IBM PC–compatible

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hardware manufacturers and several competing bus standards were developed by consortiums, with more agreeable license terms. Various attempts to standardize the interfaces were made, but in practice, many of these attempts were either flawed or ignored. Even so, there were many expansion options, and despite the confusion of its users, the PC compatible design advanced much faster than other competing designs of the time, even if only because of its market dominance.

1962:(MPC) standard was set during 1990. A PC that met the minimum MPC standard could be marketed with the MPC logo, giving consumers an easy-to-understand specification to look for. Software that could operate on the most minimally MPC-compliant PC would be guaranteed to operate on any MPC. The MPC level 2 and MPC level 3 standards were set later, but the term "MPC compliant" never became popular. After MPC level 3 during 1996, no further MPC standards were established. 625:. They also performed any machine-dependent trick the programmers could think of in order to gain speed. Though initially the major market for the PC was for business applications, games capability became an important factor motivating PC purchases as prices decreased. The availability and quality of games could mean the difference between the purchase of a PC compatible or a different platform with the ability to exchange data like the 1347:

it warned 200 attendees, from many American and foreign computer companies as well as IBM itself, to "Jump on the IBM PC-compatible bandwagon—quickly, and as compatibly as possible". Future Computing said in February 1984 that some computers were "press-release compatible", exaggerating their actual compatibility with the IBM PC. Many companies were reluctant to have their products' PC compatibility tested. When

1520:: "Who cares? If IBM does it, they will most likely just isolate themselves from the largest marketplace, in which they really can't compete anymore anyway". The magazine predicted that in 1987 the market "will complete its transition from an IBM standard to an Intel/MS-DOS/expansion bus standard ... Folks aren't so much concerned about IBM compatibility as they are about Lotus 1-2-3 compatibility". By 1992, 1297: 503:, for example, as having a "'next generation' true 16-bit CPU", and with "More speed. More disk storage. More expansion" than the IBM PC or "other MS-DOS computers". While admitting in 1984 that many PC DOS programs did not work on the computer, the company stated that "the most popular, sophisticated software on the market" was available, either immediately or "over the next six months". 445: 33: 306: 270:. Interoperability with the bus structure and peripherals of the original PC architecture may be limited or non-existent. Many modern computers are unable to use old software or hardware that depends on portions of the IBM PC compatible architecture which are missing or do not have equivalents in modern computers. For example, computers which boot using 550:. Had the bulk of commercially important software been of this nature, low-level hardware compatibility might not have mattered. However, in order to provide maximum performance and leverage hardware features (or work around hardware bugs), PC applications quickly developed beyond the simple terminal applications that MS-DOS supported directly. 1246:. Can run "the top selling" IBM PC software, use PC expansion boards, and read and write PC disks. Has "complementary features" like portability or lower price that distinguish computer from the PC, which is sold in the same store. Examples: (Best) Columbia Data Products, Compaq; (Better) Corona; (Good) Eagle. 578:). While the BIOS video interface routines were adequate for rudimentary output, they were necessarily less efficient than direct hardware addressing, as they added extra processing; they did not have "string" output, but only character-by-character teletype output, and they inserted delays to prevent 2962:

Columbia Data Products (301-992- 3400) turns out another split-personality computer, appropriately named the Multi-Personal Computer. Using only the Intel 8088 microprocessor, it manifests its duality in an ability to run both I.B.M.-oriented software and software requiring an operating system called

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predicted in 1983 that "IBM will soon be as much a prisoner of its standards as its competitors are", because "Once enough IBM machines have been bought, IBM cannot make sudden changes in their basic design; what might be useful for shedding competitors would shake off even more customers". After IBM

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established new markets that exploited the PC's strengths, but required capabilities beyond what MS-DOS provided. Thus, from very early in the development of the MS-DOS software environment, many significant commercial software products were written directly to the hardware, for a variety of reasons:

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now has near-native functionality at full speed (and is necessary for certain games which may run too fast on modern processors). Additionally, many modern PCs can still run DOS directly, although special options such as USB legacy mode and SATA-to-PATA emulation may need to be set in the BIOS setup

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because IBM was committed to the 286's protected mode, which stunted OS/2's technical potential. Windows could take full advantage of the modern and increasingly affordable 386 / 386SX architecture. As well, there were cultural differences between the partners, and Windows was often bundled with new

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Microsoft's competing OS was intended initially to operate on a similar varied spectrum of hardware, although all based on the 8086 processor. Thus, MS-DOS was for several years sold only as an OEM product. There was no Microsoft-branded MS-DOS: MS-DOS could not be purchased directly from Microsoft,

372:

The dark side of an open system is its imitators. If the specs are clear enough for you to design peripherals, they are clear enough for you to design imitations. Apple ... has patents on two important components of its systems ... IBM, which reportedly has no special patents on the PC, is even more

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IBM at first asked developers to avoid writing software that addressed the computer's hardware directly and to instead make standard calls to BIOS functions that carried out hardware-dependent operations. This software would run on any machine using MS-DOS or PC DOS. Software that directly addressed

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developed alternative x86 CPUs that were functionally compatible with Intel's. Towards the end of the 1990s, AMD was taking an increasing share of the CPU market for PCs. AMD even ended up playing a significant role in directing the development of the x86 platform when its Athlon line of processors

2002:

niche, from which it only emerged in the mid-2000s. By the mid-1990s the Mac's market share had dwindled to around 5% and introducing a new rival operating system had become too risky a commercial venture. Experience had shown that even if an operating system was technically superior to Windows, it

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By December 1983 Future Computing stated that companies like Compaq, Columbia Data Products, and Corona that emphasized IBM PC compatibility had been successful, while non-compatible computers had hurt the reputations of others like TI and DEC despite superior technology. At a San Francisco meeting

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had to be performed by the application to achieve acceptable speed, which was usually done by bypassing the BIOS and accessing video memory directly. Software written to address IBM PC hardware directly would run on any IBM clone, but would have to be rewritten especially for each non-PC-compatible

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computer that overcame many of the technical limits of the XT/AT bus, but this was rarely used as the basis for IBM-compatible computers since it required license payments to IBM both for the PS/2 bus and any prior AT-bus designs produced by the company seeking a license. This was unpopular with

542:

of the given PC vendor. Malfunctions were to be reported to the OEM, not to Microsoft. However, as machines that were compatible with IBM hardware—thus supporting direct calls to the hardware—became widespread, it soon became clear that the OEM versions of MS-DOS were virtually identical, except

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had become the dominant market player only to be virtually wiped out by Intel a year later. Intel has been the uncontested leader ever since. As the "Wintel" platform gained dominance Intel gradually abandoned the practice of licensing its technologies to other chipset makers; in 2010 Intel was

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The main reason why an IBM standard is not worrying is that it can help competition to flourish. IBM will soon be as much a prisoner of its standards as its competitors are. Once enough IBM machines have been bought, IBM cannot make sudden changes in their basic design; what might be useful for

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which was in use both at the hobbyist level and by the more professional of those using microcomputers. To achieve such widespread use, and thus make the product viable economically, the OS had to operate across a range of machines from different vendors that had widely varying hardware. Those

1908:

OS can also be written for the 80286, but DOS application compatibility was more difficult than expected, not only because most DOS applications accessed the hardware directly, bypassing BIOS routines intended to ensure compatibility, but also that most BIOS requests were made by the first 32

1335:, or anything else we have around here". Columbia Data Products's November 1983 sales brochure stated that during tests with retail-purchased computers in October 1983, its own and Compaq's products were compatible with all tested PC software, while Corona and Eagle's were less compatible. 2203:

architecture has further distanced current computers' and operating systems' internal similarity with the original IBM PC by introducing yet another processor mode with an instruction set modified for 64-bit addressing, but x86-64 capable processors also retain standard x86 compatibility.

