1897:. In 1934 Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were divided into four provinces—Tripoli, Misrata, Benghazi, and Darnah—which were formally linked as a single colony known as Libya, thus officially resurrecting the name that Diocletian had applied nearly 1,500 years earlier. Fezzan, designated as South Tripolitania, remained a military territory. A governor-general, called the first consul after 1937, was in the overall direction of the colony, assisted by the General Consultative Council, on which Arabs were represented. Traditional tribal councils, formerly sanctioned by the Italian administration, were abolished, and all local officials were thereafter appointed by the governor-general. Administrative posts at all levels were held by Italians. An accord with Britain and Egypt obtained the transfer of a corner of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, known as the Sarra Triangle, to Italian control in 1934. The next year, a French-Italian agreement was negotiated that relocated the 1,000-kilometer border between Libya and Chad southward about 100 kilometers across the Aouzou Strip, but this territorial concession to Italy was never ratified by the French legislature. In 1939 Libya was incorporated into metropolitan Italy. During the 1930s, impressive strides were made in improving the country's economic and transportation infrastructure. Italy invested capital and technology in public works projects, extension and modernization of cities, highway and railroad construction, expanded port facilities, and irrigation, but these measures were introduced to benefit the Italian-controlled modern sector of the economy. Italian development policy after World War I had called for capital-intensive "economic colonization" intended to promote the maximum exploitation of the resources available. One of the initial Italian objectives in Libya, however, had been the relief of overpopulation and unemployment in Italy through emigration to the undeveloped colony. With security established, systematic "demographic colonization" was encouraged by Mussolini's government. A project initiated by Libya's governor, Italo Balbo, brought the first 20,000 settlers--the ventimilli--to Libya in a single convoy in October 1938. More settlers followed in 1939, and by 1940 there were approximately 110,000 Italians in Libya, constituting about 12 percent of the total population. Plans envisioned an Italian colony of 500,000 settlers by the 1960s. Libya's best land was allocated to the settlers to be brought under productive cultivation, primarily in olive groves. The settlement was directed by a state corporation, the Libyan Colonization Society, which undertook land reclamation and the building of model villages and offered a grubstake and credit facilities to the settlers it had sponsored. The Italians made modern medical care available for the first time in Libya, improved sanitary conditions in the towns, and undertook to replenish the herds and flocks that had been depleted during the war. But, although Mussolini liked to refer to the Libyans as "Muslim Italians," little more was accomplished that directly improved the living standards of the Arab population.
746:
1275:
1971:(Royal Colonial Corps). Counter-attacks of British Allied forces from Egypt, commanded by Wavell and their successful two-month campaign in (Tobruk, Benghazi, El Agheila), and the counter-offensives under Erwin Rommel in 1940-43, all took place during World War II. In November 1942, the Allied forces retook Cyrenaica; by February 1943, the last German and Italian soldiers were driven from Libya. In the early post-war period, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica remained under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal in 1947 of some aspects of foreign control
152:
970:
1251:
1287:
604:
778:
714:
501:
2460:
1333:
2960:
1299:
805:
835:
1263:
726:
1239:
1151:
987:
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762:
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39:
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375:
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announced it had restarted oil production in Libya for the first time since the start of the 2011 Libyan civil war. The quick return of Eni to Libyan oilfields reflected the positive relations between Rome and
Tripoli. The Italian embassy in Tripoli is one of the few Western embassies still active in
638:
with both the
Tripolitanian Republic in June 1919 and Cyrenaica in October 1919. These brought about a compromise by which all Libyans were accorded the right to a joint Libyan-Italian citizenship while each province was to have its own parliament and governing council. The Senussi were largely happy
1409:
In July 1998, the
Italian government offered a formal apology to Libya. In August 2008 the two nations signed a treaty of friendship in which US$ 5 billion in goods and services, including the construction of the Libyan portion of the Cairo-Tunis highway, would be given to Libya to end any remaining
1025:
in the
Cyrenaican lowlands. Propaganda by the Fascist regime declared the camps to be oases of modern civilization that were hygienic and efficiently run –– however, in reality, the camps had poor sanitary conditions as the camps had an average of about 20,000 inmates, together with their camels and
877:
Several reorganizations of the colonial authority had been made necessary because of armed Arab opposition, mainly in
Cyrenaica. Between 1919 (17 May) to 1929 (24 January), the Italian government maintained the two traditional provinces, with separate colonial administrations. A system of controlled
702:
into
Tripolitania in order to bring stability; they presented a formal document with this request on 28 July 1922. Idris' advisers were divided on whether he should accept the offer or not. Doing so would contravene the al-Rajma Agreement and would damage relations with the Italian government, which
1122:
in
Cyrenaica, and given land from which the indigenous inhabitants had been partially removed during the colonial war in the 1920s. At the time of the 1939 census, the Italian population in Libya numbered 108,419 (12.37% of the total population), concentrated on the coast around the city of Tripoli
1017:
estimated between 40,000 and 70,000 total Libyan deads due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside the concentration camps, and hanging and executions. The
Italian occupation also reduced the number of livestock by killing, confiscating, or driving the animals from their pastoral land
1130:
On 9 January 1939, the coastal regions of the colony were incorporated into metropolitan Italy and thereafter considered by Italy to be an integral part of their state. By 1939, the
Italians had built 400 km of new railroads and 4,000 km of new roads. During World War II a new road was
1117:
and was presented with a symbolic sword. Mussolini's publicized encouragement of the Arab nationalist movement suited his wider policies of confronting
Britain and France. He also sought to fully colonize Libya, introducing 30,000 more Italian colonists, which brought their numbers to more than
1231:
All these new villages had their mosque, school, social centre (with sport grounds and cinema) and small hospital. This was purportedly a reward for the military performance of the Libyan colonial troops: in 1936 Savaris and other Libyan units took part in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia and
634:, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice agreement in which they ceded their claims over Libya to Italy. Italy however was facing serious economic, social, and political problems domestically, and was not prepared to re-launch its military activities in Libya. It issued statutes known as the
838:
Territorial growth of Italian Libya: territory ceded by Ottoman Empire 1912 (dark-green) though effectively Italy controlled only five ports (black); territories ceded by France and Britain 1919 and 1926 (light-green); territories ceded by France and Britain 1934/35
682:. As part of the Accord, he was given a monthly stipend by the Italian government, which agreed to take responsibility for policing and administration of areas under Senussi control. The Accord also stipulated that Idris must fulfill the requirements of the
703:
opposed the political unification of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania as being against their interests. Nevertheless, in November 1922 Idris agreed to the proposal. Following the agreement, Idris feared that Italy — under its new Fascist leader
1298:
745:
693:
in August 1920, the Republic descended into civil war. Many tribal leaders in the region recognized that this discord was weakening the region's chances of attaining full autonomy from Italy, and in November 1920 they met in
931:. His example continued to inspire resistance even after his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism.
