:2045-2322
820:15 August
632:during a
157:ethically
116:Bit usage
95:chain bit
91:lower jaw
50:premolars
2132:33869325
1898:25116656
1775:31086385
1735:PLOS ONE
1033:16295937
661:See also
614:dressage
434:noseband
415:premolar
366:geldings
360:than in
321:after a
284:Swelling
152:noseband
140:incisors
136:bit ring
102:stimulus
2123:8044447
2086:6640207
2040:26 June
2001:7222381
1970:Animals
1889:4236600
1766:6516668
1679:Animals
889:26 June
883:7016124
527:Healing
346:Finland
309:Lesions
235:is the
128:driving
106:anxiety
76:General
36:during
2149:
2130:
2120:
2083:
2075:
2033:
1998:
1990:
1948:
1913:
1896:
1886:
1878:
1773:
1763:
1755:
1699:
1588:. 2010
1354:
1267:
1031:
1023:
967:
880:
872:
605:sexist
598:bridle
457:bridle
430:enamel
423:dentin
362:ponies
292:molars
280:ulcers
241:mucosa
144:molars
132:palate
54:tongue
42:stress
38:riding
1911:S2CID
288:reins
66:reins
62:reins
46:mouth
2147:ISBN
2128:PMID
2073:ISSN
2042:2022
2031:ISSN
1988:ISSN
1957:2022
1946:ISSN
1894:PMID
1876:ISSN
1771:PMID
1753:ISSN
1697:ISSN
1621:2019
1594:2021
1568:2021
1539:2021
1513:2019
1486:2019
1454:2019
1428:2019
1399:2022
1352:ISBN
1276:2022
1265:ISSN
1229:: 2.
1040:2022
1029:PMID
1021:ISSN
965:ISBN
891:2022
870:ISSN
822:2022
634:race
476:tack
323:race
216:mare
213:Polo
142:and
110:fear
108:and
52:and
2118:PMC
2108:doi
2081:PMC
2063:doi
2023:doi
2019:178
1996:PMC
1978:doi
1936:doi
1884:PMC
1866:doi
1761:PMC
1743:doi
1687:doi
1388:doi
1257:doi
1013:doi
878:PMC
860:doi
809:doi
596:or
594:bit
460:bit
382:bit
233:gum
172:Bit
34:bit
2166::
2126:.
2116:.
2102:.
2098:.
2079:.
2071:.
2061:.
2057:.
2053:.
2029:.
2017:.
2013:.
1994:.
1986:.
1974:10
1972:.
1968:.
1944:.
1932:31
1930:.
1926:.
1909:.
1892:.
1882:.
1874:.
1862:56
1860:.
1856:.
1769:.
1759:.
1751:.
1739:14
1737:.
1733:.
1709:^
1695:.
1681:.
1677:.
1653:^
1611:.
1584:.
1559:.
1547:^
1530:.
1503:.
1476:.
1462:^
1445:.
1419:.
1407:^
1384:23
1382:.
1378:.
1366:^
1326:^
1299:^
1284:^
1263:.
1253:51
1251:.
1247:.
1235:^
1176:^
1159:^
1084:^
1065:^
1048:^
1027:.
1019:.
1009:37
1007:.
1003:.
979:^
937:^
922:^
899:^
876:.
868:.
856:10
854:.
850:.
805:48
803:.
799:.
771:^
726:^
711:^
696:^
600:.
549:.
305:.
263:.
112:.
68:.
2155:.
2134:.
2110::
2104:8
2089:.
2065::
2059:6
2044:.
2025::
2004:.
1980::
1959:.
1938::
1917:.
1900:.
1868::
1777:.
1745::
1703:.
1689::
1683:7
1623:.
1596:.
1570:.
1541:.
1515:.
1488:.
1456:.
1430:.
1401:.
1390::
1360:.
1278:.
1259::
1042:.
1015::
973:.
893:.
862::
824:.
811::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