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stated that "clones are generally reliable and about 99 percent compatible", and a 1987 survey in the magazine of the clone industry did not mention software compatibility, stating that "PC by now has come to stand for a computer capable of running programs that are managed by MS-DOS".

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for graphics, and the BIOS only included the rudimentary graphics functions such as changing screen modes and plotting single points. To make a BIOS call for every point drawn or modified increased overhead considerably, making the BIOS interface notoriously slow. Because of this,

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conferences provided a setting in which Microsoft could lobby for—and in some cases dictate—the pace and direction of the hardware of the PC industry. Microsoft and Intel had become so important to the ongoing development of PC hardware that industry writers began using the word

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schemes, in common use at the time, worked by reading nonstandard data patterns on the diskette to verify originality. These patterns were impossible to detect using standard DOS or BIOS calls, so direct access to the disk controller hardware was necessary for the protection to

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stated "Now that it has created the market, the market doesn't necessarily need IBM for the machines. It may depend on IBM to set standards and to develop higher-performance machines, but IBM had better conform to existing standards so as to not hurt users". In January 1987,

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in 1985 stated, "we reiterate our standard line regarding the IBM PC compatibles: try the package you want to use before you buy the computer." Companies modified their computers' BIOS to work with newly discovered incompatible applications, and reviewers and users developed

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and all", because he had "four cubic feet of unevaluated software, much of which won't run on anything but an IBM PC. Although a lot of machines claim to be 100 percent IBM PC compatible, I've yet to have one arrive ... Alas, a lot of stuff doesn't run with Eagle, Z-100,

1904:"Expanded" and "extended" memory have incompatible interfaces, so anyone writing software that used more than one megabyte had to provide for both systems for the greatest compatibility until MS-DOS began including EMM386, which simulated EMS memory using XMS memory. A 2111:. This would include both the rapid growth of the smartphones (using Android or iOS) as an alternative to the personal computer; and the increasing prevalence of Linux and Unix-like operating systems in the server farms of large corporations such as Google or Amazon. 2125:

The term "IBM PC compatible" is not commonly used presently because many current mainstream desktop and laptop computers are based on the PC architecture, and IBM no longer makes PCs. The competing hardware architectures have either been discontinued or, like the

1757:" systems assembled by myriad local systems builders. Despite advances of computer technology, the IBM PC compatibles remained very much compatible with the original IBM PC computers, although most of the components implement the compatibility in special 2195:

might need to be set at legacy BIOS mode to be able to boot DOS. However, the BIOS/UEFI options in most mass-produced consumer-grade computers are very limited and cannot be configured to truly handle OSes such as the original variants of DOS.

1369:, Corona representatives "hemmed and hawed a bit, but they finally led me ... off in the corner where no one would see it should it fail". The magazine reported that "Their hesitancy was unnecessary. The disk booted up without a problem". 1541:

estimated that the public purchased 1.5 clones for every IBM PC. By 1989 Compaq was so influential that industry executives spoke of "Compaq compatible", with observers stating that customers saw the company as IBM's equal or superior.

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and yet backwards compatibility has been largely maintained – a 32-bit operating system released during the 2000s can still operate many of the simpler programs written for the OS of the early 1980s without needing an

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the hardware instead of making standard calls was faster, however; this was particularly relevant to games. Software addressing IBM PC hardware in this way would not run on MS-DOS machines with different hardware (for example, the

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bus controller. Similar non-Intel chipsets appeared for the AT-compatibles, for example OPTi's 82C206 or 82C495XLC which were found in many 486 and early Pentium systems. The x86 chipset market was very volatile though. In 1993,

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Because of the great number of third-party adapters and no standard for them, programming the PC could be difficult. Professional developers would operate a large test-suite of various known-to-be-popular hardware combinations.

1253: 391:" as "a computer accommodate the user who takes a disk home from an IBM PC, walks across the room, and plugs it into the 'foreign' machine". Because of a shortage of IBM PCs that year, many customers purchased clones instead. 654:, making it very portable but too slow to be truly usable on a PC. 1-2-3 was written in x86 assembly language and performed some machine-dependent tricks. It was so much faster that it quickly surpassed Context MBA's sales. 1957:

Meanwhile, consumers were overwhelmed by the competing, incompatible standards and many different combinations of hardware on offer. To give them some idea of what sort of PC they would need to operate their software, the

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of the time. However, as processor speed and memory width increased, the limits of the original XT/AT bus design were soon reached, particularly when driving graphics video cards. IBM did introduce an upgraded bus in the

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Although the IBM PC was designed for expandability, the designers could not anticipate the hardware developments of the 1980s, nor the size of the industry they would engender. To make things worse, IBM's choice of the

600:

capability was not taken seriously in the original IBM design brief; graphics were considered only from the perspective of generating static business graphics such as charts and graphs. MS-DOS did not have an

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One of the strengths of the PC-compatible design is its modular hardware design. End-users could readily upgrade peripherals and, to some degree, processor and memory without modifying the computer's

1927:

video memory arrangements to the same effect, but this did not easily extend to the greater color depths and higher resolutions offered by SVGA adapters. An attempt at creating a standard named

349:). The IBM PC was sold in high enough volumes to justify writing software specifically for it, and this encouraged other manufacturers to produce machines that could use the same programs, 3908: 4650: 2244: 1817:

PC" in 2000s. An IBM-brand PC became the exception rather than the rule. Instead of placing importance on compatibility with the IBM PC, vendors began to emphasize compatibility with

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After 1987, IBM PC compatibles dominated both the home and business markets of commodity computers, with other notable alternative architectures being used in niche markets, like the

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customers who needed other applications than the starter programs could reasonably expect publishers to offer their products for a variety of computers, on suitable media for each.

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graphics modes supported by later video cards. Each manufacturer developed their own methods of accessing the screen memory, including different mode numberings and different

274:-based firmware that lack a Compatibility Support Module, or CSM, required to emulate the old BIOS-based firmware interface, or have their CSMs disabled, cannot natively run 636:

serial port chip, because the MS-DOS API and the BIOS did not provide full support and was too slow to keep up with hardware which could transfer data at 19,200 bit/s.

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system, "It will either be the last new hardware platform to succeed, or the first to fail." Four years later in 1993, NeXT announced it was ending production of the

1537:-oriented PS/2 line in early 1987, sales of existing DOS-compatible PC compatibles rose, in part because the proprietary operating system was not available. In 1988, 5845: 1399: 413: 1897:"windows" inside the 20-bit addressing. Later, Intel CPUs had larger address spaces and could directly address 16 MB (80286) or more, causing Microsoft to develop 518:(OEM) version of MS-DOS, customized to its hardware. Any software written for MS-DOS would operate on any MS-DOS computer, despite variations in hardware design. 1986:

platform, they would still be able to reach the vast majority of computer users. The only major competitor to Windows with more than a few percentage points of

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ran without modification on Compaq and Columbia Data Products clones, but not on those from Eagle or Seequa. Other MS-DOS computers also required custom code.

521:

This expectation seemed reasonable in the computer marketplace of the time. Until then Microsoft's business was based primarily on computer languages such as

361:

on "conventional" system memory available to MS-DOS is a legacy of that period; other non-clone machines, while subject to a limit, could exceed 640 KB.