878:
local assemblies with limited local authority was set up but was revoked on 9 March 1927. In 1929, Tripoli and Cyrenaica were united as one colonial province. From 1931 to 1932, Italian forces under
2045:"Ratifica ed esecuzione del Trattato di amicizia, partenariato e cooperazione tra la Repubblica italiana e la Grande Giamahiria araba libica popolare socialista, fatto a Bengasi il 30 agosto 2008"
615:
diplomatic status. Using the British as intermediaries, Idris led the Order into negotiations with the Italians in July 1916. These resulted in two agreements, at al-Zuwaytina in April 1916 and
546:, colonial cavalry troops raised in December 1912. These units were recruited from the Arab-Berber population of Libya following the initial Italian occupation in 1911–12. The Savari, like the
1274:
1123:(37% of the city's population) and Benghazi (31%). The 22,000 Libyan Jews were allowed to integrate in the society of the "Fourth Shore", but after summer 1941, with the arrival of the German
686:
by disbanding the Cyrenaican military units, however, he did not comply with this. By the end of 1921, relations between the Senussi Order and the Italian government had again deteriorated.
1190:
was even raised shortly before World War II, the first force of this kind to be created in all of Africa. Other Libyan troops had been fighting for the Kingdom of Italy since the 1920s: the
777:
1086:
in the summer of that year. The classical name "Libya" was revived as the official name of the unified colony. Then in 1937 the colony was split administratively into four provinces:
113:
962:
and El Agheila, where thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated that the number of Libyans who died, killed in the fighting or through starvation and disease is at least
713:
1940:
1174:). These reforms allowed the creation of Libyan military units within the Italian army (with 30,000 native Muslim soldiers). Two divisions of Libyan colonial troops were created (
1018:
to inhospitable land near the concentration camps. The number of sheep fell from 810,000 in 1926 to 98,000 in 1933, goats from 70,000 to 25,000, and camels from 75,000 to 2,000.
1013:, tribal villages were being bombed with mustard gas by the spring of 1930, and suspects were hanged or shot in the back, with estimated thirty executions tooking place daily.
619:
in April 1917. The latter of these treaties left most of inland Cyrenaica under the control of the Senussi Order Relations between the Senussi Order and the newly established
2576:
2164:
3061:
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by forcibly expelling 100,000 local Cyrenaicans, almost half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements, slated to be given to Italian settlers. According to
1001:) and used to mutilate nearly all the Italian colonial troops (mainly the Christian Eritreans) when they surrendered. Italian war crimes included the use of illegal
2588:
725:
1286:
1005:, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead of executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians. Italian authorities committed
804:
193:
2077:
1021:
From 1930 to 1931, 12,000 Cyrenaicans died and all the nomadic peoples of northern Cyrenaica were forcefully removed from the region and relocated to huge
1250:
2421:
403:
1838:
General History of Africa, Albert Adu Boahen, Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa, page 196, 1990
2360:
600:, Ahmed had pursued armed attacks against British military forces stationed in neighbouring Egypt. On taking power, Idris put a stop to these attacks.
3046:
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919:
continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from the Cyrenaica. Beginning in the first days of Italian colonization,
1893:
Once pacification had been accomplished, fascist Italy endeavored to convert Libya into an Italian province to be referred to popularly as Italy's
761:
3346:
2404:
1356:
1031:
1428:
In this historic document, Italy apologizes for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule.
2927:
2829:
2509:
282:
151:
1824:
between 40,000 and 70,000 deaths due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside the concentration camps, and hanging and executions
1426:, who recognized historic atrocities and repression committed by the state of Italy against the Libyan people during colonial rule, stating: "
2247:
2225:
1430:" and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era".
