Binary prefix - Knowledge (XXG)

5815:. IBM Press. quote: "To help avoid inaccuracy (especially with the larger prefixes) and potential ambiguity, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2000 adopted a set of prefixes specifically for binary multipliers (See IEC 60027-2). Their use is now supported by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and incorporated into ISO 80000. They are also required by EU law and in certain contexts in the US. However, most documentation and products in the industry continue to use SI prefixes when referring to binary multipliers. In product documentation, follow the same standard that is used in the product itself (for example, in the interface or firmware). Whether you choose to use IEC prefixes for powers of 2 and SI prefixes for powers of 10, or use SI prefixes for a dual purpose ... be consistent in your usage and explain to the user your adopted system." 1602:, bytes, or bits), computer professionals also started using the long-established metric system prefixes "kilo", "mega", "giga", etc., defined to be powers of 10, to mean instead the nearest powers of two; namely, 2 = 1024, 2 = 1024, 2 = 1024, etc. The corresponding metric prefix symbols ("k", "M", "G", etc.) where used with the same binary meanings. The symbol for 2 = 1024 could be written either in lower case ("k") or in uppercase ("K"). The latter was often used intentionally to indicate the binary rather than decimal meaning. This convention, which could not be extended to higher powers, was widely used in the documentation of the 2699: 2667: 2497:'s (IUPAC) Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) proposed the prefixes "kibi" (short for "kilobinary"), "mebi" ("megabinary"), "gibi" ("gigabinary") and "tebi" ("terabinary"), with respective symbols "kb", "Mb", "Gb" and "Tb", for binary multipliers. The proposal suggested that the SI prefixes should be used only for powers of 10; so that a disk drive capacity of "500 gigabytes", "0.5 terabytes", "500 GB", or "0.5 TB" should all mean 2685: 2888:. The names and symbols for the prefixes corresponding to 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, and 2 are, respectively: kibi, Ki; mebi, Mi; gibi, Gi; tebi, Ti; pebi, Pi; and exbi, Ei. Thus, for example, one kibibyte would be written: 1 KiB = 2 B = 1024 B, where B denotes a byte. Although these prefixes are not part of the SI, they should be used in the field of information technology to avoid the incorrect usage of the SI prefixes. 5256:"These prefixes for binary multiples, which were developed by IEC Technical Committee (TC) 25, Quantities and units, and their letter symbols, with the strong support of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the IEEE, were adopted by the IEC as Amendment 2 to IEC International Standard IEC 60027-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics." 2607:(NIST) supports the ISO/IEC standards for "Prefixes for binary multiples" and has a web page documenting them, describing and justifying their use. NIST suggests that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as 3310:[Art. 8. In the weights and measures of capacity, each of the decimal measures of these two kinds will have its double and its half, in order to give to the sale of the various articles all the convenience that one can desire. There will therefore be the double-litre and the half-litre, the double-hectogram and the half-hectogram, and so on.] 5566:

persons who use computers without much concern for their construction or inner working. These persons will normally interpret kilo, mega, etc., in their proper decimal sense. The second goal speaks to specialists – the prefixes for binary multiples make it possible for persons who work in the information sciences to communicate with precision.

757:) continued using those same terms and symbols with the decimal meaning. Since then, the major standards organizations have expressly disapproved the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommended or mandated the use of the IEC prefixes for that purpose, but the use of SI prefixes in this sense has persisted in some fields. 3474:"The 8K core stores were getting fairly common in this country in 1954. The 32K store started mass production in 1956; it is the standard now for large machines and at least 200 machines of the size (or its equivalent in the character addressable machines) are in existence today (and at least 100 were in existence in mid-1959)." Note: The 2461:, alleging that Seagate overrepresented the amount of usable storage by 7% on hard drives sold between 22 March 2001 and 26 September 2007. The case was settled without Seagate admitting wrongdoing, but agreeing to supply those purchasers with free backup software or a 5% refund on the cost of the drives. 5892: 3380:

Also, random access devices are advantageous over serial access devices for backing store applications only when the memory capacity is less than 1 Mbyte. For capacities of 4 Mbyte and 16 Mbyte serial access stores with shift register lengths of 256 bit and 1024 bit, respectively, look

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Although Western Digital maintained that their usage of units is consistent with "the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity", and that they "cannot be expected to reform the software industry", they agreed to settle in March 2006 with 14 June 2006 as the

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The most recent version of the physical hardware, the "3.5-inch diskette" cartridge, had 720 512-byte blocks (single-sided). Since two blocks comprised 1024 bytes, the capacity was quoted "360 KB", with the binary sense of "K". On the other hand, the quoted capacity of "1.44 MB" of the High

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This standard is prepared with two goals in mind: (1) to preserve the SI prefixes as unambiguous decimal multipliers and (2) to provide alternative prefixes for those cases where binary multipliers are needed. The first goal affects the general public, the wide audience of technical and nontechnical

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The BIPM standard JCGM 200:2012 "International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition" lists the IEC binary prefixes and states "SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10, and should not be used for powers of 2. For example, 1 kilobit should not

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in fees and expenses to San Francisco lawyers Adam Gutride and Seth Safier, who filed the suit. The settlement called for Western Digital to add a disclaimer to their later packaging and advertising. Western Digital had this footnote in their settlement. "Apparently, Plaintiff believes that he could

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business computer (1973) could have "64K", "96K", or "128K" bytes of memory. The use of SI prefixes, and the use of "K" instead of "k" remained popular in computer-related publications well into the 21st century, although the ambiguity persisted. The correct meaning was often clear from the context;

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The IEC 60027-2 standard recommended operating systems and other software were updated to use binary or decimal prefixes consistently, but incorrect usage of SI prefixes for binary multiples is still common. At the time, the IEEE decided that their standards would use the prefixes "kilo", etc. with

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Vroegh claimed that a 256 MB Flash Memory Device had only 244 MB of accessible memory. "Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes." The plaintiffs wanted

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The relative difference between the values in the binary and decimal interpretations increases, when using the SI prefixes as the base, from 2.4% for kilo to nearly 27% for the quetta prefix. Although the prefixes ronna and quetta have been defined, as of 2022 no names have been officially assigned

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Early cases (2004–2007) were settled prior to any court ruling with the manufacturers admitting no wrongdoing but agreeing to clarify the storage capacity of their products on the consumer packaging. Accordingly, many flash memory and hard disk manufacturers have disclosures on their packaging and

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ISS Technology Update – Hewlett Packard Enterprise, volume 9, issue 1, quote: 'To reduce confusion, vendors are pursuing one of two remedies: they are changing SI prefixes to the new binary prefixes, or they are recalculating the numbers as powers of ten. HP is considering modifying its storage

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The parties agreed that manufacturers could continue to use the decimal definition so long as the definition was added to the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for "a discount of ten percent off a future online purchase from Defendants' Online Stores Flash Memory Device".

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Art. 8. Dans les poids et mesures de capacité, chacune des mesures décimales de ces deux genres aura son double et sa moitié, afin de donner à la vente des divers objets toute la commodité que l'on peut désirer. Il y aura donc le double-litre et le demi-litre, le double-hectogramme et le

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era. A common source of confusion was the discrepancy between the capacities of hard drives specified by manufacturers, using those prefixes in the decimal sense, and the numbers reported by operating systems and other software, that used them in the binary sense, such as the

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These SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10. They should not be used to indicate powers of 2 (for example, one kilobit represents 1000 bits and not 1024 bits). The IEC has adopted prefixes for binary powers in the international standard IEC 60027-2: 2005, third edition,

2576::2008 standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those defining prefixes for binary multiples). The only significant change is the addition of explicit definitions for some quantities. In 2009, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, etc. were defined by 2561:

Amendment 2) The standard reaffirmed the BIPM's position that the SI prefixes should always denote powers of 10. The third edition of the standard, published in 2005, added prefixes "zebi" and "yobi", thus matching all then-defined SI prefixes with binary counterparts.

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the industry-standard definition of a megabyte (MByte) for flash devices is one million (1,000,000) bytes, where the operating system uses two to the twentieth power, or 1,048,576 bytes. Similarly, for a gigabyte (GByte), the number is 1,000,000,000 and 1,073,741,824

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is organized in platters and tracks whose sizes and counts are determined by mechanical engineering constraints so that the capacity of a disk drive has hardly ever been a simple multiple of a power of 2. For example, the first commercially sold disk drive, the

2625:("Prefixes for Binary Multiples") was elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period. as of April 2008, the IEEE Publications division does not require the use of IEC prefixes in its major magazines such as 1733:, where each track was divided into blocks of user-specified size; and the block sizes were recorded on the disk, subtracting from the usable capacity. For example, the IBM 3336 disk pack was quoted to have a 200-megabyte capacity, achieved only with a single 4378:

kilo (K). (1) A prefix indicating 1000. (2) In statements involving size of computer storage, a prefix indicating 2, or 1024. mega (M). (1) A prefix indicating one million. (2) In statements involving size of computer storage, a prefix indicating 2, or

5642:"A lot can happen in a decade. You can hold the Nokia N800 in your hand, yet it's a near-exact match for a high-end desktop PC from 10 years ago. It has a 320-megahertz processor, 128 megabytes of RAM, and a few gigabytes of available mass storage." 2406:

the defendants to use the customary values of 1024 for megabyte and 1024 for gigabyte. The plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.