4657: 2104:. During 2006 Intel began abandoning NetBurst with the release of their set of "Core" processors that represented a development of the earlier Pentium III. 1881:

for the CPU introduced several limitations for developing software for the PC compatible platform. For example, the 8088 processor only had a 20-bit memory

1411:, permitted computer makers to legally build essentially 100%-compatible clones without having to reverse-engineer the PC BIOS themselves. A September 1985 1252:. Runs own version of popular PC software. Cannot use PC expansion boards but can read and write PC disks. Cannot become Operationally Compatible. Example: 1577:

used by the music industry. However, IBM itself lost the main role in the market for IBM PC compatibles by 1990. A few events in retrospect are important:

633: 2594: 2624: 1814: 1714:

set of laptop PC's, IBM finally relinquished its role as a consumer PC manufacturer during April 2005, when it sold its laptop and desktop PC divisions (

582:

hardware "snow" (a display artifact of CGA cards produced when writing directly to screen memory)——an especially bad artifact since they were called by

4747: 4742: 4710: 3365: 1998:. The Mac started out billed as "the computer for the rest of us", but high prices and closed architecture drove the Macintosh into an education and 586:, thus making multitasking very difficult. A program that wrote directly to video memory could achieve output rates 5 to 20 times faster than making 425:. Note this was over a year after Compaq released the Portable. The money and research put into reverse-engineering the BIOS was a calculated risk. 1841: 1692: 965: 224: 2957: 4126: 3916: 2979: 1471:

wrote that "IBM's burgeoning influence in the PC community is stifling innovation because so many other companies are mimicking Big Blue", but

113:

computer capable of running the same software that a contemporary IBM or Lenovo PC could. The term was initially in contrast to the variety of

3199: 3121: 2931: 2322: 2107:

A major alternative to Wintel domination is the rise of alternative operating systems since the early 2000s, which marked as the start of the

4544: 4480: 4455: 4369: 1503:, and computers with some PC compatibility were another 25%. As the market and competition grew IBM's influence diminished. In November 1985 271: 1688:

computers while OS/2 was only available for extra cost. The split left IBM the sole steward of OS/2 and it failed to keep pace with Windows.

153:

These "clones" duplicated almost all the significant features of the original IBM PC architectures. This was facilitated by IBM's choice of

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arrangements. The latter were used to address large images within a single 64 KB segment of memory. Previously, the VGA standard had used

94:

today ever since the 1990s are IBM compatible, but also because IBM no longer sell personal computers anyway, having sold its division to

546:

MS-DOS provided adequate functionality for character-oriented applications such as those that could have been implemented on a text-only

3422: 3339: 2389: 1813:

During the 1990s, IBM's influence on PC architecture started to decline. "IBM PC compatible" becomes "Standard PC" in 1990s, and later "

1355:

specified that "Our systems run all software that conforms to IBM PC programming standards. And the most popular software does." When a

583: 285:

had kept significant market share without having compatibility with the IBM PC, although that changed during the Intel Macs era running

1852:

This terminology itself is becoming a misnomer, as Intel has lost absolute control over the direction of x86 hardware development with

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No mass-market personal computer hardware vendor dared to be incompatible with the latest version of Windows, and Microsoft's annual

5855: 1632:, reducing demand for IBM's models. It was possible to buy two of these "generic" systems for less than the cost of one IBM-branded 602: 507: 240: 4198: 3995: 3800: 2660: 4072: 3710: 364:

Rumors of "lookalike," compatible computers, created without IBM's approval, began almost immediately after the IBM PC's release.

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set. While it required that applications be recompiled, which most developers did not do, its hardware independence was used for

235:(ISA) bus. Additional bus standards were subsequently adopted to improve compatibility between IBM PC compatibles, including the 2072:

involved in litigation related to their refusal to license their processor bus and related technologies to other companies like

1262:. May not run top PC software. Can read and/or write PC disks. Can become Functionally Compatible. Examples: NCR Decision Mate, 4614: 2159: 1351:

requested samples from computer manufacturers that claimed to produce compatibles for an April 1984 review, 14 of 31 declined.

515: 496:

introduced personal computers that supported MS-DOS, but were not completely software- or hardware-compatible with the IBM PC.

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computer marketplace rapidly excluded all machines which were not hardware-compatible or software-compatible with the PC. The

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beginning in 2006. Until 2020 Macintosh computers shared the same system architecture as their Wintel counterparts and could

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stated in November 1983, "The main reason why an IBM standard is not worrying is that it can help competition to flourish".

3152: 1942:. Unfortunately programs could not switch directly between them, so eventually, some new memory-model APIs were developed, 2472: 1754: 1002: 473: 106: 3827: 3005: 574:

MS-DOS itself did not provide any way to position the text cursor other than to advance it after displaying each letter (

4720: 1947: 1526:

stated that because of clones, "IBM lost control of its own market and became a minor player with its own technology".

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set of server CPUs. AMD developed AMD64, the first major extension not created by Intel, which Intel later adopted as

1480: 1658:

later said that it was "the first time people started to get a sense that it wasn't just IBM setting the standards".

317:

IBM decided in 1980 to market a low-cost single-user computer as quickly as possible. On August 12, 1981, the first

188:, and the Handwell Corporation were threatened with legal action by IBM, who settled with them. Soon after in 1982, 5799: 5726: 4887: 2291: 1924: 1834: 1588:

Microsoft included a clause in its contract with IBM which permitted the sale of the finished PC operating system (

1306: 220: 3229: 1893:(EMS), a bank-switching scheme to allow more memory provided by add-in hardware, and accessed by a set of four 16- 5716: 5680: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5271: 5011: 1662: 1387: 1374: 622: 244: 3256: 395:

produced the first computer more or less compatible with the IBM PC standard during June 1982, soon followed by

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platform, which used non-Intel processors from its inception. Although Macintosh was initially based on the

729: 130: 4022: 1613:

An Independent Business Unit (IBU) within IBM developed the IBM PC and XT. IBUs did not share in corporate

1397:

IBM believed that some companies such as Eagle, Corona, and Handwell infringed on its copyright, and after

5804: 5711: 5614: 5004: 2254: 2035: 1853: 1758: 1617:

expense. After the IBU became the Entry Systems Division it lost this benefit, greatly decreasing margins.

1600: 908: 607: 579: 566: 392: 173: 4342: 4999: 4693: 4399:

InfoWorld July 1986 ad: "Career Starter Kit: Everything you need to begin serious computing immediately"

2282:- successor released by IBM that did not succeed, but many of its elements have been adopted by industry 2178: 2139: 1801: 1670: 318: 310: 48: 1915:

suffered from their own incompatibilities. There was no standard interface for using higher-resolution

4155: 3182: 2893: 1639:

By integrating more peripherals into the computer itself, compatibles like the Model D have more free

1226:

The first thing to think about when considering an IBM-compatible computer is, "How compatible is it?"

5731: 4917: 4912: 4825: 4820: 1928: 1909:

interrupt vectors, which were marked as "reserved" for protected mode processor exceptions by Intel.

1434: 1404: 639:

Even for standard business applications, speed of execution was a significant competitive advantage.

562: 511: 337:, for non-IBM computers. The only component of the original PC architecture exclusive to IBM was the 294: 180:, the MPC 1600 by a clean-room reverse-engineered implementation of its BIOS. Other rival companies, 90:, but the term "IBM PC compatible" is now a historical description only, since the vast majority of 5647: 3207: 3064: 2130:, have been relegated to niche, enthusiast markets. In the past, the most successful exception was 1741:

had the largest shares of the PC market in North America. They were also successful overseas, with

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which was selling for $ 150 by this time and became the world's bestselling computer, the 32-bit

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is even compatible with IBM proprietary diagnostic software, unlike the Compaq Portable. By 1986

1381: 1373:

was bolder, bragging that its Z-150 ran all applications people brought to test with at the 1984

5819: 5767: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5550: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5472: 5426: 5358: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5330: 4882: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4593: 4540: 4536: 4476: 4451: 4430: 4263: 4053: 3773: 3651: 3598: 3560: 3487: 3035: 3012: 2917: 2868: 2776: 2750: 2507: 2362: 2259: 1971: 1939: 1818: 1582: 1340: 1319: 1192: 1100: 1036: 970: 597: 547: 489: 481: 457: 422: 408: 267: 177: 169: 71: 4587: 4445: 4413: 4397: 4289: 4099: 3968: 3881: 3854: 3677: 3624: 3347: 2768: 2724: 2705: 2568: 2538: 2442: 1978:

into near-extinction, and had ensured that the "IBM PC compatible" computer was the dominant

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with the IBM PC. At first, few clones other than Compaq's offered truly full compatibility.