1201:
Mussolini sought to assimilate the Arabs of Libya (whom he called "Muslim Italians") and so in 1939 ten villages were created for Arabs and
3088:
3073:
2667:
998:
355:
1959:, near Tripoli, where the first "Italian Military Parachute School" was located (the first troops trained were two Libyan battalions, the
1937:
2106:
1332:
1109:
In March 1937 Mussolini made a state visit to Libya, where he opened a new military highway running the entire length of the colony (the
557:
946:
to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterward, the colonial administration began wholesale deportation of the people of the
2865:
2323:
2081:
1042:
and meager food rations. By the time the camps closed in September 1933, 40,000 of the 100,000 total internees had died in the camps.
447:. In 1937, this colony was divided into four provinces, and in 1939, the coastal provinces became a part of metropolitan Italy as the
623:
were acrimonious. The Senussi attempted to militarily extend their power into eastern Tripolitania, resulting in a pitched battle at
2600:
2303:
2289:
2275:
2131:
969:
2947:
2937:
1262:
1374:, (and France, which wanted the Fezzan), relinquished all claims to Libya. Libya remained united as it experienced the process of
3098:
2746:
2672:
1496:
1443:
1167:
322:
106:
3306:
3083:
2776:
2697:
1455:
792:
552:
2917:
2796:
2504:
997:
Both sides committed war crimes: the first were the Senussi forces who did not take prisoners of war since 1911 (like in the
452:
396:
262:
99:
3093:
3068:
2705:
2044:
991:
345:
302:
3078:
979:
662:, in which Idris was given the title of the Emir of Cyrenaica and permitted to autonomously administer the oases around
500:
603:
563:(Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops). Tripoli was largely under Italian control by 1914, but both Cyrenaica and the
3000:
2756:
2751:
2550:
2514:
2397:
1418:
in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to
1179:
1175:
2369:
1238:
1317:
3156:
3056:
2822:
2647:
2459:
1352:
1061:
1026:
other animals, crowded into an area of one square kilometer. The camps held only rudimentary medical services. The
928:
611:
Instead he established a tacit alliance with the British, which would last for half a century and accord his order
456:
1476:
2980:
2612:
2566:
2085:
1155:
1027:
589:
495:
389:
312:
131:
3255:
3179:
2959:
2489:
1103:
871:
850:
in Italy, the fighting intensified. Due to the Libyan people's effective resistance against Italy's so-called "
825:
163:
2011:
1135:, and a new Tripoli-Benghazi railway. On 13 September 1940, Mussolini's highway was used for the invasion of
3151:
2985:
2942:
2494:
2357:
707:—would militarily retaliate against the Senussi Order, and so he went into exile in Egypt in December 1922.
616:
593:
487:
335:
3341:
2912:
2860:
2771:
2627:
2607:
2499:
2390:
2344:
1521:
1367:
1163:
620:
292:
183:
1989:
3273:
3220:
3184:
3146:
3108:
3015:
2815:
2657:
2235:
1434:
935:
934:
After a much-disputed truce, the Italian policy in Libya reached the level of full-scale war in 1932. A
883:
851:
834:
659:
3174:
3141:
3113:
2890:
2880:
2687:
2571:
1119:
468:
436:
424:
238:
223:
72:
1182:), and in the summer of 1940 both participated in the Italian offensive against the British army in
698:
to bring an end to the violence. In January 1922 they agreed to request that Idris extend the Sanui
3103:
2875:
2637:
2535:
2048:
1411:
947:
784:
534:
Despite a major revolt by the Arabs, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the
213:
596:, abdicated his position, he was replaced by Idris, who was his cousin. Pressured to do so by the
3225:
3194:
3051:
3010:
2995:
2990:
2968:
2642:
2632:
1516:
1501:
1386:
1324:
1132:
1022:
955:
539:
2715:
1150:
986:
1304:
The Catholic Cathedral was connected to the "Via Vittoria", that had two columns featuring the
3268:
3260:
3240:
3034:
3020:
2895:
2677:
2662:
2617:
2583:
2540:
2474:
2319:
2299:
2285:
2271:
2256:
2243:
2221:
2110:
1884:
1706:
1423:
898:
894:
699:
535:
483:
472:
440:
432:
242:
76:
17:
3299:
3208:
3189:
3129:
2922:
2847:
2766:
2710:
2622:
2530:
2434:
1817:
1491:
1403:
1006:
951:
890:
867:
847:
768:
704:
690:
428:
272:
140:
63:
1118:
100,000. These colonists were shipped primarily to Sahel al-Jefara in Tripolitania and the
1034:
concentration camps, with an estimated 33,000 internees, had only one doctor between them.
3230:
3169:
2905:
2870:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2439:
2364:
2176:
1944:
1813:
1381:
1309:
1038:
and other diseases spread rapidly in the camps, as the people were physically weakened by
1014:
1002:
879:
829:
203:
1658:
1078:
By 1934, Libyan indigenous resistance was effectively crushed. The new Italian governor,
3315:
3280:
3250:
3245:
2791:
2595:
2545:
2449:
2444:
2312:
1506:
1419:
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the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and CyrenaĂŻca, while the French
1338:
1305:
1195:
1087:
943:
893:, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush
855:
597:
581:
577:
516:
512:
491:
54:
2194:
1056:
911:
was a prominent leader of Libyan resistance in Cyrenaica against Italian colonization.
584:), of the Senussi, led Libyan resistance in various forms through the outbreak of the
443:. In 1934, the two colonies were merged into one colony which was named the colony of
3335:
3235:
3005:
2900:
2855:
2761:
2652:
2484:
2413:
2135:
1956:
1460:
1391:
1360:
1083:
1051:
939:
528:
444:
252:
173:
86:
1142:
646:
38:
3320:
3161:
2692:
2682:
1894:
1792:
1526:
1466:
1371:
1187:
1124:
1099:
1039:
1010:
920:
908:
901:. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression.