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command, let the user choose between binary or decimal multipliers. However, some continue to use the SI symbols with the binary meanings, even when reporting disk or file sizes. Some programs may also use "K" instead of "k", with either meaning.

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By the mid-1960s, binary addressing had become the standard architecture in most computer designs, and main memory sizes were most commonly powers of two. This is the most natural configuration for memory, as all combinations of states of their

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The ambiguous usage of the prefixes "kilo ("K" or "k"), "mega" ("M"), and "giga" ("G"), as meaning both powers of 1000 or (in computer contexts) of 1024, has been recorded in popular dictionaries, and even in some obsolete standards, such as

4184:"The 1.44-megabyte (MB) value associated with the 3.5-inch disk format does not represent the actual size or free space of these disks. Although its size has been popularly called 1.44 MB, the correct size is actually 1.40 MB." 1625:

In other documents, however, the metric prefixes and their symbols were used to denote powers of 10, but usually with the understanding that the values given were approximate, often truncated down. Thus, for example, a 1967 document by

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bytes, and thus was marketed as "1200 KB" with the binary sense of "KB". However, the capacity was also quoted "1.2 MB", which was a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since the "M" meant 1000 × 1024. The precise value was

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In computing and storage systems, a kB (kiloByte) is actually 1,024 (2^10) bytes, since the measurement is based on a base 2, or binary, number system. The term kB comes from the fact that 1,024 is nominally, or approximately,

4503:"kB See kilobyte." "Kbyte Kilobyte. Indicates 2 bytes." "Kilobyte Either 1000 or 2 or 1024 bytes." The standard also defines megabyte and gigabyte with a note that an alternative notation for base 2 is under development. 2286:

responded with a suggestion to use bK as an abbreviation for 1024 and bK2 or bK for 1024, though he noted that neither the Greek letter nor lowercase letter b would be easy to reproduce on computer printers of the day.

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Of 187 different relevant systems, 131 utilize a straight binary system internally, whereas 53 utilize the decimal system (primarily binary coded decimal) and 3 systems utilize a binary coded alphanumeric system of

600:), that were commonly used in the computer industry to indicate the nearest powers of two. For example, a memory module whose capacity was specified by the manufacturer as "2 megabytes" or "2 MB" would hold 2 × 2 = 5178: 2907: 3637:

All-monolithic storage ... (1024-bit NMOS) This new improvement of processor storage makes system expansion more economical. Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K

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Some operating systems and other software use either the IEC binary multiplier symbols ("Ki", "Mi", etc.) or the SI multiplier symbols ("k", "M", "G", etc.) with decimal meaning. Some programs, such as the

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for instance, in a binary-addressed computer, the true memory size had to be either a power of 2, or a small integer multiple thereof. Thus a "512 megabyte" RAM module was generally understood to have

2778:. However, some disk manufacturers have used the IEC prefixes to avoid confusion. The decimal meaning of SI prefixes is usually also intended in measurements of data transfer rates, and clock speeds. 1857:, and their capacities was usually specified with SI-like prefixes "K" and "M" with either decimal or binary meaning. The capacity of the disks was often specified without accounting for the internal 5958:

The definitions of kilo, giga, and mega based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage. IEEE/ASTM SI 10-1997 states "This practice frequently leads to confusion and is deprecated."

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in 1984. For example, a hard drive marketed as "1 TB" could be reported as having only "931 GB". The confusion was compounded by fact that RAM manufacturers used the binary sense too.

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utilities to report disk capacity with correct decimal and binary values side-by-side (for example, "300 GB (279.4 GiB)"), and report cache sizes with binary prefixes ("1 GiB")'.

2644:(SI), expressly prohibits the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since units of information are not included in the SI. 2428:

was filed in the Superior Court for the City and County of San Francisco, Case No. CGC-05-442812. The case was subsequently moved to the Northern District of California, Case No. 05-03353 BZ.

1842:, have released recommendations stating that properly-written software and documentation should specify clearly whether prefixes such as "K", "M", or "G" mean binary or decimal multipliers. 1762:

when formatted as 306 × 4 tracks and 32 256-byte sectors per track, which was quoted as "10 MB". Similarly, a "300 GB" hard drive can be expected to offer only slightly more than

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describes the IEC prefixes in its online dictionary, but acknowledges that the SI prefixes and the symbols "K", "M" and "G" are still commonly used with the binary sense for memory sizes.

2658:) adopted the IEC-recommended binary prefixes via the harmonization document HD 60027-2:2003-03. The European Union (EU) has required the use of the IEC binary prefixes since 2007. 5825: 5603:: Elevate status of standard from trial-use to full-use. Editorial staff will be notified to implement the necessary changes. The standard will be due for a maintenance action in 2007. 2318:, who uses decimal notation like 1 MB = 1000 kB, proposed that the powers of 1024 be designated as "large kilobytes" and "large megabytes", with abbreviations KKB and MMB. 2347:

The different interpretations of disk size prefixes led to class action lawsuits against digital storage manufacturers. These cases involved both flash memory and hard disk drives.

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While the binary prefixes are almost always used with the units of information, bits and bytes, they may be used with any other unit of measure, when convenient. For example, in

3284:"La Loi Du 18 Germinal An 3: Décision de tracer le mètre, unité fondamentale, sur une règle de platine. Nomenclature des " mesures républicaines ". Reprise de la triangulation" 2083:

bits per second. Seagate specified the sustained transfer rate of some hard disk drive models with both decimal and IEC binary prefixes. The standard sampling rate of music

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bytes or b) 2 bytes. ... As used in this document, the terms kilobyte (kB) means 2 or 1024 bytes, megabyte (MB) means 1024 kilobytes, and gigabyte (GB) means 1024 megabytes.

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Some computer industry participants, such as Hewlett-Packard (HP), and IBM have adopted or recommended IEC binary prefixes as part of their general documentation policies.

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Brown, Richard J. C. (2022-04-27). "Reply to 'Facing a shortage of the Latin letters for the prospective new SI symbols: alternative proposal for the new SI prefixes'".

2543: 2494: 5693:"The processor has a memory subsystem with separate first-level 32-Kbyte instruction and data caches, and a 512-Kbyte unified second-level cache." Authors are with IBM. 1548: 2592:

their metric definitions, but allowed the binary definitions to be used in an interim period as long as such usage was explicitly pointed out on a case-by-case basis.

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These three possible meanings of "k" and "K" ("1024", "1000", or "approximately 1000") were used loosely around the same time, sometimes by the same company. The

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bytes) hard disk drive was introduced in 2007. Decimal prefixes were generally used by information processing publications when comparing hard disk capacities.

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Tape drive and media manufacturers have generally used SI decimal prefixes to specify the maximum capacity, although the actual capacity would depend on the

1159: 708: 6612: 6097: 4837: 4799: 2694:'s partition editor uses IEC prefixes to display partition sizes. The total capacity of the 120 × 10-byte disk is displayed as "111.79 GiB". 2471:

On 22 January 2020, the district court of the Northern District of California ruled in favor of the defendant, SanDisk, upholding its use of "GB" to mean

4911: 3290:, Year 3: Decision to draw the fundamental unit metre on a platinum ruler. Nomenclature of "Republican measures". Resumption of the triangulation.]. 4090: 1864:

The early 8-inch diskette formats could contain less than a megabyte with the capacities of those devices specified in kilobytes, kilobits or megabits.

4912:"Why is the capacity of my Secure Digital memory card (as reported by many operating systems) different than the capacity that is listed on its label?" 4243: 6108: 5339: 3661:

One type, designated as the small core memory (SCM) is a many bank coincident current type memory with a total of 64K words of 60 bit length (K=1024).

2570: 2551: 1838:, have been updated to use "MB" and "GB" to denote decimal prefixes when displaying disk drive capacities and file sizes. Some manufacturers, such as 1710:

In specifying disk drive capacities, manufacturers have always used conventional decimal SI prefixes representing powers of 10. Storage in a rotating

560: 6581: 2554:(IEC). The prefixes "kibi", "mebi", "gibi" and "tebi" were retained, but with the symbols "Ki" (with capital "K"), "Mi", "Gi" and "Ti" respectively. 6137: 5685: 4062: 2744:. For example, a "512-megabyte" or "512 MB" memory module holds 512 MiB; that is, 512 × 2 bytes, not 512 × 10 bytes. 5833: 3085: 6564: 3818: 6483: 3104: 5482: 5232: 5203: 2367: 5375: 5547: 4496: 2862: 6525: 6315: 6227: 6173:"Toshiba Introduces Two 1.8-inch Hard Disk Drive Families For Both High Performance and Long Battery Life in Mobile Computing Applications" 3918: 2557:

In January 1999, the IEC published this proposal, with additional prefixes "pebi" ("Pi") and "exbi" ("Ei"), as an international standard (

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sue an egg company for fraud for labeling a carton of 12 eggs a 'dozen', because some bakers would view a 'dozen' as including 13 items."

5944:"JEDEC Standard No. 100B.01 – Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols for Microcomputers, Microprocessors, and Memory Integrated Circuits" 2356:

web sites clarifying the formatted capacity of the devices or defining MB as 1 million bytes and 1 GB as 1 billion bytes.