1160: 665:

Some software was designed to run only on a true IBM PC, and checked for an actual IBM BIOS.

530: 322: 263: 251: 216: 3321: 3298: 2836: 5782: 5657: 4374: 4131: 3715: 3706: 3508: 3475: 3040: 2218: 2068: 1898: 1890: 1762: 1734: 1703: 1699: 1666: 1607: 1323: 841: 814: 658: 485: 469: 404: 212: 208: 196:, also with a clean-room reverse-engineered BIOS, and also not challenged legally by IBM. 193: 37: 1182:

true IBM compatible, credited as first private-label clone sold by manufacturer's stores

506:

Like IBM, Microsoft's apparent intention was that application writers would write to the

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described as "a bug in one of Intel's chips", forcing them to make their new computer

333:. In a crucial concession, IBM's agreement allowed Microsoft to sell its own version, 231:

by a consortium of IBM PC compatible vendors, redefining the 16-bit IBM AT bus as the

5839: 5181: 5176: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 4892: 4529: 4495: 2167: 1959: 1882: 1796: 1538: 1509: 1473: 1315: 228: 114: 3479: 1938:

OS could be written for it. This time, DOS compatibility was much easier because of

1296: 510:

in MS-DOS or the firmware BIOS, and that this would form what would now be termed a

5690: 5675: 5416: 5411: 4902: 3299:"Tava's Megaplus and Sprite Machines: PC Lookalikes Are Good Buys as 2nd Computers" 3187:(Rev 1.0 ed.). Sanyo Electric. November 1983 – via the Internet Archive. 2155: 2039: 1987: 1776: 1558: 1285: 1267: 1263: 777: 736: 591: 290: 126: 3590: 3257:"Frustrated by big guys' disinterest, Perry Lamba builds his own IBM PC act-alike" 740: 2042:

XT Controller which integrated and replaced six of the original XT circuits: one

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which permitted clone makers to use freely available non-proprietary components.

1289: 1281: 997: 651: 647: 643: 587: 575: 551: 539: 449: 383: 3533: 3036:"The Texas Instruments Professional Computer – Daring to be somewhat different" 2030:

Very early on in PC history, some companies introduced their own XT-compatible

5824: 4897: 4855: 3275: 2249: 2131: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2012: 1991: 1912: 1878: 1822: 1768:. It was often more practical to run old software on a modern system using an 1655: 1566: 1550: 1187: 1095: 618: 500: 461: 444: 326: 138: 32: 4597: 4267: 3602: 2872: 2810: 2780: 2754: 2511: 2088:

continued to develop the classic x86 architecture as Intel deviated with its

219:

IBM AT bus with the release of the AT. IBM's introduction of the proprietary

102:" is a similar description that is more commonly used for modern computers. 5762: 4862: 4512: 2797: 2135: 1995: 1742: 1546: 1413: 1362: 1277: 1130: 330: 203:

Almost all home computers since the 1990s are technically IBM PC compatibles

47:

refers to a class of computers that are technically similar to the original

4564: 3044:. Vol. 8, no. 12. Peterborough NH: McGraw-Hill. pp. 286–324 5814: 5757: 5736: 5058: 4944: 4939: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4775: 4765: 4732: 4683: 4606: 2279: 2183: 2089: 2024: 2020: 1894: 1769: 1715: 1711: 1706:(XMS) standards of the late 1980s, both developed without input from IBM. 1592:) to other computer manufacturers. These IBM competitors licensed it, as 1574: 1522: 1439: 1394:

became the standard, with compatibles specifically designed to run them.

1390:

to measure compatibility; by 1984 the ability to operate Lotus 1-2-3 and

1332: 1311: 745: 611: 493: 165: 118: 17: 403:

announced its first product, an IBM PC compatible in November 1982, the

305: 2223: 2151: 2143: 2097: 2031: 1765: 1750: 1516:

of rumors that IBM would introduce proprietary personal computers with

1485: 1063: 749: 555: 313:(Model 5150) motivated the production of clones during the early 1980s. 1691:

The 1988 introduction by the "Gang of Nine" companies of a rival bus,

4727: 2269: 2200: 2187: 2101: 2073: 1983: 1857: 1846: 1746: 1723: 1593: 1589: 1489: 1366: 1214:

redefinable character set, optional 640x400 8-color or mono graphics

878: 846: 809: 400: 334: 275: 255: 189: 122: 99: 95: 1239:

In May 1983, Future Computing defined four levels of compatibility:

2958:"PERSONAL COMPUTERS; RIVALS STAY ONE STEP AHEAD OF I.B.M. PORTABLE" 2932:"Check The Chart Before You Choose Your New 16-Bit Computer System" 2323:"Check The Chart Before You Choose Your New 16-Bit Computer System" 1889:

s beyond one megabyte, Lotus, Intel, and Microsoft jointly created

5809: 2127: 2093: 2084: 1982:. This meant that if a developer made their software only for the 1865: 1861: 1795:

or replacing the whole computer, as was the case with many of the

1633: 1625: 1562: 1495:

By 1983, IBM had about 25% of sales of personal computers between

1479: 1295: 1068: 650:

to market and included more functions. Context MBA was written in

626: 522: 477: 465: 443: 417:, was that BIOS code was protected by copyright law, but it could 346: 304: 286: 198: 134: 64: 31: 4290:"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures" 1837:(HAL), they could operate NT (and its vast application library). 1403:

successfully forced the clone makers to stop using the BIOS. The

4433:(Interview). Interviewed by Michael J. Miller. pp. 230–235. 3625:"No Matter Who's Invited, Some Will Turn Out To Be Incompatible" 2301: 2274: 2229: 2192: 2016: 2008: 2004: 1943: 1916: 1738: 1684: 1677: 1629: 1534: 1517: 1357: 526: 338: 325:(OS) available for it. The least expensive and most popular was 162: 70:

architecture and are capable of using interchangeable commodity

4610: 3322:"Compu Shack Affiliate Tava Corp. Offering PC-Compatible Micro" 2173:

The processor speed and memory capacity of modern PCs are many

411:

that was essentially 100% PC-compatible. The court decision in

373:

vulnerable. Numerous PC-compatible machines—the grapevine says

4637: 3561:"The Prognosticators Pronounce: Future Compilations On The PC" 3286:(49). American City Business Journals: 1 – via ProQuest. 2264: 2080: 1826: 1276:. Cannot read PC disks. Can become Data Compatible. Examples: 1025: 354: 223:(MCA) in its PS/2 series resulted in the establishment of the 110: 67: 60: 3969:"Leading Edge: Superior Value in IBM-PC Clone Market Contest" 1825:

was released that could operate on processors other than the

1676:

The split of the IBM-Microsoft partnership in development of

804:

optional 8 color 640x255 graphics, external 8" floppy drives

157:, which were cheap, and by various manufacturers' ability to 109:, has not meant "personal computer" generally, but rather an 3346:. Tandy/Radio Shack. 1987. pp. 6, 7, 34. Archived from 2347:

Compaq Leads 'Gang of Nine' In Offering Alternative to MCA,

1661:

IBM's 1987 introduction of the incompatible and proprietary

4256:"THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER; The Race to Market a 486 Machine" 1152:

keyboard had palm rests, 16 function keys; built-in modem

3423:"Bruce Artwick / The Designer Behind Flight Simulator II" 1610:, providing portability unavailable from IBM at the time. 1454:

shedding competitors would shake off even more customers.