859:
752:
585:
448:
379:
658:
In October 1920, further negotiations between Italy and Cyrenaica resulted in the
1232:
received a "Gold Medal of Honour" for their distinguished performance in battle.
523:
On 3 October 1911, Italy attacked Tripoli, claiming to be liberating the Ottoman
2429:
1796:
1471:
1399:
1395:
1079:
1072:
732:
631:
2052:
2000:
1402:. The Italian authorities had banned the film in 1982 because, in the words of
1068:
2377:
2339:
2023:
1511:
1415:
1110:
904:
624:
423:
began in 1911 and it lasted until 1943. The country, which was previously an
1740:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 309.
863:
2781:
1162:
In 1939, laws were passed that allowed Muslims to be permitted to join the
736:
1209:"El Fager" (It. Alba, En. Dawn), *"Nahima" (It. Deliziosa, En. Delicious),
1154:
Omar Al Mukhtar Street (formerly "Via Roma") in Benghazi was home to many
1224:"Gedina" (It. Nuova, En. New), *"Mamhura" (It. Fiorente, En. Flourished),
1095:
974:
866:
was initially unsuccessful and it was not until the early 1930s that the
844:
811:
679:
1723:
1221:"Chadra" (It. Verde, En. Green), *"Zahara" (It. Fiorita, En. Blossomed),
643:
as part of the celebrations to mark the promulgation of the settlement.
459:
that Italy officially renounced all of its claims to Libya's territory.
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1202:
1091:
916:
887:
695:
671:
592:, the Senussi Order fought back against them. When the Order's leader,
571:
568:
524:
1437:
which overthrew Gaddafi. On 26 September 2011, Italian energy company
607:
Arrival of the first Italian locomotive in the harbor of Tripoli, 1912
504:
Italy's representation of the takeover of Ottoman Tripolitania in 1911
2786:
1481:
1191:
1035:
924:
675:
564:
543:
2282:
Through Fascism to World Power: A History of the Revolution in Italy
1378:
that characterized colonies of Europe in the mid-Twentieth Century.
1127:, they began to be moved to internment camps under Nazi SS control.
950:
to deny the resistance to the support of the local population. The
508:
2932:
2838:
1486:
1183:
1149:
1141:
1136:
1067:
1055:
985:
968:
959:
903:
663:
645:
627:
in which the Senussi were forced to withdraw back into Cyrenaica.
602:
547:
507:
499:
2382:
2027:
667:
640:
2811:
2386:
1446:, because Italy is the most important trade partner for Libya.
1438:
588:. After the Italian army invaded Cyrenaica in 1913 as part of
2107:"Berlusconi in Benghazi, Unwelcome by Son of Omar Al-Mukhtar"
982:. Thousands of Libyans fought in the Italian colonial troops.
783:
Berenice Theatre in Benghazi, opened in 1928 and designed by
1410:
animosity. In exchange, Libya would take measures to combat
2155:
The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group, 2008.Pp. 17.
870:
took full control of the area. This conflict, known as the
2298:, Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Editori Laterza, Bari, 1999.
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1584:
1582:
1146:
Italian settlers and indigenous Libyans in Tripoli, 1930s
874:, ultimately claimed the lives of around 56,000 Libyans.
2807:
2165:
Eni riavvia la produzione di petrolio in Libia (Italian)
1782:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 358.
1738:
The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing
435:, which resulted in the establishment of two colonies:
2284:. Ayer Publishing. Manchester (New Hampshire), 1971.
1834:
1832:
1799:(British Member of Parliament, forward introduction).
1659:"Legge Fondamentale per la Tripolitania 1 giugno 1919"
1433:
Cooperation ended in February 2011 as a result of the
2345:
Photos of Libyan Italians and their villages in Libya
2270:. Ayer Publishing. Manchester (New Hampshire), 1969.
1280:
Italo Balbo welcomes Italian colonists in Libya, 1938
719:
The Italian Army landing at the Port of Tripoli, 1911
2263:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987.
897:
unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or
3207:
3128:
3033:
2967:
2846:
2739:
2559:
2523:
2467:
2420:
1872:
The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796
85:
71:
2311:
1366:Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the
1113:). For propaganda reasons he had himself declared
654:, later called the "Parliament of Cyrenaica", 1927
542:of 1923). The Italians made extensive use of the
2358:Pictures of the Italian conquest of Libya (arab)
966:, up to one third of the Cyrenaican population.
1990:30,000 Libyans fought for Italy in World War II
1927:. London, England. January 1, 1938. p. 29.
1370:, Italy, which hoped to maintain the colony of
550:, or mounted Libyan police, formed part of the
2109:. The Tripoli Post. 2008-08-30. Archived from
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1406:, it was "damaging to the honor of the army".
927:, organized and, for nearly twenty years, led
463:Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (1911–1934)
2823:
2398:
886:campaign. Badoglio's successor in the field,
397:
107:
8:
689:Following the death of Tripolitanian leader
29:
1292:Benghazi Jews in synagogue classroom (1939)
1218:"Mansura" (It. Vittoriosa, En. Victorious),
3213:
3134:
3039:
2973:
2830:
2816:
2808:
2405:
2391:
2383:
1938:New villages in coastal Libya (in Italian)
1874:. New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 496.