2282:) to denote 1024, κ to denote 1024, and so on. (At the time, memory size was small, and only K was in widespread use.) In the same year, 6172: 5228: 3746: 3029: 2435:

Western Digital offered to compensate customers with a free download of backup and recovery software valued at US$ 30. They also paid $

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Early computers used one of two addressing methods to access the system memory; binary (base 2) or decimal (base 10). For example, the

6526:"When One Billion does not equal One Billion, or: Why your computer's disk drive capacity doesn't appear to match the stated capacity" 3674: 3573:

when describing the performance of IT systems the larger units 'kilobytes' (kB) Strictly speaking, k means the 'binary thousand' 1024

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On the other hand, the SI prefixes with powers of ten meanings are generally used for the capacity of external storage units, such as

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This article is about powers-of-two prefixes for measurement units like bit and byte. For notations for the radix of a numeral, see

5738: 4326: 4048:, 100628561, Rev D, March 2011, sec 5.2.3, p. 10 (18th page of the pdf), states the drive's sustained transfer speed as "89 to 160 3715: 4221: 4194: 4045: 2611:. NIST has stated the SI prefixes "refer strictly to powers of 10" and that the binary definitions "should not be used" for them. 2040:

frequencies are always quoted using SI prefixes in their decimal sense. For example, the internal clock frequency of the original

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Before the IEC standard, several alternative proposals existed for unique binary prefixes, starting in the late 1960s. In 1996,

1942:. Some operating systems displayed the capacity of those disks using the binary sense of "MB", as "1.4 MB" (which would be 6605: 5321: 3246: 3863: 5092: 5011: 2651:(SAE) prohibits the use of SI prefixes with anything but a power-of-1000 meaning, but does not cite the IEC binary prefixes. 2292: 450: 4022: 6203: 5449: 2698: 6759: 4977: 2641: 571: 5400: 4947: 3627: 3241: 1969:, "megabyte" and "MB" usually meant 1024 bytes. Thus a "700-MB" (or "80-minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 1927:

Density ("HD") version was again a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since it meant 1440 pairs of 512-byte sectors, or

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On the other hand, a hard disk whose capacity is specified by the manufacturer as "10 gigabytes" or "10 GB", holds

5199: 6749: 5798: 5126: 5019: 4985: 4742: 3964: 2799: 2336: 2304: 1854: 1818:, still use "MB" and "GB" to denote binary prefixes even when displaying disk drive capacities and file sizes, as did 1499: 6421: 3651: 6598: 6454: 5044: 3558: 2296: 699:

providing that measurement. This kind of ambiguity is often confusing to computer system users and has resulted in

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As of 2023, the use of SI prefixes with the binary meanings is still prevalent for specifying the capacity of the

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in the binary sense, for use in storage capacity measurements. However, other computer industry sectors (such as

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These devices contain the following number of bits: 4Gb has 4,294,967,296 bits ... 32Gb has 34,359,738,368 bits

2251:. Some of these standards specifically limited the binary meaning to multiples of "byte" ("B") or "bit" ("b"). 2244: 4922: 3399:

ACM '59: Preprints of Papers Presented at the 14th National Meeting of the Association for Computing Machinery

1186:(Qi, 1024) for their binary counterparts, but as of 2022, no corresponding binary prefixes have been adopted. 5266: 4098: 5921: 5171: 4254: 2900: 2600:

The IEC standard binary prefixes are supported by other standardization bodies and technical organizations.

2248: 6116: 5343: 5119:""Defendant Western Digital Corporation's Brief in Support of Plaintiff's Motion for Preliminary Approval"" 3733:

Central Memory is organized into 32K, 65K, or 131K words (60-bit) in 8, 16, or 32 banks of 4096 words each.

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Figure 1 gives storage (memory) capacity ranges of the various models in "Capacity 8-bit bytes, 1 K = 1024"

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map to a valid address, allowing easy aggregation into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.

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JEDEC continues to include the customary binary definitions of "kilo", "mega", and "giga" in the document

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have been generally specified in decimal gigabytes ("GB"), that is, 1000 bytes. In particular, a typical "

1957:). User complaints forced both Apple and Microsoft to issue support bulletins explaining the discrepancy. 1515: 726: 537: 486: 254: 6148: 5497:

The definitions of kilo, giga, and mega based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage.

4073: 3840: 1997: 3897: 2666: 2288: 6561: 3826: 6744: 6671: 6621: 6491: 4414:

Kbyte. Kilobyte. Indicates 2 bytes. Mbyte. Megabyte. Indicates 2bytes. Gbyte is used in the Foreword.

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IBM Tells MiniScribe It Is Cutting Back On Winchester Orders, Computer System News, 1 Jan 1984, p. 1

2927: 2311:. This convention is still used on some calculators to present binary floating point-numbers today. 5509: 4806: 3025:"A terminology standard for underwater acoustics and the benefits of international standardization" 549: 3323:"A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems: Chapter III Analysis and Trends" 6574:

A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes

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or similar refers to prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, etc., borrowed from the similarly named

2271:"2" to mean "binary"; so that, for example, "one dikilobyte" would mean "1024 bytes", denoted "K 5365:"International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM)" 3926: 3354:

Lin, Yeong; Mattson, R. (September 1972). "Cost-performance evaluation of memory hierarchies".

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Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics

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While early documentation specified those memory sizes as exact numbers such as 4096, 8192, or

6645: 5543: 5457:. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 29. Archived from 5288: 4492: 4438: 4403: 4367: 3562: 3530: 3497: 3448:

Gruenberger, Fred; Burgess, C. R.; Gruenberger, Fred (October 1960). "Letters to the Editor".

3147: 3068: 2858: 2819: 2648: 2395: 2331: 1822:. Thus, for example, the capacity of a "10 MB" (decimal "M") disk drive could be reported as " 1815: 761: 27:

Symbol placed before units of digital information to indicate multiplication by a power of two

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DeRespinis, F., Hayward, P., Jenkins, J., Laird, A., McDonald, L., and Radzinski, E. (2011):

5236: 3761: 5669: 5624: 5535: 5278: 4636: 4589: 4548: 4484: 4430: 4395: 4359: 3685: 3607: 3457: 3402: 3371: 3322: 3287: 3283: 3257: 3210: 3139: 3134: 3098:"List of Resolutions for the 27th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures" 3050: 2767: 2718: 2383: 2185: 754: 696: 5993: 5972: 2944:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: International System of Units (SI)

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had 256 bytes per sector, 13 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side, or a total capacity of

6585: 6568: 6035: 5325: 5229:"(IUCr) 1996 Report – IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS)" 4746: 4695: 4225: 4146: 2847: 2423: 1858: 553: 31: 6508: 5727: 4713: 4688: 1826:", and that of a "300 GB" drive as "279.4 GB". Some operating systems, such as 5553: 5198:

IUCr IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) (1997-02-13) .

4334: 3721: 3592: 3367: 3206: 3046: 6473: 6067: 5070: 4770: 4517: 4218: 4198: 2622: 2283: 1819: 1730: 1607: 719: 56: 6266: 5943: 5324:(Press release). International Electrotechnical Commission. 2005-08-15. Archived from 2999: 2702:

GNOME's system monitor uses IEC prefixes to show memory size and networking data rate.

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proposed that, instead of prefixes, binary powers of two were indicated by the letter

6738: 5582: 4774: 4063:"Marketing Bulletin: Advanced Format 4K Sector Transition Frequently Asked Questions" 3269: 3224: 3159: 3129: 3080: 2809: 2733: 2375: 1726:

sectors of 100 characters each, for a total quoted capacity of 5 million characters.

1510: 712: 704: 494: 5681: 5636: 5118: 4650: 4603: 4562: 4478: 4392:

IEEE Standard Control and Status Register (CSR) Architecture for Microcomputer Buses

3697: 3416: 2542:

The proposal was not accepted by IUPAC at the time, but was taken up in 1996 by the

2062:

Similarly, digital information transfer rates are quoted using decimal prefixe. The

5871: 4989: 4700: 4244:"Data Interchange on 12,7 mm 384-Track Magnetic Tape Cartridges – Ultrium-1 Format" 3469: 2771: 2737: 2573: 2399: 2315: 2127: 2084: 2063: 2037: 1989: 1981: 1966: 1850: 1641:

words" as "65K words" (rather than "64K" or "66K"), while the documentation of the

1585: 765: 249: 6403: 5096: 5023: 4302: 3023:

Ainslie, Michael A.; Halvorsen, Michele B.; Robinson, Stephen P. (January 2022) .

2939: 1174:

for 1000. In analogy to the existing binary prefixes, a consultation paper of the

5267:"IUCR 1999 report on IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols" 4014: 6434: 6316:"Ubuntu implements units policy, will switch to base-10 units in future release" 6210: 5436: 4488: 4399: 3588: 2971: 2759: 2710: 2577: 2558: 574: 564: 482: 5628: 5539: 5458: 4434: 4363: 3261: 3215: 3180: 3143: 2326:

The ambiguous meanings of "kilo", "mega", "giga", etc., has caused significant

6573: 5283: 4955: 3375: 3185: 2300: 1743:

Decimal megabytes were used for disk capacity by the CDC in 1974. The Seagate

1711: 1619: 3072: 3064: 3055: 3024: 6294: 5858: 5728:"Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units] – Section C.1.12 – SI prefixes" 5579:"IEEE-SA Standards Board Standards Review Committee (RevCom) Meeting Agenda" 5207: 2783: 2680:-byte capacity of these RAM modules is stated as "512 MB" on the label. 2268: 2181: 1748: 1544: 769: 66: 38: 6382: 5292: 3956: 3151: 657:

and a file whose size is listed as "2.3 GB" may have a size closer to

5703: 4641: 4618: 4594: 4577: 4553: 4536: 4125:

CDS 100 ... stores over 600 kilobits, Model 650 ... store 1.5 megabits ...