3513:. Columbia Data Products (published November 1983). 1983 3263:. Tinley Park, Illinois: B-7 – via Newspapers.com. 1484:

The PowerPak 286, an IBM PC compatible computer running

3996:"The MS-DOS Invasion / IBM Compatibles Are Coming Home" 2725:"Commodore pact sparks talk of IBM PC-compatible micro" 2245:

Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market

435:

Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market

525:. The established small system operating software was 4224:

LaPlante, Alice; Furger, Roberta (January 23, 1989).

3450:"A public Windows pane to make compatibility clearer" 2170:, they are again the exception to IBM compatibility. 1868:

have established a presence on the x86 architecture.

930:

true IBM compatible, credited as first PC clone

772:

true IBM compatible; optional 640x400 color graphics

543:

perhaps for the provision of a few utility programs.

4561:"What does "Legacy" mean in the world of computers?" 4048: 4046: 4044: 3584: 3582: 3480:"Eagles, Text Editors, New Compilers, and Much More" 1650:-based computer, almost a year before IBM, with the 1603:

MPC 1600, the first 100% IBM PC compatible computer.

129:. Later, the term was primarily used in contrast to 40:

was one of the first nearly 100% IBM-compatible PCs.

5750: 5699: 5668: 5640: 5607: 5549: 5471: 5425: 5357: 5329: 5270: 5220: 5200: 5160: 5110: 5075: 5057: 4984: 4975: 4932: 4758: 4676: 4667: 3540:(Mailing list). Kermit Project, Columbia University 1931:(VBE) was made, but not all manufacturers used it. 1860:. Additionally, non-Windows operating systems like 1849:to refer to the combined hardware-software system. 1753:

also notable. Worldwide, a huge number of PCs are "

1596:, in order to offer PC compatibility for less cost. 27:

Computers similar to the IBM PC and its derivatives

4528: 3701: 3699: 2654: 2652: 2650: 1695:, intended to compete with, rather than copy, MCA. 1421:RAM, two disk drives, and monochrome monitors for 452:runs MS-DOS but is not compatible with the IBM PC. 368:wrote on the first anniversary of the IBM PC that 278:since MS-DOS depends on a BIOS interface to boot. 250:Descendants of the x86 IBM PC compatibles, namely 117:systems available in the early 1980s, such as the 3962: 3960: 3747:"Zenith Z-151; choice of U.S. Air Force and Navy" 3740: 3738: 3340:"1987 Radio Shack Tandy Computer Catalog RSC-17B" 2813:. Business Desktops/Calcs: 100 Series Selection. 2567:Cook, Karen; Langdell, James (January 24, 1984). 2532: 2530: 2528: 1901:(XMS) which did not require additional hardware. 1300:MS-DOS version 1.12 for Compaq Personal Computers 670:First-generation PC workalikes by IBM competitors 4496:Intel vs. Nvidia: The tech behind the legal case 4249: 4247: 1872:Design limitations and more compatibility issues 1775:In 2014 Lenovo acquired IBM's x86-based server ( 1304:During development, Compaq engineers found that 407:. The Compaq was the first sewing machine-sized 377:or more—have begun to appear in the marketplace. 4586:InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. (August 21, 2000). 4192: 4190: 4188: 3882:"Phoenix Says Its BIOS May Foil IBM's Lawsuits" 3359: 3357: 2769:"AT&T joins PC compatible price cut parade" 2466: 2464: 1451: 1407:in 1984, however, and similar products such as 1400:Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp. 1224: 594:used this technique from its earliest versions. 421:the IBM BIOS and then write its own BIOS using 370: 78:. Initially such computers were referred to as 4475:(20th ed.). Que Publishing. p. 171. 3684:(advertisement). February 27, 1984. p. 41 3416: 3414: 3230:"TeleVideo TS 1603 Computer System - Computer" 2920:, By Bill Machrone, Page 451, Jun 1983, PC Mag 2539:"IBM PC clone makers shun total compatibility" 632:Communications software directly accessed the 211:as their IBM counterparts, switching from the 4622: 4175:"PC Vendors' Sales Rise Following PS/2 Debut" 3591:"Why the IBM PC spawned a mob of look-alikes" 2794:Zenith challenges IBM's share of micro market 2625:"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-11, page 6" 2595:"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-12, page 4" 2562: 2560: 2235:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 1090:640x200 8 color graphics (R, G, B bitplanes) 456:At the same time, many manufacturers such as 8: 4226:"Compaq Vying To Become the IBM of the '90s" 2894:"Compaq Deskpro Model 1 - Computing History" 2743:"AT&T having trouble in computer market" 2500:"Corporate Triumph, Then Death in a Ferrari" 2092:architecture for the Pentium 4 CPUs and the 1628:compatibles, including early offerings from 262:on the market as of 2021, with the dominant 3826:Mace, Scott; Karen Sorensen (May 5, 1986). 2773:Computerworld: The Newspaper for IT Leaders 2747:Computerworld: The Newspaper for IT Leaders 1680:. Tensions caused by the market success of 538:and each OEM release was packaged with the 440:Non-compatible MS-DOS computers: Workalikes 5326: 5072: 5068: 5063: 4981: 4979: 4673: 4629: 4615: 4607: 673: 260:comprise the majority of desktop computers 4316:"Why The IBM PC Had An Open Architecture" 3510:IBM PC Compatibles Competitive Evaluation 3006:"Texas Instruments Professional Computer" 2837:"Chronology of Personal Computers (1982)" 2687:"Commodore Launches PC-Compatible Abroad" 105:The designation "PC", as used in much of 63:. Like the original IBM PC, they use the 3801:"The Columbia Multipersonal Computer-VP" 3589:Salisbury, David F. (February 9, 1984). 2749:. Computerworld: 93, 100. May 13, 1985. 2177:greater than they were for the original 1950:, the latter becoming the most popular. 1122:800x400 mono graphics, 132x50 text mode 4023:"IBM Compatibles: The Universe Expands" 3276:"Little is beautiful for Micro Express" 3065:"Texas Instruments' Personal Computers" 3023:– via Classic Computer Brochures. 2441:Zussman, John Unger (August 23, 1982). 2313: 2304:(Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) 1772:rather than relying on these features. 1693:Extended Industry Standard Architecture 225:Extended Industry Standard Architecture 207:Early IBM PC compatibles used the same 5846:Computer-related introductions in 1982 3855:"IBM wins disputes over PC copyrights" 3799:Callamaras, Peter V. (November 1984). 3309:(36). Ziff-Davis: 91 – via Gale. 1833:(SGI) x86 workstations–thanks to NT's 960:750×352 mono graphics, first 8086 CPU 4450:(3rd ed.). Newness. p. 32. 4071:Curran, Lawrence J. (February 1984). 2775:. Computerworld: 18. April 27, 1987. 2704:Karen Cook (April 17 – May 1, 1984). 1934:When the 386 was introduced, again a 728:Canadian, licensed but never sold by 621:, even early ones, mostly required a 272:Unified Extensible Firmware Interface 7: 4447:PC Based Instrumentation and Control 4288:Reimer, Jeremy (December 15, 2005). 4254:Lewis, Peter H. (October 22, 1989). 4100:"Compatibility Wars—Here and Abroad" 4098:Machrone, Bill (November 26, 1985). 3853:Caruso, Denise (February 27, 1984). 3652:"Putting PC Compatibles To the Test" 3623:Krasnoff, Barbara (March 20, 1984). 3063:Knight, Daniel (December 19, 2015). 1809:"IBM PC compatible" becomes "Wintel" 1417:chart listed seven compatibles with 757:(AT&T 6300 June 1984) 3650:Krasnoff, Barbara (April 3, 1984). 3532:da Cruz, Frank (January 23, 1984). 3448:Alsop, Stewart (January 31, 1994). 3328:(30). UBM LLC: 20 – via Gale. 3297:Rosch, W. L. (September 10, 1985). 3255:O'Reilly, Richard (June 28, 1994). 2631:. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from 2601:. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from 2416:"Lookalikes From Home & Abroad" 2054:parallel interface controller, one 1646:Compaq was the first to release an 1636:, and many companies did just that. 1429:, while the equivalent IBM PC cost 514:. Each computer would have its own 5686:ThinkPad 240 with Transmeta Crusoe 4431:"Interview: Bill Gates, Microsoft" 3994:Halfhill, Tom R. (December 1986). 3274:Levy, Melissa (December 5, 1984). 3236:. The Centre for Computing History 2857:Pollack, Andrew (March 27, 1983). 2659:Pournelle, Jerry (November 1984). 2537:Mace, Scott (January 9–16, 1984). 2498:Barmash, Isadore (June 10, 1983). 2361:Norton, Peter (February 5, 1985). 2296:Common Hardware Reference Platform 2146:architecture, Macintosh computers 2003:would be a failure in the market ( 1970:By the late 1990s, the success of 1326:purchased an IBM PC in mid-1983, " 508:application programming interfaces 25: 4658:PC business acquisition by Lenovo 4589:InfoWorld: The Desktop Revolution 4370:"IBM Forecast / Market Dominance" 4343:"IBM Signs A Deal With The Devil" 4320:forwardthinking dot pcmag dot com 3967:Freeze, Ken (December 16, 1985). 3880:Langdell, James (July 10, 1984). 3828:"Amiga, Atari Ready PC Emulators" 3745:Lockwood, Russ (September 1985). 353:, and peripherals as the PC. The 241:Peripheral Component Interconnect 176:built the first clone of the IBM 5722:Professional Graphics Controller 3772:Poor, Alfred (October 2, 1984). 3559:Sandler, Corey (December 1983). 3320:Sheerin, M. (October 17, 1983). 3151:Elliot, John (January 3, 2012). 2706:"Commodore Adds Hyperion, Chips" 2422:. February–March 1982. p. 5 2298:- competing standard for PowerPC 2148:transitioned to Intel processors 1620:The availability by 1986 of sub- 4197:Scisco, Peter (December 1988). 4125:Webster, Bruce (January 1987). 3945:. September 30, 1985. p. 1 3364:Malloy, Rich (September 1983). 2796:, By Paul Freiberger, Page 35, 2443:"Let's keep those systems open" 1966:Challenges to Wintel domination 1448:The decreasing influence of IBM 900:sold as true IBM XT compatible 763:8 MHz (later 10 MHz) 516:Original Equipment Manufacturer 321:went on sale. There were three 5773:Industry Standard Architecture 4592:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. 4429:Gates, Bill (March 25, 1997). 4173:Parker, Rachel (May 4, 1987). 3678:"Pick Up Where IBM Leaves Off" 3391:Ward, Ronnie (November 1983). 3280:Orange County Business Journal 2930:Advertisement (October 1982). 2860:"Big I.B.M. Has Done It Again" 2321:Advertisement (October 1982). 1518:a proprietary operating system 1339:reported in January 1984 that 1310:would not run because of what 868:sold as a true IBM compatible 233:Industry Standard Architecture 51:from 1981 (as well as the IBM 1: 4368:Killen, Michael (Fall 1984). 3907:Schmidt, Robert (July 1994). 3719:. p. 136. Archived from 3595:The Christian Science Monitor 3421:Yakal, Kathy (January 1985). 2867:. p. Section 3, Page 1. 2723:Kathy Chin (March 26, 1984). 2191:utility. Computers using the 1606:The 1983 introduction of the 1599:The 1982 introduction of the 1557:at the time, the aging 8-bit 1003:Digital Equipment Corporation 474:Digital Equipment Corporation 341:(Basic Input/Output System). 192:released the very successful 155:commodity hardware components 4347:thisdayintechhistory dot com 4021:Ferrell, Keith (July 1987). 3393:"Levels of PC Compatibility" 3153:"Wang Professional Computer" 3034:Haas, Mark (December 1983). 2471:Sandler, Corey (June 1983). 2388:Libes, Sol (December 1981). 2162:to the internally developed 2154:Microsoft Windows without a 1974:had driven rival commercial 1581:IBM designed the PC with an 4531:Upgrading and Repairing PCs 4473:Upgrading and Repairing PCs 4154:Borrell, Jerry (May 1992). 3184:MBC-550 Series User's Guide 2898:www.computinghistory.org.uk 2363:"Software for Once and All" 2142:, then transitioned to the 2115:The IBM PC compatible today 1087:360 KB (later 720 KB) 1024:132x24 text mode, 8088 and 833:270 KB (later 710 KB) 769:360 KB (later 720 KB) 5872: 5727:Multi-Color Graphics Array 5707:Monochrome Display Adapter 4651:Influence on the PC market 4535:. Que Publishing. p. 3344:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2629:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2599:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2292:PowerPC Reference Platform 2186:, though an emulator like 2118: 2058:interrupt controller, one 1835:Hardware abstraction layer 1710:Despite popularity of its 1307:Microsoft Flight Simulator 1221:"Operationally Compatible" 512:hardware abstraction layer 432: 221:Micro Channel architecture 5717:Enhanced Graphics Adapter 5066: 4645: 4471:Scott M. Mueller (2011). 4073:"The Compatibility Craze" 4054:"Can Anybody Tackle IBM?" 2569:"PC-Compatible Portables" 2062:clock generator, and one 1761:modes used only during a 1685:ruptured the joint effort 1663:MicroChannel Architecture 1375:West Coast Computer Faire 1361:journalist asked to test 245:Accelerated Graphics Port 215:IBM PC and XT bus to the 107:personal computer history 5856:Computer hardware clones 3366:"The Corona Portable PC" 1821:. In 1993, a version of 1244:Operationally Compatible 966:TI Professional Computer 5742:Extended Graphics Array 4156:"Opening Pandora's Box" 3234:computinghistory.org.uk 2011:for example). In 1989, 1250:Functionally Compatible 992:720x300 color graphics 935:Eagle PC / 1600 series 5712:Color Graphics Adapter 4527:Scott Mueller (2003). 