1819:Mohamed Fekini and the Fight to Free Libya
1694:
1678:
1645:
1616:
1600:
1588:
1573:
1550:
1384:'s final years were depicted in the movie
404:
390:
125:
114:
100:
2370:Italian colonial railways built in Libya
2318:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2039:
2037:
1803:. St. Martin's Press, 1996. 1996 Pp. 129.
2350:The Italians in Libya after World War II
1969:Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia
1852:. Kent, England: Croom Helm. p. 35.
1778:Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (2010).
1620:
1604:
833:
639:with this arrangement and Idris visited
553:Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali della Libia
451:. The colonization lasted until Libya's
2177:"Ambasciata Italiana a Tripoli - Libia"
2072:
2070:
1965:1st National Libyan Parachute Battalion
1780:The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies
1690:
1569:
1543:
1234:
1212:"Azizia" (It. Profumata, En. Perfumed),
709:
538:(not to be confused with a more famous
139:
128:
2510:1945 anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania
2242:(revised ed.). Oxford: Oneworld.
1750:
1227:"El Beida" (It. La Bianca, En. White).
1139:by Italian forces stationed in Libya.
1082:, created the political entity called
28:
1724:http://countrystudies.us/libya/21.htm
954:of more than 100,000 people ended in
578:Sheikh Sidi Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi
513:Sheikh Sidi Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi
7:
2078:"Gaddafi to Rome for historic visit"
843:After the accession to power of the
159:
2268:The Italian Emigration of Our Times
1912:. London, England. January 1, 1938.
1765:Benito Mussolini: the first fascist
1351:From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under
1172:Associazione Musulmana del Littorio
854:", the Italian colonization of the
814:, restored during the Italian rule.
567:were home to rebellions led by the
2866:Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica
1215:"Nahiba" (It. Risorta, En. Risen),
771:Municipio (City Hall) in the 1920s
455:in 1943, but it was not until the
25:
2132:"Italia-Libia, firmato l'accordo"
1822:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 5.
1414:coming from its shores and boost
2958:
2747:Italian Libyan Colonial Division
2673:Muslim Association of the Lictor
2458:
2240:Libya: From Colony to Revolution
1908:"Relations Between The Powers".
1801:Libya: the struggle for survival
1497:Italian Libyan Colonial Division
1444:Post-civil war violence in Libya
1331:
1316:
1297:
1285:
1273:
1261:
1249:
1237:
1168:Muslim Association of the Lictor
803:
791:
776:
760:
744:
724:
712:
373:
150:
37:
3062:Foreign relations under Gaddafi
2195:"Ambasciata d'Italia - Tripoli"
1767:. Pearson Longman. p. 109.
1456:List of colonial heads of Libya
3347:Italian colonisation in Africa
2797:Royal Corps of Colonial Troops
2505:Allied administration of Libya
1060:Mussolini with the so-called "
751:Restaurant and goods train in
1:
3069:Government of National Accord
2706:Giovanni Innocenzo Martinelli
2618:Tripoli-Castel Benito Airport
2480:Italian colonization of Libya
1722:The Second Italo-Senussi War
1106:and administered militarily.
1102:. The Fezzan area was called
992:El Agheila concentration camp
755:(stamped on 29 December 1916)
590:their wider invasion of Libya
346:Government of National Accord
303:National Transitional Council
30:Italian colonization of Libya
18:Italian colonisation of Libya
3074:Government of National Unity
2084:. 2009-06-10. Archived from
2051:. 2009-02-06. Archived from
1870:Duggan, Christopher (2007).
1763:Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006).
1194:(cavalry regiments) and the
820:The Second Italo-Senussi War
356:Government of National Unity
2551:Southern Military Territory
2515:Italian refugees from Libya
2296:La Banca d'Italia in Africa
2024:"Lion of the Desert (1980)"
798:The Royal Palace of Tripoli
739:patrolling in Tripoli, 1914
453:occupation by Allied forces
283:Libya under Muammar Gaddafi
3363:
2648:Tripoli International Fair
2216:Bearman, Jonathan (1986).
1961:Libyan Parachute Battalion
1816:; Anthony Shugaar (2011).
1186:). A battalion of Libyan
1049:
823:
481:
466:
3293:
3216:
3137:
3042:
2976:
2956:
2613:Railway stations in Libya
2456:
2314:A History of Modern Libya
2310:Vandewalle, Dirk (2006).
1256:Women in Italian Benghazi
1046:Italian Libya (1934–1943)
929:Libyan resistance efforts
496:Italian settlers in Libya
313:General National Congress
95:
55:Other Italian possessions
36:
3180:National Oil Corporation
3099:House of Representatives
2490:Second Italo-Senussi War
1363:the province of Fezzan.
1268:Suk el Turk market, 1935
1104:Territorio Sahara Libico
872:Second Italo-Senussi War
826:Second Italo-Senussi War
323:House of Representatives
2702:Pidgin Italian of Libya
2495:Western Desert campaign
2012:Medal of Military Honor
1850:Libya: A Modern History
1355:. The British military
1131:still being built, the
594:Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi
540:treaty of the same name
536:1912 Treaty of Lausanne
488:First Italo-Senussi War
457:1947 Paris Peace Treaty
2772:Italian African Police
2668:Sciara Sciatt massacre
2608:Italian Libya Railways
2500:North African campaign
2261:Libya: A Country Study
2236:St. John, Ronald Bruce
1889:Libya: A Country Study
1736:Mann, Michael (2006).