3689: 3682:

ISCA '76: Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Symposium on Computer Architecture

3461: 3407: 3394: 2457:, San Francisco Superior Court, Case No. CGC-06-453195) was filed against 1580:(1953) used a decimal system, and could address ten thousand 7-bit words. 17: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6425: 4278: 4168: 3475: 2857:(in French and English) (8th ed.). Paris: STEDI Media. p. 127. 2371: 2099: 1827: 1611: 725:

Prior to the 1999 IEC standard, some industry organizations, such as the

5673: 5615:

Wallich, Paul (April 2008). "Tools & toys: Hacking the Nokia N800".

2580:

in their own right, independently of the kibibyte, mebibyte, and so on.

1912:

bytes. It was later upgraded to 16 sectors per track, giving a total of

6697: 6692: 6590: 6424:. International Electrotechnical Commission. 2007-02-12. Archived from 5653:

Gschwind, Michael; Erb, David; Manning, Sid; Nutter, Mark (June 2007).

4848: 4169:"Determining Actual Disk Size: Why 1.44 MB Should Be 1.40 MB" 3843:

unambiguously uses MB to characterize HDD capacity in millions of bytes

3611: 2655: 2387: 2379: 1902: 1716: 1674: 1642: 1603: 1577: 1565: 1169: 700: 226: 6484:"There is no such thing as a 1.44 MB standard format floppy disc" 6336: 5655:"An Open Source Environment for Cell Broadband Engine System Software" 5150: 3985: 3428:

data may be analyzed, ... without resorting to auxiliary tape storage.

6661: 6640: 5147:"Settlement Website for Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc" 2926:

See also Dinan v. SanDisk LLC, No. 20-15287 (9th Cir. Feb. 11, 2021)

2814: 2775: 2726: 2264: 2041: 1993: 1923:

bytes, which was described as "140KB" using the binary sense of "K".

1835: 1831: 1744: 1615: 1163: 559:

The binary prefixes "kibi", "mebi", etc. were defined in 1999 by the

210: 194: 178: 5514:. JEDEC Solid State Technology Association. August 2014. p. 7. 5179:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

4537:"Letters to the editor: Abbreviations for computer and memory sizes" 3130:"How many yottabytes in a quettabyte? Extreme numbers get new names" 2908:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

707:

standard and are supported by other standards bodies, including the

5483:"mega (M) (as a prefix to units of semiconductor storage capacity)" 3395:"A generalized analysis of variance program utilizing binary logic" 2972:"International System of Units (SI): Prefixes for binary multiples" 5597:(SCC14) IEEE Trial-Use Standard for Prefixes for Binary Multiples 2722: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2683: 2665: 2615: 2131: 1868: 421: 400: 379: 358: 336: 314: 292: 270: 146: 130: 114: 98: 82: 4665: 3653:

Control Data 7600 Computer System: Preliminary System Description

3541:

kB (kilobyte; actually 1024 bytes) KB (kilobyte; kB is preferred)

3431:

Note: the IBM 704 core memory units had 4096 36-bit words. Up to

3344:

Hunting Trouble on 28 Megacycles, A. L. Blais, QST, January 1930.

2928:

https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16989791406584358656

2278:

In 1968, Donald Morrison proposed to use the Greek letter kappa (

6666: 6450: 6438: 5412: 5271:

Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography

4139:"Working with Disks: An intro to floppy disks and floppy drives" 3194: 3038: 2279: 1178:' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) suggested the prefixes 703:. The IEC 60027-2 binary prefixes have been incorporated in the 545: 162: 6594: 3946:

1977 Disk/Trend Report – Rigid Disk Drives, published June 1977

3747:"All Semiconductor Memory Selected for New Minicomputer Series" 3000:"Patent WO2012098399A2 – Low-power oscillator – Google Patents" 2102:

interface can receive or transmit up to 10 bits per second, or

6635: 4356:

IEEE Standard Glossary of Mathematics of Computing Terminology

4049: 2113: 1985: 1627: 1573: 541: 3717:

Control Data 6400/6500/6600 Computer Systems Reference Manual

2654:

The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (

1513:

adopted by France in 1795 included two binary prefixes named

577:

prefixes, such as "kilo" ("k", 10 = 1000), "mega" ("M", 10 =

5781:"CENELEC – Standards Development – List of Technical Bodies" 5763:"CENELEC – Standards Development – List of Technical Bodies" 4052:/s" on one line, and "93 to 168 MB/s" on the next line. 3675:"Computer structures: What have we learned from the PDP-11?" 1719:(1956), had 50 physical disk platters containing a total of 787:

Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 and ISO/IEC 80000:13-2008

5093:"NOTICE OF CLASS ACTION AND PROPOSED SETTLEMENT ("NOTICE")" 4578:"Letters to the editor: proposed abbreviation for 1024: bK" 2786: 5942:

JEDEC Solid State Technology Association (December 2002).

5487:

JEDEC – Global Standards for the Microelectronics Industry

3335:

This lengthy report describes many of the early computers.

2398:

alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their

2188:

bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle with a clock speed of

4886:. Poorman-Douglas Corporation. 2005-03-10. Archived from 4877:"Vreogh Third Amended Complaint (Case No. GCG-04-428953)" 3720:(Pub No. 60100000 ed.). pp. 2–1. Archived from 2751:, and, as of 2010, still used those definitions in their 2614:

As of 2014, the microelectronics industry standards body

5813:

The IBM style guide: conventions for writers and editors

1795:

bytes or "322 GB"). The first terabyte (SI prefix,

6478:—a 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols 5437:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

4427:

IEEE Standard Glossary of Computer Hardware Terminology

2976:

The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty

2076:

bytes per second, and a "56 Kb/s" modem transmits

1729:

Moreover, since the 1960s, many disk drives used IBM's

6280:

hda: 120064896 sectors (61473 MB) w/2048KiB Cache

4518:"Standardized units for use in information technology" 6551:—White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities 3523:

The ACS style guide: a manual for authors and editors

6178:(Press release). Toshiba. 2009-11-04. Archived from 5519:

Free registration required to download the standard.

4832: 4830: 1568:(1952) used a binary methods and could address 2048 764:

one may need binary multiples of the frequency unit

6706: 6685: 6654: 6628: 2846:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (2006). 46: 6422:"When is a kilobyte a kibibyte? And an MB an MiB?" 5448:Barry N. Taylor & Ambler Thompson Ed. (2008). 4576:Wallace Givens, Applied National Lab (June 1968). 4475:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 4449:gigabyte (gig, GB). This term may mean either a) 3898:"It's the oldest working Seagate drive in the UK" 2544:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 2495:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 640:bytes, or a little more than that, but less than 5277:(6). Journals.iucr.org: 609–642. November 2000. 5012:"Notice of Class Action and Proposed Settlement" 2126:Decimal SI prefixes are also generally used for 1176:International Committee for Weights and Measures 37:"Gibi" redirects here. Not to be confused with 6282:the MB are megabytes and the KiB are kibibytes. 5511:Low Power Double Data Rate 4 (LPDDR4) JESD209-4 3421:On a 32K core size 704 computer, approximately 3327:Ballistic Research Laboratories Report No. 1115 4664:Schwartz, Jake; Grevelle, Rick (2003-10-20) . 2948:National Institute of Standards and Technology 2605:National Institute of Standards and Technology 2548:International Organization for Standardization 2263:proposed the extra prefix "di" and the symbol 1543:×). However, these were not retained when the 570:(Amendment 2). They were meant to replace the 6606: 4954:. Poorman-Douglas Corporation. Archived from 2455:Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc. 2448:Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc. 1814:Some programs and operating systems, such as 497:. The most commonly used binary prefixes are 458: 8: 5071:"Western Digital settles drive size lawsuit" 4976:Gutride, Adam; Seth A. Safier (2006-03-29). 4041: 4039: 3181:"A further short history of the SI prefixes" 2980:National Institute of Science and Technology 2638:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 2378:Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., 2222: 2176: 1740:-byte block in each of its 808 × 19 tracks. 1160:International Bureau of Weights and Measures 6383:"How iOS and macOS report storage capacity" 4619:"Letters to the editor: On binary notation" 4219:Understanding Recordable and Rewritable DVD 3957:"How iOS and macOS report storage capacity" 3760:(2). Hewlett-Packard: 15–20. Archived from 3583: 3581: 6613: 6599: 6591: 5123:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 5016:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 4982:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 3919:"Hitachi Introduces 1-Terabyte Hard Drive" 3797:HP 3000 Computer System and Subsystem Data 3650:Control Data Corporation (November 1968). 2415:Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation 1965:When specifying the capacities of optical 1861:overhead, leading to more irregularities. 465: 451: 47:Prefixes for decimal and binary multiples 43: 6036:"Memory Configurations Table of Contents" 5282: 4640: 4593: 4552: 4046:Seagate Seag2011 10K.5 SAS Product Manual 3406: 3214: 3054: 2552:International Electrotechnical Commission 1547:were internationally adopted by the 11th 1190:Comparison of binary and decimal prefixes 729:(JEDEC), attempted to redefine the terms 727:Joint Electron Device Engineering Council 561:International Electrotechnical Commission 5534:. Reaffirmed 27 March 2008. 2003-02-12. 3294:(in French). histoire.du.metre.free.fr. 2596:Other standards bodies and organizations 2505:, exactly or approximately, rather than 2112:bytes per second within each packet. A " 1747:, one of several types installed in the 1197: 785: 6520:—Another description of binary prefixes 6447:"Get Ready for the mebi, gibi and tebi" 5961:(Requires free registration and login.) 5045:"Western Digital Settles Capacity Suit" 4667:HP16C Emulator Library for the HP48S/SX 3600:IBM Journal of Research and Development 3555:Information Technology: Agent of Change 2966: 2964: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2370:against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, 2066:"100 MB/s" disk interface can transfer 1980:On the other hand, capacities of other 6579:Storage Capacity Measurement Standards 5451:The International System of Units (SI) 5233:International Union of Crystallography 5204:International Union of Crystallography 3714:Control Data Corporation (1965–1967). 3702:memory size (8k bytes to 4 megabytes). 3490:Webster's New World Telecom Dictionary 3308:demi-hectogramme, et ainsi des autres. 2855:The International System of Units (SI) 2749:Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols 2361:Willem Vroegh v. Eastman Kodak Company 2004:" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 1195:to the corresponding binary prefixes. 6278:When the Linux kernel boots and says 3478:was a character addressable computer. 2299:followed by the exponent, similar to 1867:The 5.25-inch diskette sold with the 7: 6430:– An introduction to binary prefixes 5091:Western Digital Corporation (2006). 4838:"Secure Digital Capacity Disclaimer" 4800:"SanDisk Ultra® CompactFlash® cards" 4123:. May 1972. pp. 154, 162, 164. 3745:Frankenberg, Robert (October 1974). 3593:"Architecture of the IBM System/360" 2621:On 19 March 2005, the IEEE standard 2588:bits (2 bits), which is 1 kibibit." 2138:clock and 64 bits wide can transfer 2098:samples per second. A "1 Gb/s" 1162:(BIPM) adopted the decimal prefixes 5861:but used to denote a power of 1024. 5668:(6). IEEE Computer Society: 37–47. 4617:Martin, Bruce Alan (October 1968). 3242:Accreditation and Quality Assurance 3030:IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 2420:On 7 July 2005, an action entitled 2116:" modem can encode or decode up to 711:, which defines the SI system, the 5853:As used in this article, the term 5172:"Order Granting Motion to Dismiss" 4137:Brutman, Michael B. (2001-07-08). 3853:Seagate Corporation (April 1982). 2901:"Order Granting Motion to Dismiss" 1645:real-time computer (1974) denoted 548:, when expressing the capacity of 25: 4735:"WD Caviar SE16 SATA Hard Drives" 3788:Hewlett-Packard (November 1973). 2546:(IEEE) in collaboration with the 2402:cards were false and misleading. 5893:"Consumer Electronics – Sony US" 5691:from the original on 2022-10-09. 3128:Gibney, Elizabeth (2022-11-18). 2805:B notation (scientific notation) 2307:. Thus one would write 3B20 for 741:, and the corresponding symbols 6535:(Press release). Archived from 6435:"Prefixes for binary multiples" 6080:from the original on 2022-10-09 6048:from the original on 2022-10-09 5744:from the original on 2022-10-09 5419:from the original on 2022-05-28 5399:Barrow, Bruce (January 1997) . 5381:from the original on 2022-10-09 5340:"niso, New Specs and Standards" 5117:Baskin, Scott D. (2006-02-01). 4689:The Art of Computer Programming 4483:. IEEE Computer Society Press. 4197:. Videohelp.com. Archived from 4025:from the original on 2021-12-03 3996:from the original on 2021-11-18 3967:from the original on 2020-04-09 3298:from the original on 2022-11-26 3110:from the original on 2022-11-18 2874:from the original on 2006-08-13 2649:Society of Automotive Engineers 536:). They are most often used in 6499:Michael Quinion (1999-08-21). 6228:"Client: Client HDD – Toshiba" 3817:IBM Corporation (2003-01-23). 3673:Bell, Gordon (November 1975). 3356:IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 3321:Weik, Martin H. (March 1961). 3179:Brown, Richard J. C. (2023) . 2293:Brookhaven National Laboratory 2128:processor-memory data transfer 32:Integer literal § Affixes 1: 5799:"How many bytes are in a GB?" 5311:IEC 60027-2 (2000-11) Ed. 2.0 5235:. 1997-02-14 . Archived from 5200:"IUCr annual report for 1995" 3790:"HP 3000 Configuration Guide" 3629:System/370 Model 158 brochure 3553:F. J. M. Laver (1989-05-11). 2774:chips intended to be used as 2642:International System of Units 2432:Final Approval hearing date. 2368:Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit 2255:Early binary prefix proposals 2173:, which is usually quoted as 6482:de Boyne Pollard, Jonathan. 6453:. 1999-03-02. Archived from 6265:. 2001-12-22. Archived from 6204:"WD Model and Order Numbers" 5581:. 2005-03-19. Archived from 5069:Jeremy Reimer (2006-06-30). 4948:"Frequently Asked Questions" 4921:. 2012-04-13. Archived from 4633:Associated Universities Inc. 4097:. 2012-03-07. Archived from 3925:. 2007-01-04. Archived from 3896:Mellor, Chris (2011-04-06). 2640:(BIPM), which maintains the 2148:64-bit words per second, or 6404:"Ls(1) – Linux manual page" 6337:"UnitsPolicy – Ubuntu Wiki" 5127:Western Digital Corporation 5020:Western Digital Corporation 5010:Zimmerman, Bernard (2006). 4986:Western Digital Corporation 4743:Western Digital Corporation 4714:"Knuth: Recent News (1999)" 4489:10.1109/IEEESTD.2000.322230 4400:10.1109/IEEESTD.1992.106981 3862:. p. 3. Archived from 3819:"IBM 350 disk storage unit" 3393:Real, P. (September 1959). 2800:Binary engineering notation 2466:Dinan et al. v. SanDisk LLC 2305:decimal scientific notation 2219:, which would be quoted as 1500:Timeline of binary prefixes 1115: 1065: 1018: 974: 933: 895: 860: 831: 610:bytes, instead of 2 × 10 = 6781: 6629:Platform-independent units 6524:James Wiebe (2003-10-09). 6358:"Snow Leopard's new maths" 5629:10.1109/MSPEC.2008.4476441 5540:10.1109/IEEESTD.2003.94236 5342:. Niso.org. Archived from 4435:10.1109/IEEESTD.1995.79522 4364:10.1109/IEEESTD.1986.79649 4091:"IBM100 – The Floppy Disk" 3559:Cambridge University Press 3262:10.1007/s00769-022-01499-7 3144:10.1038/d41586-022-03747-9 1618:/70 (1975) and of the DEC 1497: 36: 29: 6474:"What is a Megabyte ...?" 6262:Linux Programmer's Manual 6138:"Storage Solutions Guide" 5322:"HERE COME ZEBI AND YOBI" 5284:10.1107/S0108767300012873 4739:Western Digital: Products 4624:Communications of the ACM 4582:Communications of the ACM 4541:Communications of the ACM 4303:"Definitions of Megabyte" 3527:American Chemical Society 3450:Communications of the ACM 3376:10.1109/TMAG.1972.1067329 1973:, which is approximately 1206: 1203: 1200: 794: 791: 446: 437: 432: 253: 248: 245: 238: 65: 62: 55: 6655:Platform-dependent units 6488:Frequently Given Answers 5971:JEDEC (September 2009). 5797:Hewlett-Packard (2009): 4978:"Class Action Complaint" 4307:Dictionary.reference.com 4279:"Definition of megabyte" 4167:Microsoft (2003-05-06). 4015:"ConsistentUnitPrefixes" 3438:words could be installed 3401:. ACM Press: 78–1–78–5. 3216:10.1088/1681-7575/ac6afd 3183:. Letter to the editor. 3056:10.1109/JOE.2021.3085947 2241:ANSI/IEEE 1212-1991 2237:ANSI/IEEE 1084-1986 1628:Control Data Corporation 587:) and "giga" ("G", 10 = 552:or the size of computer 6385:. Apple Inc. 2018-02-27 6068:"Terms and Definitions" 6015:"Memory Configurations" 5992:JEDEC (November 2009). 5855:customary binary prefix 5401:"A Lesson in Megabytes" 4952:Flash Memory Settlement 4716:. Cs-staff.stanford.edu 3754:Hewlett-Packard Journal 1630:(CDC) abbreviated "2 = 5826:"IBM Knowledge Center" 4251:Ecma-international.org 4224:2 January 2011 at the 4195:"Data capacity of CDs" 3521:Janet S. Dodd (1997). 