3774:"Zenith Strikes Twice" 3711:"The West Coast Faire" 2255:PC System Design Guide 2156:DOS Compatibility Card 2036:Chips and Technologies 1759:backward compatibility 1601:Columbia Data Products 1492: 1465: 1301: 1237: 1058:800x300 mono graphics 909:Columbia Data Products 836:primitive touchscreen 567:communication software 453: 393:Columbia Data Products 379: 314: 204: 174:Columbia Data Products 41: 5012:PS/2 Note and PS/note 4567:on September 26, 2018 4199:"Bus, Bus, Magic Bus" 3157:Seasip.info/VintagePC 3122:"Digital Rainbow 100" 2473:"Getting To Know You" 2351:, September 19, 1988. 2140:Motorola 68000 series 2096:architecture for the 2050:interrupt timer, one 2027:to Intel processors. 1549:computers offered by 1483: 1299: 695:Floppy disk capacity 563:presentation software 447: 308: 202: 35: 5732:Video Graphics Array 4444:Mike Tooley (2005). 4060:. November 26, 1983. 3939:"Competing on Price" 3326:Computer Retail News 3095:The Vintage Computer 2288:- competing standard 2158:. However, with the 2046:DMA controller, one 1929:VESA BIOS Extensions 1733:As of October 2007, 1553:and used mainly for 1435:Leading Edge Model D 499:Tandy described the 429:Compatibility issues 254:computers based on " 59:) of computer giant 4771:Industrial Computer 4415:InfoWorld July 1986 3909:"What Is The BIOS?" 3350:on January 3, 2021. 3210:on November 6, 2023 2981:Eagle 1600 Brochure 2918:Aboard the Columbia 2800:, 13 September 1982 2175:orders of magnitude 1371:Zenith Data Systems 1365:at the Spring 1983 1353:Corona Data Systems 1337:Columbia University 783:Zenith Data Systems 641:Integrated software 610:, arc-drawing, and 359:640 KB barrier 182:Corona Data Systems 5851:IBM PC compatibles 5805:Music Feature Card 4640:personal computers 4260:The New York Times 4127:"View and Reviews" 3751:Creative Computing 3658:. pp. 110–144 3567:. pp. 248–256 3538:Info-Kermit Digest 3478:(September 1983). 3427:Compute!'s Gazette 3399:. pp. 248–249 3372:. pp. 226–228 2865:The New York Times 2815:HP Computer Museum 2635:on October 3, 2014 2605:on October 3, 2014 2504:The New York Times 2396:. pp. 314–318 2240:Homebuilt computer 2199:The spread of the 2079:Companies such as 2000:desktop publishing 1980:computing platform 1652:Compaq Deskpro 386 1643:slots than the PC. 1555:desktop publishing 1493: 1433:. The inexpensive 1382:Creative Computing 1302: 741:AT&T 6300 623:true graphics mode 454: 387:defined "PC 'clone 315: 205: 42: 5833: 5832: 5768:IBM PC compatible 5636: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5622: 5323: 5322: 4980: 4928: 4927: 4546:978-0-7897-2974-3 4482:978-0-13-268218-3 4457:978-1-136-37449-4 4314:Miller, Michael. 4181:. pp. 1, 85. 4162:. pp. 21–22. 3919:on March 10, 2012 3204:Old-Computers.com 3132:on April 28, 2023 3126:Old-Computers.com 3091:"DEC Rainbow 100" 3013:Texas Instruments 2811:"150 Touchscreen" 2661:"NCC Reflections" 2260:Personal computer 2038:introduced their 1976:operating systems 1972:Microsoft Windows 1940:virtual 8086 mode 1671:Personal System/2 1583:open architecture 1467:In February 1984 1218: 1217: 1193:Tandy Corporation 1101:Apricot Computers 1037:Wang Laboratories 971:Texas Instruments 737:Olivetti M24 698:Notable features 482:Texas Instruments 423:clean room design 414:Apple v. Franklin 409:portable computer 323:operating systems 268:Microsoft Windows 178:personal computer 170:clean room design 45:IBM PC–compatible 16:(Redirected from 5863: 5681:Power Series 600 5327: 5073: 5069: 5064: 4982: 4674: 4660: 4653: 4631: 4624: 4617: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4563:. Archived from 4557: 4551: 4550: 4534: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4504: 4498: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4418:. July 28, 1986. 4410: 4404: 4403: 4394: 4388: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4378:. pp. 30–38 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4354: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4251: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4194: 4183: 4182: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4151: 4145: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4050: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4007: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3964: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3915:. Archived from 3913:Computing Basics 3904: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3769: 3763: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3742: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3707:Pournelle, Jerry 3703: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3636: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3586: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3476:Pournelle, Jerry 3472: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3418: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3361: 3352: 3351: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3317: 3311: 3310: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3206:. Archived from 3195: 3189: 3188: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3163:on July 21, 2014 3159:. Archived from 3148: 3142: 3141: 3139: 3137: 3128:. Archived from 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3097:. Archived from 3086: 3080: 3079: 3077: 3075: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3010: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2986: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2927: 2921: 2915: 2909: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2862: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2832: 2826: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2807: 2801: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2693:. June 12, 1984. 2683: 2677: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2656: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2564: 2555: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2545:. pp. 79–81 2534: 2523: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2486: 2484: 2468: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2385: 2379: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2358: 2352: 2345: 2339: 2338: 2336: 2334: 2318: 2214:AT (form factor) 2015:said of his new 1883:addressing space 1831:Silicon Graphics 1782: 1729: 1728:US$ 1.75 billion 1623: 1571:video production 1502: 1498: 1463: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1392:Flight Simulator 1235: 1234:, September 1983 1199: 1167: 1161:Tava Corporation 1137: 1107: 1075: 1043: 1009: 977: 945: 915: 885: 853: 821: 789: 756: 713: 683:Date introduced 674: 531:Digital Research 419:reverse-engineer 390: 264:operating system 159:reverse-engineer 21: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5865: 5864: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5836: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5746: 5695: 5664: 5648:Palm Top PC 110 5628: 5619: 5603: 5545: 5467: 5421: 5353: 5319: 5266: 5237:701 "Butterfly" 5216: 5196: 5156: 5106: 5053: 4971: 4924: 4754: 4669: 4663: 4656: 4649: 4641: 4635: 4605: 4585: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4547: 4526: 4525: 4521: 4508:"Microsoft.com" 4506: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4490: 4483: 4470: 4469: 4465: 4458: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4412: 4411: 4407: 4402:. July 7, 1986. 4396: 4395: 4391: 4381: 4379: 4367: 4366: 4362: 4352: 4350: 4341:Brown, Marcel. 4340: 4339: 4335: 4325: 4323: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4296: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4272: 4270: 4253: 4252: 4245: 4235: 4233: 4232:. pp. 1, 8 4223: 4222: 4218: 4208: 4206: 4196: 4195: 4186: 4172: 4171: 4167: 4153: 4152: 4148: 4138: 4136: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4109: 4107: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4070: 4069: 4065: 4052: 4051: 4042: 4032: 4030: 4020: 4019: 4015: 4005: 4003: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3978: 3976: 3966: 3965: 3958: 3948: 3946: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3922: 3920: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3891: 3889: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3835: 3825: 3824: 3820: 3810: 3808: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3783: 3781: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3756: 3754: 3744: 3743: 3736: 3726: 3724: 3723:on May 28, 2012 3705: 3704: 3697: 3687: 3685: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3661: 3659: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3634: 3632: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3588: 3587: 3580: 3570: 3568: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3534:"IBM PC Kermit" 3531: 3530: 3526: 3516: 3514: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3492: 3490: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3459: 3457: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3432: 3430: 3420: 3419: 3412: 3402: 3400: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3375: 3373: 3363: 3362: 3355: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3319: 3318: 3314: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3213: 3211: 3197: 3196: 3192: 3181: 3180: 3176: 3166: 3164: 3150: 3149: 3145: 3135: 3133: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3104: 3102: 3101:on July 3, 2016 3089:Klein, Erik S. 3088: 3087: 3083: 3073: 3071: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3045: 3033: 3032: 3028: 3018: 3016: 3008: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2974: 2973: 2969: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2902: 2900: 2892: 2891: 2887: 2877: 2875: 2856: 2855: 2851: 2841: 2839: 2834: 2833: 2829: 2819: 2817: 2809: 2808: 2804: 2792: 2788: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2703: 2702: 2698: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2670: 2668: 2658: 2657: 2648: 2638: 2636: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2578: 2576: 2566: 2565: 2558: 2548: 2546: 2536: 2535: 2526: 2516: 2514: 2497: 2496: 2492: 2482: 2480: 2470: 2469: 2462: 2452: 2450: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2399: 2397: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2372: 2370: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2346: 2342: 2332: 2330: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2219:ATX form factor 2210: 2123: 2117: 2069:VLSI Technology 2034:. For example, 1968: 1899:extended memory 1891:expanded memory 1874: 1811: 1789: 1781:US$ 2.1 billion 1780: 1779:) business for 1735:Hewlett-Packard 1727: 1704:extended memory 1700:expanded memory 1621: 1608:Compaq Portable 1573:and the 32-bit 1563:Commodore Amiga 1500: 1496: 1464: 1462:, November 1983 1458: 1450: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1328:rotten keyboard 1324:Jerry Pournelle 1282:DEC Rainbow 100 1260:Data Compatible 1254:TI Professional 1236: 1230: 1223: 1197: 1165: 1135: 1105: 1073: 1041: 1007: 975: 943: 913: 883: 851: 842:Compaq Portable 819: 815:Hewlett-Packard 787: 754: 711: 672: 659:copy-protection 615:MS-DOS machine. 