1711:Libya: A Country Study
1522:Italian Libya Railways
1341:colonial troops, 1930s
1166:and in particular the
1164:National Fascist Party
1159:
1147:
1075:
1065:
994:
983:
912:
840:
655:
621:Tripolitanian Republic
608:
520:
505:
3094:High Council of State
2220:. London: Zed Books.
1848:Wright, John (1983).
1477:Italy–Libya relations
1153:
1145:
1071:
1059:
989:
972:
907:
884:punitive pacification
852:pacification campaign
837:
649:
606:
511:
503:
3175:Great Man-Made River
3079:Presidential Council
2891:Italian Tripolitania
2886:Italian colonization
2688:Auto-Saharan Company
2572:Italian Tripolitania
2280:Smeaton Munro, Ion.
2199:ambtripoli.esteri.it
1032:Sisi Ahmed el Magrun
700:Emirate of Cyrenaica
469:Italian Tripolitania
437:Italian Tripolitania
418:Italian colonization
239:Italian Tripolitania
234:Italian colonization
224:Ottoman Tripolitania
73:Italian Tripolitania
2928:Libya under Gaddafi
2876:Hospitaller Tripoli
2757:2nd Libyan Division
2752:1st Libyan Division
2601:Fascist imperialism
2049:Parliament of Italy
2001:Libyan Paratroopers
1925:The Times of London
1923:"Foreign Affairs".
1910:The Times of London
1412:illegal immigration
1180:2nd Libyan Division
1176:1st Libyan Division
1023:concentration camps
999:Shar Shatt massacre
956:concentration camps
938:was built from the
785:Marcello Piacentini
529:the Sublime porte’s
214:Hospitaller Tripoli
47: Italian Libya
33:
3089:Head of government
2643:Tripoli Grand Prix
2638:Arch of the Fileni
2633:Via della Vittoria
2378:Lion of the desert
2363:2006-04-28 at the
2340:Lion of the desert
2294:Tuccimei, Ercole.
2266:Foerster, Robert.
2257:Chapin Metz, Helen
2181:www.ambasciata.net
1943:2011-07-20 at the
1887:wrote in her book
1707:Chapin Metz, Helen
1693:, pp. 14–15;
1517:Via della Vittoria
1502:Tripoli Grand Prix
1387:Lion of the Desert
1325:Tripoli Grand Prix
1198:(mounted police).
1160:
1148:
1133:Via della Vittoria
1115:Protector of Islam
1076:
1066:
995:
984:
913:
841:
684:Legge Fondamentale
660:Accord of al-Rajma
656:
636:Legge Fondamentale
609:
521:
506:
431:in 1911 after the
427:, was occupied by
425:Ottoman possession
3329:
3328:
3289:
3288:
3203:
3202:
3124:
3123:
3057:Foreign relations
3029:
3028:
2918:Allied occupation
2896:Italian Cyrenaica
2805:
2804:
2678:Arab Lictor Youth
2663:Italo-Turkish War
2584:Italian Cyrenaica
2541:Benghazi Province
2536:Misurata Province
2475:Italo-Turkish War
2249:978-1-85168-919-4
2227:978-0-86232-434-6
1885:Helen Chapin Metz
1623:, pp. 66–67.
1442:Libya during the
1424:Silvio Berlusconi
1390:(1981), starring
1353:Allied occupation
936:barbed wire fence
899:international law
895:Libyan resistance
810:Roman theatre of
484:Italo-Turkish War
473:Italian Cyrenaica
441:Italian Cyrenaica
433:Italo-Turkish War
414:
413:
367:
366:
263:Allied occupation
198:mid-7c–1510
124:
123:
16:(Redirected from
3354:
3309:
3302:
3214:
3165:
3135:
3040:
2974:
2962:
2832:
2825:
2818:
2809:
2767:Ascari del Cielo
2711:Adriano Visconti
2623:Italian Benghazi
2567:Italian settlers
2560:Related articles
2531:Tripoli Province
2462:
2435:Rodolfo Graziani
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1435:Libyan Civil War
1404:Giulio Andreotti
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1289:
1277:
1265:
1253:
1241:
1156:Italian settlers
1007:ethnic cleansing
1003:chemical weapons
965:
952:forced migration
942:to the oasis of
891:Rodolfo Graziani
880:General Badoglio
868:Kingdom of Italy
848:Benito Mussolini
807:
795:
780:
769:Italian Benghazi
764:
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705:Benito Mussolini
691:Ramadan Asswehly
652:Palazzo Littorio
586:Second World War
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2963:
2954:
2948:2014–2020
2906:Libyan genocide
2871:Spanish Tripoli
2842:
2836:
2806:
2801:
2740:Colonial troops
2735:
2731:Lorenzo Bandini
2726:Franco Califano
2721:Claudio Gentile
2716:Rossana PodestĂ
2555:
2519:
2468:General History
2463:
2454:
2440:Italo Gariboldi
2416:
2411:
2371:
2365:Wayback Machine
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2218:Qadhafi's Libya
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1945:Wayback Machine
1936:
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1713:. First Chapter
1705:
1701:
1695:Vandewalle 2006
1689:
1685:
1679:Vandewalle 2006
1677:
1666:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1646:Vandewalle 2006
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1617:Vandewalle 2006
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1601:Vandewalle 2006
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1589:Vandewalle 2006
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1574:Vandewalle 2006
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1551:Vandewalle 2006
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1545:
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1535:
1452:
1382:Omar al-Mukhtar
1349:
1342:
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1327:
1321:
1312:
1310:Capitoline Wolf
1302:
1293:
1290:
1281:
1278:
1269:
1266:
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1254:
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1054:
1048:
1015:Angelo Del Boca
990:Inmates at the
963:
832:
830:Omar al-Mukhtar
822:
815:
808:
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796:
787:
781:
772:
765:
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498:
480:
475:
467:Main articles:
465:
410:
374:
372:
361:
350:2016–2021
340:2014–2020
328:
317:2012–2014
307:2011–2012
293:First Civil War
287:1969–2011
277:1951–1969
267:1943–1951
257:1934–1943
247:1911–1934
237:
228:1551–1911
218:1530–1551
208:1510–1530
204:Spanish Tripoli
188:146 BC – mid-7C
174:Ancient history
142:
135:
120:
67:
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59:
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31:
23:
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3152:Communications
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3011:Municipalities
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2933:State of Libya
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2546:Derna Province
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2453:
2452:
2450:Giovanni Messe
2447:
2445:Ettore Bastico
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2334:External links
2332:
2331:
2330:
2325:978-0521615549
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1619:, p. 27;
1609:
1603:, p. 27;
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1572:, p. 14;
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1507:Italian Empire
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1376:decolonization
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1347:Decolonization
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1306:Lion of Venice
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1062:Sword of Islam
1050:Main article:
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630:At the end of
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492:Idris of Libya
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3060:
3059:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3006:Libyan Desert
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2938:Libyan Crisis
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2913:The Holocaust
2911:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2901:Italian Libya
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2833:
2828:
2826:
2821:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2762:Maletti Group
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2658:Frontier Wire
2656:
2654:
2653:Imperial Line
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:Italian Libya
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2414:Italian Libya
2408:
2403:
2401:
2396:
2394:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2304:88-420-5686-3
2301:
2297:
2293:
2291:
2290:0-8369-5912-4
2287:
2283:
2279:
2277:
2276:0-405-00522-9
2273:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2201:(in Italian).
2200:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2161:
2158:
2152:
2149:
2137:
2136:La Repubblica
2133:
2127:
2124:
2113:on 2013-12-02
2112:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2088:on 2009-06-16
2087:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2055:on 2009-06-18
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1957:Castel Benito
1952:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1774:
1771:
1766:
1759:
1756:
1753:, p. 497
1752:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1726:retrvd 2-1-20
1725:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1700:
1697:, p. 29.
1696:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1681:, p. 29.
1680:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1654:
1651:
1648:, p. 28.
1647:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1621:St. John 2012
1618:
1613:
1610:
1607:, p. 66.
1606:
1605:St. John 2012
1602:
1597:
1594:
1591:, p. 27.
1590:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1576:, p. 27.
1575:
1571:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1553:, p. 26.
1552:
1547:
1544:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1461:Italian Libya
1459:
1457:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1392:Anthony Quinn
1389:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1329:
1326:
1319:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1295:
1288:
1283:
1276:
1271:
1264:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1084:Italian Libya
1081:
1074:
1070:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1052:Italian Libya
1045:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
993:
988:
981:
977:
976:
971:
967:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
940:Mediterranean
937:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
910:
906:
902:
900:
896:
892:
889:
885:
881:
875:
873:
869:
865:
861:
858:provinces of
857:
853:
849:
846:
836:
831:
827:
819:
813:
806:
801:
794:
789:
786:
779:
774:
770:
763:
758:
754:
747:
742:
738:
734:
727:
722:
715:
710:
708:
706:
701:
697:
692:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
653:
648:
644:
642:
637:
633:
628:
626:
622:
618:
614:
605:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
573:
570:
566:
562:
559:
554:
549:
545:
541:
537:
532:
530:
526:
518:
514:
510:
502:
497:
493:
489:
485:
477:
474:
470:
462:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:Italian Libya
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
419:
407:
402:
400:
395:
393:
388:
387:
385:
384:
381:
371:
370:
359:
357:
354:
353:
349:
347:
344:
343:
339:
337:
334:
333:
326:
324:
321:
320:
316:
314:
311:
310:
306:
304:
301:
300:
296:
294:
291:
290:
286:
284:
281:
280:
276:
274:
271:
270:
266:
264:
261:
260:
256:
254:
253:Italian Libya
251:
250:
246:
244:
240:
235:
232:
231:
227:
225:
222:
221:
217:
215:
212:
211:
207:
205:
202:
201:
197:
195:
192:
191:
187:
185:
182:
181:
177:
175:
172:
171:
167:
165:
162:
161:
158:
157:
153:
149:
148:
145:
138:
133:
127:
117:
112:
110:
105:
103:
98:
97:
94:
90:
88:
87:Italian Libya
84:
80:
78:
74:
70:
65:
56:
40:
35:
27:
19:
3221:Demographics
3185:Oil reserves
3147:Central Bank
3109:Human rights
3047:Constitution
3016:Subdivisions
2885:
2693:Fourth Shore
2683:Fort Capuzzo
2479:
2372:(in Italian)
2353:(in Italian)
2313:
2295:
2281:
2267:
2260:
2239:
2217:
2210:Bibliography
2198:
2189:
2180:
2171:
2160:
2151:
2140:. Retrieved
2138:. 2008-08-30
2126:
2115:. Retrieved
2111:the original
2101:
2090:. Retrieved
2086:the original
2064:(in Italian)
2057:. Retrieved
2053:the original
2018:
2007:
1996:
1985:
1980:Sarti, p196.