2703: 2695: 2681: 1787:(which would be about 768:(Hz), for example the 538:information technology 5994:"DDR2 SDRAM Standard" 5973:"DDR3 SDRAM Standard" 5405:IEEE Standards Bearer 4642:10.1145/364096.364107 4595:10.1145/363347.363351 4554:10.1145/362929.362962 4327:"AskOxford: megabyte" 3841:CDC Product Line Card 3776:196K-word memory size 3690:10.1145/800110.803541 3494:John Wiley & Sons 3462:10.1145/367415.367419 3408:10.1145/612201.612294 2701: 2687: 2669: 2584:be used to represent 2366:On 20 February 2004, 2245:IEEE 610.10-1994 2028:used when recording. 2020:Tape drives and media 1312:0.9095 (−9.1%) 1284:0.9313 (−6.9%) 1256:0.9537 (−4.6%) 1228:0.9766 (−2.3%) 6760:Units of information 6622:Units of information 5704:"BIPM – SI prefixes" 4531:Donald R. Morrison, 3856:ST506/412 OEM Manual 3635:. IBM. G520-261871. 3362:(3). IEEE: 390–392. 3292:L'Histoire Du Mètre 2392:Verbatim Corporation 2330:, especially in the 2032:Data and clock rates 1998:magneto-optical (MO) 1855:a variety of formats 1751:, had a capacity of 1274:1.074 (+7.4%) 1246:1.049 (+4.9%) 1218:1.024 (+2.4%) 501:(symbol Ki, meaning 6232:Toshiba-tdmt.com.tw 5674:10.1109/MC.2007.192 4849:SanDisk Corporation 4807:SanDisk Corporation 4768:"Jack Flash F.A.Q." 4670:. 1.20 (1 ed.) 3684:. ACM Press: 1–14. 3368:1972ITM.....8..390L 3286:[The Law of 18 3207:2023Metro..60a3001B 3047:2022IJOE...47..179A 2742:computer processors 2426:Corporation, et al. 2388:SanDisk Corporation 2372:Fuji Photo Film USA 2230:Ambiguous standards 2192:has a bandwidth of 1984:storage media like 1692:bytes, rather than 788: 691:, depending on the 491:unit of measurement 6750:Naming conventions 6584:2015-01-02 at the 6567:2021-03-06 at the 6295:"ESR post on LKML" 5073:. Ars Technica LLC 4694:2016-03-05 at the 4533:Sandia Corporation 4173:Article ID: 121839 4070:Seagate Technology 3612:10.1147/rd.82.0087 3606:(2). IBM: 87–101. 3488:Ray Horak (2008). 3199:IOP Publishing Ltd 2848:"§3.1 SI prefixes" 2770:, except for some 2764:solid state drives 2704: 2696: 2682: 2603:The United States 2459:Seagate Technology 2328:consumer confusion 2322:Consumer confusion 2249:IEEE 100-2000 1840:Seagate Technology 1660:as "196K" and 2 = 1606:(1964) and of the 786: 540:as multipliers of 6732: 6731: 6707:Metric byte units 6562:A plea for sanity 6449:(Press release). 6339:. Wiki.ubuntu.com 5872:"Hewlett-Packard" 5549:978-0-7381-3385-0 4498:978-0-7381-2601-2 2864:978-92-822-2213-3 2713:of computers, of 2489:IEC 1999 Standard 2396:Viking Interworks 2332:personal computer 2289:Bruce Alan Martin 2123:bits per second. 2012:, which is about 1816:Microsoft Windows 1491: 1490: 1207:Decimal ÷ Binary 1204:Binary ÷ Decimal 1156: 1155: 772:(KiHz), equal to 762:signal processing 485:that indicates a 475: 474: 442: 441: 232: 231: 16:(Redirected from 6772: 6686:Metric bit units 6615: 6608: 6601: 6592: 6550: 6548: 6547: 6541: 6530: 6519: 6517: 6516: 6507:. Archived from 6505:World Wide Words 6495: 6490:. Archived from 6477: 6465: 6463: 6462: 6442: 6429: 6408: 6407: 6400: 6394: 6393: 6391: 6390: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6354: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6344: 6333: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6323: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6303: 6302: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6281: 6275: 6274: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6243: 6234:. Archived from 6224: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6209:. Archived from 6208: 6200: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6190: 6184: 6177: 6169: 6163: 6162: 6160: 6159: 6153: 6147:. Archived from 6142: 6134: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6124: 6115:. Archived from 6105: 6099: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6079: 6072: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6047: 6040: 6031: 6025: 6024: 6022: 6021: 6010: 6004: 6003: 6001: 6000: 5989: 5983: 5982: 5980: 5979: 5968: 5962: 5960: 5955: 5954: 5948: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5929: 5924:. 4AllMemory.com 5922:"4AllMemory.com" 5918: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5908: 5899:. Archived from 5889: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5879: 5874:. Welcome.hp.com 5868: 5862: 5851: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5832:. Archived from 5822: 5816: 5809: 5803: 5795: 5789: 5788: 5783:. Archived from 5777: 5771: 5770: 5765:. Archived from 5759: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5743: 5732: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5715: 5714: 5700: 5694: 5692: 5690: 5659: 5650: 5644: 5640: 5612: 5606: 5605: 5591: 5590: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5552:. Archived from 5526: 5520: 5518: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5493: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5469: 5463: 5456: 5445: 5439: 5434: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5424: 5396: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5386: 5380: 5374:(3rd ed.). 5369: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5351: 5336: 5330: 5329: 5318: 5312: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5299: 5286: 5263: 5257: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5244: 5225: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5215: 5206:. Archived from 5195: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5176: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5158: 5149:. Archived from 5143: 5137: 5136: 5134: 5133: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5095:. Archived from 5088: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5078: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5022:. Archived from 5007: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4997: 4988:. Archived from 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4946:Safier, Seth A. 4943: 4937: 4936: 4934: 4933: 4927: 4916: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4892: 4881: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4863: 4857: 4851:. Archived from 4842: 4834: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4815: 4809:. Archived from 4804: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4773:. Archived from 4764: 4758: 4757: 4755: 4754: 4745:. Archived from 4731: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4710: 4704: 4685: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4675: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4644: 4614: 4608: 4607: 4597: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4556: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4510: 4504: 4502: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4423: 4417: 4416: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4342: 4333:. Archived from 4323: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4313: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4275: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4265: 4259: 4253:. Archived from 4248: 4240: 4234: 4228: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4206: 4191: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4180: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4154: 4145:. Archived from 4134: 4128: 4127: 4119:"Disc Storage". 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4106: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4072:. Archived from 4067: 4059: 4053: 4043: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4030: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4001: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3973: 3972: 3953: 3947: 3944: 3938: 3937: 3935: 3934: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3905: 3893: 3887: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3868: 3861: 3850: 3844: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3825:. Archived from 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3804: 3794: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3772: 3766: 3751: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3679: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3623: 3617: 3615: 3597: 3585: 3576: 3575: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3445: 3439: 3437: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3410: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3351: 3345: 3342: 3336: 3334: 3318: 3312: 3311: 3304: 3303: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3250: 3236: 3230: 3228: 3218: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3166: 3125: 3119: 3118: 3116: 3115: 3109: 3102: 3094: 3088: 3084: 3058: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3010: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2986: 2968: 2959: 2958: 2956: 2955: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2915: 2914: 2905: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2880: 2879: 2873: 2852: 2843: 2768:USB flash drives 2753:memory standards 2679: 2678: 2675: 2662:Current practice 2587: 2538: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2521: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2504: 2502: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2441: 2440: 2384:PNY Technologies 2382:Products, Inc.; 2310: 2225: 2224: 2218: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2204: 2202: 2201: 2198: 2191: 2186:double data rate 2179: 2178: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2143: 2137: 2122: 2121: 2111: 2110: 2107: 2097: 2096: 2090: 2082: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2071: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2047: 2015: 2011: 2009: 2003: 1976: 1972: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1945: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1930: 1922: 1921: 1915: 1911: 1910: 1897: 1895: 1889: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1874: 1825: 1810: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1794: 1792: 1786: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1769: 1767: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1739: 1738: 1725: 1724: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1691: 1690: 1687: 1681: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1652: 1648: 1640: 1639: 1633: 1597: 1596: 1576:each, while the 1555:Storage capacity 1542: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1198: 1152: 1150: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1099: 1097: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1049: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1002: 1000: 992: 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 958: 956: 948: 947: 944: 941: 938: 917: 915: 907: 906: 903: 900: 879: 877: 869: 868: 865: 844: 842: 834: 795:Representations 789: 775: 755:magnetic storage 697:operating system 690: 689: 686: 683: 677: 673: 672: 669: 666: 660: 656: 655: 652: 649: 643: 639: 638: 635: 632: 626: 619: 618: 615: 609: 608: 605: 599: 598: 595: 592: 586: 585: 582: 535: 534: 531: 528: 518: 517: 514: 504: 467: 460: 453: 236: 235: 53: 52: 44: 21: 6780: 6779: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6770: 6769: 6765:Numeral systems 6755:Binary prefixes 6735: 6734: 6733: 6728: 6702: 6681: 6650: 6624: 6619: 6586:Wayback Machine 6569:Wayback