559:word processors 470:Hewlett-Packard 442: 437: 431: 405:Compaq Portable 388: 351:expansion cards 303: 243:(PCI), and the 194:Compaq Portable 151: 76:expansion cards 38:Compaq Portable 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5869: 5867: 5859: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5838: 5837: 5831: 5830: 5828: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5796: 5795: 5790: 5780: 5778:IntelliStation 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5754: 5752: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5703: 5701: 5700:Video hardware 5697: 5696: 5694: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5662: 5661: 5660: 5650: 5644: 5642: 5638: 5637: 5634: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5555: 5553: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5477: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5462: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5438: 5435: 5431: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5335: 5333: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5276: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5228: 5226: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5214: 5208: 5206: 5198: 5197: 5195: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5179: 5174: 5168: 5166: 5158: 5157: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5118: 5116: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5067: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5040: 5039: 5037:Model 425/425C 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5009: 5008: 5007: 5002: 4994: 4988: 4986: 4977: 4973: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4955:PS/2 portables 4952: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4781:list of models 4773: 4768: 4762: 4760: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4699:list of models 4691: 4686: 4680: 4678: 4671: 4670:and all-in-one 4665: 4664: 4662: 4661: 4654: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4626: 4619: 4611: 4604: 4603: 4578: 4552: 4545: 4519: 4499: 4488: 4481: 4463: 4456: 4436: 4421: 4405: 4389: 4360: 4349:. MB Tech, Inc 4333: 4306: 4280: 4243: 4216: 4184: 4165: 4146: 4117: 4090: 4063: 4040: 4013: 3986: 3956: 3930: 3899: 3872: 3845: 3818: 3791: 3764: 3734: 3695: 3669: 3642: 3615: 3578: 3551: 3524: 3500: 3467: 3440: 3410: 3383: 3353: 3331: 3312: 3289: 3266: 3261:Southtown Star 3247: 3221: 3190: 3174: 3143: 3112: 3081: 3055: 3026: 2997: 2976:Eagle Computer 2967: 2949: 2922: 2910: 2885: 2849: 2827: 2802: 2786: 2760: 2734: 2715: 2696: 2678: 2646: 2616: 2586: 2556: 2524: 2506:. p. A1. 2490: 2460: 2433: 2407: 2380: 2353: 2340: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2306: 2305: 2299: 2289: 2286:PC-9800 series 2283: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2221: 2216: 2209: 2206: 2121:Legacy-free PC 2116: 2113: 1967: 1964: 1936:protected mode 1921:bank switching 1906:protected mode 1873: 1870: 1810: 1807: 1797:microcomputers 1788: 1785: 1708: 1707: 1696: 1689: 1674: 1659: 1644: 1637: 1618: 1611: 1604: 1597: 1586: 1565:line used for 1533:announced the 1456: 1449: 1446: 1320:bug compatible 1294: 1293: 1271: 1257: 1247: 1228: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1205:8 MHzw2q 1203: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1173:4.77 MHz 1171: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1143:4.77 MHz 1141: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1113:4.77 MHz 1111: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1029: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1015:4.81 MHz 1013: 1010: 1005: 1000: 994: 993: 990: 987: 984: 981: 978: 973: 968: 962: 961: 958: 955: 952: 951:4.77 MHz 949: 946: 941: 939:Eagle Computer 936: 932: 931: 928: 925: 922: 921:4.77 MHz 919: 916: 911: 906: 902: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 881: 876: 874:Compaq Deskpro 870: 869: 866: 863: 860: 859:4.77 MHz 857: 854: 849: 844: 838: 837: 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 817: 812: 806: 805: 802: 799: 796: 795:4.77 MHz 793: 790: 785: 780: 774: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 752: 748:, marketed by 743: 733: 732: 726: 723: 720: 719:4.77 MHz 717: 714: 709: 706: 700: 699: 696: 693: 690: 687: 684: 681: 678: 677:Computer name 671: 668: 667: 666: 663: 655: 637: 630: 616: 595: 441: 438: 430: 427: 397:Eagle Computer 302: 299: 258:/AMD64" chips 237:VESA Local Bus 209:computer buses 186:Eagle Computer 150: 147: 92:microcomputers 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5868: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5800:Micro Channel 5798: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5704: 5702: 5698: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5667: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5639: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5606: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5470: 5463: 5460: 5457: 5454: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5428: 5424: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5328: 5325: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5269: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5219: 5213: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5199: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5159: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5056: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5010: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4989: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4974: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4957: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4910: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4677:Single models 4675: 4672: 4666: 4659: 4655: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4644: 4639: 4632: 4627: 4625: 4620: 4618: 4613: 4612: 4609: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4590: 4582: 4579: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4548: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4532: 4523: 4520: 4515: 4514: 4509: 4503: 4500: 4497: 4492: 4489: 4484: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4464: 4459: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4440: 4437: 4432: 4425: 4422: 4417: 4416: 4409: 4406: 4401: 4400: 4393: 4390: 4377: 4376: 4371: 4364: 4361: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4334: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4307: 4299:September 13, 4295: 4291: 4284: 4281: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4231: 4227: 4220: 4217: 4204: 4200: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4180: 4176: 4169: 4166: 4161: 4157: 4150: 4147: 4135:. p. 367 4134: 4133: 4128: 4121: 4118: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4091: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4064: 4059: 4058:The Economist 4055: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4014: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3987: 3974: 3970: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3944: 3940: 3934: 3931: 3923:September 19, 3918: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3900: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3873: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3846: 3833: 3829: 3822: 3819: 3807:. p. 276 3806: 3802: 3795: 3792: 3780:. p. 206 3779: 3775: 3768: 3765: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3722: 3718: 3717: 3712: 3709:(July 1984). 3708: 3702: 3700: 3696: 3683: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3657: 3653: 3646: 3643: 3630: 3626: 3619: 3616: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3552: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3525: 3512: 3511: 3504: 3501: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3456:. p. 102 3455: 3451: 3444: 3441: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3384: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3248: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3222: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3198:Ryan, Chris. 3194: 3191: 3186: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3147: 3144: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3120:Ryan, Chris. 3116: 3113: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3085: 3082: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3043: 3042: 3037: 3030: 3027: 3014: 3007: 3001: 2998: 2983: 2982: 2977: 2971: 2968: 2964: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2911: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2853: 2850: 2838: 2835:Ken Polsson. 2831: 2828: 2816: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2697: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2667:. p. 361 2666: 2662: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2574: 2570: 2563: 2561: 2557: 2544: 2540: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2494: 2491: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2465: 2461: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2434: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2408: 2395: 2391: 2384: 2381: 2369:. p. 103 2368: 2364: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2344: 2341: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2314: 2308: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2293: 2290: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2256: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2197: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2169: 2168:Apple silicon 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2122: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1960:Multimedia PC 1955: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1787:Expandability 1786: 1784: 1778: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1705: 1701: 1698:The duelling 1697: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1642: 1638: 1635: 1631: 1630:Dell Computer 1627: 1619: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1584: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1539:Gartner Group 1536: 1531: 1530:The Economist 1527: 1525: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1510:Bruce Webster 1506: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1476: 1475: 1474:The Economist 1470: 1461: 1460:The Economist 1455: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1416: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1401: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1316:Bruce Artwick 1313: 1309: 1308: 1298: 1291: 1287: 1283: 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