1976:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1951:
1933:
1924:
1918:
1909:
1903:
1895:Fourth Shore
1892:
1888:
1880:
1871:
1849:
1843:
1823:
1818:
1808:
1800:
1793:Geoff Simons
1788:
1779:
1773:
1764:
1758:
1746:
1737:
1731:
1718:
1710:
1702:
1691:Bearman 1986
1686:
1653:
1612:
1596:
1570:Bearman 1986
1546:
1527:Aouzou Strip
1467:Fourth Shore
1432:
1427:
1408:
1385:
1380:
1372:Tripolitania
1365:
1361:administered
1357:administered
1350:
1230:
1200:
1188:paratroopers
1171:
1161:
1129:
1125:Afrika Korps
1120:Jebel Akhdar
1114:
1108:
1077:
1040:forced labor
1020:
1011:Knud Holmboe
996:
973:
948:Jebel Akhdar
933:
923:, a Senussi
921:Omar Mukhtar
914:
909:Omar Mukhtar
876:
860:Tripolitania
842:
688:
683:
657:
651:
635:
629:
612:
610:
582:King Idris I
576:
551:
533:
522:
517:King Idris I
449:Fourth Shore
420:
417:
415:
233:
194:Islamic rule
26:
3142:Agriculture
2430:Italo Balbo
1797:Tam Dalyell
1751:Duggan 2007
1472:Italo Balbo
1463:, 1934–1943
1416:investments
1400:Irene Papas
1396:Oliver Reed
1080:Italo Balbo
1073:Italo Balbo
733:Carabiniere
731:An Italian
632:World War I
556: [
478:First years
360:2021–
327:2014–
178:3200–146 BC
141:History of
32:(1911–1943)
3336:Categories
3241:Literature
3164:(currency)
3001:Ecoregions
2628:Via Balbia
2142:2009-06-10
2117:2009-06-10
2092:2009-06-10
2059:2009-06-10
1538:References
1512:Via Balbia
1111:Via Balbia
824:See also:
625:Bani Walid
482:See also:
164:Prehistory
3226:Education
3195:Transport
3157:Companies
3052:Elections
2996:Districts
2969:Geography
2589:Governors
2577:Governors
2524:Provinces
2422:Governors
975:Meharists
864:Cyrenaica
617:at Akrama
519:of Libya)
243:Cyrenaica
184:Roman era
91:1934–1943
81:1911–1934
77:Cyrenaica
3316:Category
3274:Olympics
3269:Football
3261:Religion
3104:Military
3035:Politics
3021:Wildlife
2361:Archived
2238:(2012).
1967:,of the
1963:and the
1941:Archived
1450:See also
1308:and the
1096:Benghazi
882:waged a
845:dictator
812:Sabratha
680:Ajdabiya
613:de facto
525:wilayats
421:of Libya
132:a series
130:Part of
3300:Outline
3265:Sports
3209:Culture
3190:Tourism
3130:Economy
2991:Climate
2981:Borders
2923:Kingdom
2881:Ottoman
2856:Ancient
2848:History
2259:, ed.,
1420:Tripoli
1203:Berbers
1092:Misrata
1088:Tripoli
978:led by
944:Jaghbub
917:Libyans
888:General
856:Ottoman
696:Gharyan
672:Jaghbub
580:(later
572:Senussi
569:nomadic
515:(later
362:present
329:present
168:
3321:Portal
3231:Health
3170:Energy
3162:Dinar
2986:Cities
2841:
2792:Spahis
2787:Savari
2782:Zaptié
2322:
2302:
2288:
2274:
2246:
2224:
1709:, ed.
1482:Savari
1398:, and
1368:Allies
1339:Spahis
1192:Savari
1098:, and
1036:Typhus
1028:Soluch
964:80,000
737:Zaptié
678:, and
676:Awjila
565:Fezzan
544:Savari
531:rule.
494:, and
134:on the
75:&
62:
60:
53:
51:
45:
3307:Index
3281:Women
3251:Music
3246:Media
2861:Roman
2839:Libya
2777:Bands
1533:Notes
1487:Spahi
1323:1937
1196:Spahi
1184:Egypt
1137:Egypt
1100:Derna
960:Suluq
925:sheik
915:Some
839:(red)
753:Derna
664:Kufra
560:]
548:Spahi
527:from
429:Italy
143:Libya
3114:LGBT
2943:2011
2320:ISBN
2300:ISBN
2286:ISBN
2272:ISBN
2244:ISBN
2222:ISBN
2082:ANSA
2028:IMDb
1030:and
862:and
828:and
767:The
668:Jalu
650:The
641:Rome
471:and
439:and
416:The
297:2011
241:and
1439:Eni
1422:by
1205::
958:in
3338::
2197:.
2179:.
2134:.
2080:.
2069:^
2047:.
2036:^
2026:.
1891::
1858:^
1831:^
1795:,
1667:^
1628:^
1581:^
1558:^
1394:,
1178:,
1094:,
1090:,
674:,
670:,
666:,
574:.
558:it
490:,
486:,
2831:e
2824:t
2817:v
2406:e
2399:t
2392:v
2328:.
2306:.
2252:.
2230:.
2183:.
2145:.
2120:.
2095:.
2062:.
2030:.
1661:.
1170:(
1158:.
1064:"
405:e
398:t
391:v
236::
115:e
108:t
101:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