Machine 6558: 6545: 6543: 6539: 6528: 6523: 6514: 6512: 6498: 6481: 6468: 6460: 6458: 6445: 6433: 6420: 6417: 6415:Further reading 6412: 6411: 6402: 6401: 6397: 6388: 6386: 6381: 6380: 6376: 6367: 6365: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6342: 6340: 6335: 6334: 6330: 6321: 6319: 6314: 6313: 6309: 6300: 6298: 6293: 6292: 6288: 6279: 6272: 6270: 6255: 6254: 6250: 6241: 6239: 6226: 6225: 6221: 6213: 6206: 6202: 6201: 6197: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6175: 6171: 6170: 6166: 6157: 6155: 6151: 6140: 6136: 6135: 6131: 6122: 6120: 6107: 6106: 6102: 6096: 6092: 6083: 6081: 6077: 6070: 6065: 6064: 6060: 6051: 6049: 6045: 6038: 6033: 6032: 6028: 6019: 6017: 6012: 6011: 6007: 5998: 5996: 5991: 5990: 5986: 5977: 5975: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5927: 5925: 5920: 5919: 5915: 5906: 5904: 5891: 5890: 5886: 5877: 5875: 5870: 5869: 5865: 5852: 5848: 5839: 5837: 5830:Pic.dhe.ibm.com 5824: 5823: 5819: 5810: 5806: 5796: 5792: 5779: 5778: 5774: 5761: 5760: 5756: 5747: 5745: 5741: 5730: 5726: 5725: 5721: 5712: 5710: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5688: 5657: 5652: 5651: 5647: 5614: 5613: 5609: 5588: 5586: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5559: 5557: 5550: 5528: 5527: 5523: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5491: 5489: 5481: 5480: 5476: 5467: 5465: 5461: 5454: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5435: 5431: 5422: 5420: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5384: 5382: 5378: 5367: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5349: 5347: 5338: 5337: 5333: 5320: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5297: 5295: 5265: 5264: 5260: 5255: 5251: 5242: 5240: 5227: 5226: 5222: 5213: 5211: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5183: 5181: 5174: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5156: 5154: 5145: 5144: 5140: 5131: 5129: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5102: 5100: 5090: 5089: 5085: 5076: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5063: 5054: 5052: 5043: 5042: 5038: 5029: 5027: 5009: 5008: 5004: 4995: 4993: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4961: 4959: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4931: 4929: 4925: 4914: 4910: 4909: 4905: 4896: 4894: 4890: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4861: 4859: 4855: 4840: 4836: 4835: 4828: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4802: 4798: 4797: 4793: 4780: 4778: 4766: 4765: 4761: 4752: 4750: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4719: 4717: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4703:, pp. 24 and 94 4696:Wayback Machine 4686: 4682: 4673: 4671: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4616: 4615: 4611: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4530: 4529: 4525: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4499: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4445: 4425: 4424: 4420: 4410: 4390: 4389: 4385: 4374: 4354: 4353: 4349: 4340: 4338: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4311: 4309: 4301: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4285: 4277: 4276: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4226:Wayback Machine 4217: 4213: 4204: 4202: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4178: 4176: 4166: 4165: 4161: 4152: 4150: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4118: 4117: 4113: 4104: 4102: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4076: 4065: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4044: 4037: 4028: 4026: 4013: 4012: 4008: 3999: 3997: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3970: 3968: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3932: 3930: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3903: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3872: 3870: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3838: 3834: 3816: 3815: 3811: 3802: 3800: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3782: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3749: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3727: 3725: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3677: 3672: 3671: 3667: 3656: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3632: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3595: 3589:Amdahl, Gene M. 3587: 3586: 3579: 3569: 3552: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3529:. p. 124. 3520: 3519: 3515: 3504: 3496:. p. 271. 3487: 3486: 3482: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3432: 3424: 3422: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3301: 3299: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3244: 3238: 3237: 3233: 3178: 3177: 3173: 3164: 3162: 3127: 3126: 3122: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3008: 3006: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2984: 2982: 2970: 2969: 2962: 2953: 2951: 2938: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2921: 2912: 2910: 2903: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2850: 2845: 2844: 2833: 2828: 2796: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2664: 2598: 2585: 2565:The harmonized 2535: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2498: 2491: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2472: 2469: 2451: 2438: 2436: 2424:Western Digital 2422:Orin Safier v. 2418: 2364: 2353: 2345: 2337:Apple Macintosh 2324: 2308: 2274: 2257: 2232: 2220: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2199: 2196: 2194: 2193: 2189: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2119: 2117: 2108: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2079: 2077: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2054: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2034: 2022: 2013: 2007: 2005: 2001: 1974: 1970: 1963: 1952: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1906: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1848: 1823: 1807: 1804: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1765: 1763: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1736: 1734: 1722: 1720: 1708: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1666: 1663: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1610:(1972), of the 1598:units (usually 1594: 1592: 1562: 1557: 1549:CGPM conference 1537: 1534: 1531: 1530: 1528: 1507: 1502: 1496: 1487: 1486: 1480:0.7889 (−21.1%) 1477: 1476: 1459: 1458: 1452:0.8078 (−19.2%) 1449: 1448: 1431: 1430: 1424:0.8272 (−17.3%) 1421: 1420: 1403: 1402: 1396:0.8470 (−15.3%) 1393: 1392: 1375: 1374: 1368:0.8674 (−13.3%) 1365: 1364: 1347: 1346: 1340:0.8882 (−11.2%) 1337: 1336: 1319: 1318: 1309: 1308: 1291: 1290: 1281: 1280: 1263: 1262: 1253: 1252: 1235: 1234: 1225: 1224: 1192: 1182:(Ri, 1024) and 1148: 1146: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1095: 1093: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1045: 1043: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1019: 998: 996: 989: 986: 983: 980: 977: 975: 954: 952: 945: 942: 939: 936: 934: 913: 911: 904: 901: 898: 896: 875: 873: 866: 863: 861: 840: 838: 832: 782: 773: 687: 684: 681: 679: 675: 670: 667: 664: 662: 658: 653: 650: 647: 645: 641: 636: 633: 630: 628: 624: 616: 613: 611: 606: 603: 601: 596: 593: 590: 588: 583: 580: 578: 550:storage devices 532: 529: 526: 524: 515: 512: 510: 502: 471: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6778: 6776: 6768: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6737: 6736: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6710: 6708: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6695: 6689: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6658: 6656: 6652: 6651: 6649: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6632: 6630: 6626: 6625: 6620: 6618: 6617: 6610: 6603: 6595: 6589: 6588: 6576: 6571: 6557: 6556:External links 6554: 6553: 6552: 6521: 6496: 6494:on 2016-10-07. 6479: 6472:(1996-12-29). 6466: 6443: 6431: 6428:on 2009-04-03. 6416: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6395: 6374: 6349: 6328: 6307: 6286: 6248: 6219: 6216:on 2005-08-24. 6195: 6164: 6129: 6100: 6090: 6058: 6026: 6005: 5984: 5963: 5934: 5913: 5884: 5863: 5846: 5817: 5804: 5790: 5787:on 2012-07-22. 5772: 5769:on 2013-02-13. 5754: 5719: 5695: 5645: 5607: 5601:Recommendation 5570: 5548: 5521: 5501: 5474: 5440: 5429: 5391: 5356: 5331: 5328:on 2007-06-11. 5313: 5304: 5258: 5249: 5220: 5190: 5163: 5138: 5109: 5083: 5061: 5036: 5002: 4968: 4938: 4903: 4868: 4826: 4791: 4759: 4726: 4705: 4680: 4656: 4609: 4568: 4535:(March 1968). 4523: 4516:(1996-12-29). 4505: 4497: 4466: 4443: 4429:. 1994-06-24. 4418: 4408: 4394:. 1992-07-22. 4383: 4372: 4358:. 1986-10-30. 4347: 4318: 4294: 4270: 4235: 4229: 4211: 4186: 4159: 4129: 4111: 4095:www-03.ibm.com 4082: 4079:on 2010-07-15. 4054: 4035: 4006: 3977: 3963:. 2018-02-27. 3948: 3939: 3910: 3900:. The Register 3888: 3879: 3845: 3832: 3829:on 2005-04-09. 3809: 3780: 3737: 3706: 3665: 3642: 3618: 3577: 3568:978-0521350358 3567: 3561:. p. 35. 3545: 3535: 3513: 3502: 3480: 3440: 3385: 3346: 3337: 3313: 3275: 3256:(3): 143–144. 3231: 3171: 3120: 3103:. 2022-11-18. 3089: 3015: 2991: 2960: 2931: 2919: 2892: 2863: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2823: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2795: 2792: 2734:memory modules 2663: 2660: 2623:IEEE 1541-2002 2597: 2594: 2490: 2487: 2468: 2463: 2450: 2445: 2417: 2412: 2363: 2358: 2352: 2349: 2344: 2343:Legal disputes 2341: 2323: 2320: 2284:Wallace Givens 2272: 2256: 2253: 2231: 2228: 2033: 2030: 2021: 2018: 1962: 1959: 1901:The 5.25-inch 1888:1.2288 MB 1847: 1844: 1820:Classic Mac OS 1707: 1704: 1608:IBM System/370 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1506: 1505:Early prefixes 1503: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470:1.268 (+26.8%) 1468: 1465: 1461: 1460: 1456: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1446: 1445: 1443: 1442:1.238 (+23.8%) 1440: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1415: 1414:1.209 (+20.9%) 1412: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1400: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1389: 1387: 1386:1.181 (+18.1%) 1384: 1381: 1377: 1376: 1372: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1361: 1359: 1358:1.153 (+15.3%) 1356: 1353: 1349: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1333: 1331: 1330:1.126 (+12.6%) 1328: 1325: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1306: 1305: 1303: 1302:1.100 (+10.0%) 1300: 1297: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1236: 1232: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1191: 1188: 1154: 1153: 1143: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1100: 1090: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1050: 1040: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1004: 1003: 993: 973: 970: 967: 964: 960: 959: 949: 932: 929: 926: 923: 919: 918: 908: 894: 891: 888: 885: 881: 880: 870: 859: 856: 853: 850: 846: 845: 835: 830: 827: 824: 821: 817: 816: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 797: 796: 793: 781: 778: 720:European Union 563:(IEC), in the 493:by an integer 473: 472: 470: 469: 462: 455: 447: 444: 443: 440: 439: 435: 434: 430: 429: 427: 424: 419: 416: 413: 409: 408: 406: 403: 398: 395: 392: 388: 387: 385: 382: 377: 374: 371: 367: 366: 364: 361: 356: 353: 350: 346: 345: 342: 339: 334: 331: 328: 324: 323: 320: 317: 312: 309: 306: 302: 301: 298: 295: 290: 287: 284: 280: 279: 276: 273: 268: 265: 262: 258: 257: 252: 247: 243: 242: 233: 230: 229: 224: 221: 218: 214: 213: 208: 205: 202: 198: 197: 192: 189: 186: 182: 181: 176: 173: 170: 166: 165: 160: 157: 154: 150: 149: 144: 141: 138: 134: 133: 128: 125: 122: 118: 117: 112: 109: 106: 102: 101: 96: 93: 90: 86: 85: 80: 77: 74: 70: 69: 64: 60: 59: 49: 48: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6777: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6653: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6616: 6611: 6609: 6604: 6602: 6597: 6596: 6593: 6587: 6583: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6566: 6563: 6560: 6559: 6555: 6542:on 2013-12-04 6538: 6534: 6527: 6522: 6511:on 2004-06-12 6510: 6506: 6502: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6457:on 2016-08-20 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6418: 6414: 6405: 6399: 6396: 6384: 6378: 6375: 6363: 6359: 6353: 6350: 6338: 6332: 6329: 6317: 6311: 6308: 6296: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6269:on 2007-09-02 6268: 6264: 6263: 6258: 6252: 6249: 6238:on 2021-04-26 6237: 6233: 6229: 6223: 6220: 6212: 6205: 6199: 6196: 6185:on 2009-11-22 6181: 6174: 6168: 6165: 6154:on 2010-03-31 6150: 6146: 6139: 6133: 6130: 6119:on 2011-06-16 6118: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6094: 6091: 6076: 6069: 6062: 6059: 6044: 6037: 6030: 6027: 6016: 6009: 6006: 5995: 5988: 5985: 5974: 5967: 5964: 5959: 5945: 5938: 5935: 5923: 5917: 5914: 5903:on 2011-06-16 5902: 5898: 5897:Sonystyle.com 5894: 5888: 5885: 5873: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5850: 5847: 5836:on 2014-03-17 5835: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5818: 5814: 5808: 5805: 5800: 5794: 5791: 5786: 5782: 5776: 5773: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5755: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5723: 5720: 5709: 5705: 5699: 5696: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5656: 5649: 5646: 5643: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5617:IEEE Spectrum 5611: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5596: 5585:on 2007-09-22 5584: 5580: 5574: 5571: 5567: 5556:on 2012-10-14 5555: 5551: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5532: 5525: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5512: 5505: 5502: 5498: 5488: 5484: 5478: 5475: 5464:on 2018-12-25 5460: 5453: 5452: 5444: 5441: 5438: 5433: 5430: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5395: 5392: 5377: 5373: 5366: 5360: 5357: 5346:on 2008-12-08 5345: 5341: 5335: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5314: 5308: 5305: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5259: 5253: 5250: 5239:on 2013-06-13 5238: 5234: 5230: 5224: 5221: 5210:on 2009-08-27 5209: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5191: 5180: 5173: 5167: 5164: 5153:on 2019-01-18 5152: 5148: 5142: 5139: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5110: 5099:on 2010-05-07 5098: 5094: 5087: 5084: 5072: 5065: 5062: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5037: 5026:on 2007-09-22 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5006: 5003: 4992:on 2007-10-16 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4972: 4969: 4958:on 2007-09-28 4957: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4939: 4928:on 2012-04-13 4924: 4920: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4893:on 2008-03-09 4889: 4885: 4878: 4872: 4869: 4858:on 2013-02-27 4854: 4850: 4846: 4839: 4833: 4831: 4827: 4816:on 2013-08-10 4812: 4808: 4801: 4795: 4792: 4788: 4787:respectively. 4777:on 2016-03-05 4776: 4772: 4769: 4763: 4760: 4749:on 2007-09-02 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4715: 4709: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4697: 4693: 4690: 4684: 4681: 4669: 4668: 4660: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4613: 4610: 4605: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4569: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4509: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4481: 4476: 4470: 4467: 4463: 4446: 4444:1-55937-492-6 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4409:0-7381-4336-7 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4375: 4373:0-7381-4541-6 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4351: 4348: 4337:on 2005-05-25 4336: 4332: 4331:Askoxford.com 4328: 4322: 4319: 4308: 4304: 4298: 4295: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4260:on 2013-09-17 4256: 4252: 4245: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4220: 4215: 4212: 4201:on 2006-07-15 4200: 4196: 4190: 4187: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4160: 4149:on 2024-02-19 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4115: 4112: 4101:on 2012-04-03 4100: 4096: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4010: 4007: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3986:"UnitsPolicy" 3981: 3978: 3966: 3962: 3961:Apple Support 3958: 3952: 3949: 3943: 3940: 3929:on 2007-01-12 3928: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3911: 3899: 3892: 3889: 3883: 3880: 3869:on 2016-10-08 3865: 3858: 3857: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3836: 3833: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3810: 3798: 3791: 3784: 3781: 3777: 3767:on 2007-11-29 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3724:on 2014-01-02 3723: 3719: 3718: 3710: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3654: 3646: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3630: 3622: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3594: 3590: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3549: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3536:9780841234611 3532: 3528: 3524: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3503:9780471774570 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3441: 3429: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3350: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3279: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3248: 3243: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3187: 3182: 3175: 3172: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3136: 3131: 3124: 3121: 3106: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3031: 3026: 3019: 3016: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2992: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2940:"SI prefixes" 2935: 2932: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2909: 2902: 2896: 2893: 2889: 2887: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2856: 2849: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2810:ISO/IEC 80000 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2743: 2739: 2736:, and of the 2735: 2731: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2707: 2700: 2693: 2690: 2686: 2668: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2652: 2650: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2595: 2593: 2589: 2581: 2579: 2575: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2560: 2555: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2503:10 bytes 2496: 2493:In 1995, the 2488: 2486: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2433: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2376:Eastman Kodak 2373: 2369: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2350: 2348: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2312: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2276: 2275:B" or "K2B". 2270: 2266: 2262: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2229: 2227: 2187: 2183: 2133: 2129: 2124: 2115: 2101: 2089:44.1 kHz 2086: 2085:compact disks 2065: 2060: 2046:4.77 MHz 2043: 2039: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2019: 2017: 2014:4.38 GiB 2010:10 bytes 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1968: 1967:compact discs 1961:Optical disks 1960: 1958: 1924: 1904: 1903:Apple Disk II 1899: 1890:(decimal) or 1870: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1783:, bytes, not 1750: 1746: 1741: 1732: 1727: 1718: 1713: 1705: 1703: 1676: 1671: 1644: 1629: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1614:, of the DEC 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1589: 1587: 1586:address lines 1581: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1526: 1524: 1519: 1517: 1512: 1511:metric system 1509:The original 1504: 1501: 1493: 1482: 1479: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1454: 1451: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1426: 1423: 1416: 1413: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1398: 1395: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1370: 1367: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1342: 1339: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1323: 1322: 1314: 1311: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1286: 1283: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1266: 1258: 1255: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1230: 1227: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1199: 1196: 1189: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1168:for 1000 and 1167: 1166: 1161: 1158:In 2022, the 1144: 1112: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1102: 1091: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1053: 1052: 1041: 1015: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1005: 994: 971: 968: 965: 962: 961: 950: 930: 927: 924: 921: 920: 909: 892: 889: 886: 883: 882: 871: 857: 854: 851: 848: 847: 836: 828: 825: 822: 819: 818: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 798: 790: 784: 779: 777: 771: 767: 763: 758: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 723: 721: 717: 714: 710: 706: 705:ISO/IEC 80000 702: 698: 694: 621: 576: 575:decimal power 573: 569: 566: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 522: 508: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 479:binary prefix 468: 463: 461: 456: 454: 449: 448: 445: 436: 431: 428: 425: 423: 420: 417: 414: 411: 410: 407: 404: 402: 399: 396: 393: 390: 389: 386: 383: 381: 378: 375: 372: 369: 368: 365: 362: 360: 357: 354: 351: 348: 347: 343: 340: 338: 335: 332: 329: 326: 325: 321: 318: 316: 313: 310: 307: 304: 303: 299: 296: 294: 291: 288: 285: 282: 281: 277: 274: 272: 269: 266: 263: 260: 259: 256: 251: 244: 241: 237: 234: 228: 225: 222: 219: 216: 215: 212: 209: 206: 203: 200: 199: 196: 193: 190: 187: 184: 183: 180: 177: 174: 171: 168: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 152: 151: 148: 145: 142: 139: 136: 135: 132: 129: 126: 123: 120: 119: 116: 113: 110: 107: 104: 103: 100: 97: 94: 91: 88: 87: 84: 81: 78: 75: 72: 71: 68: 61: 58: 54: 51: 50: 45: 40: 33: 19: 6544:. Retrieved 6537:the original 6532: 6513:. Retrieved 6509:the original 6504: 6492:the original 6487: 6470:Kuhn, Markus 6459:. Retrieved 6455:the original 6426:the original 6398: 6387:. Retrieved 6377: 6366:. Retrieved 6364:. 2009-08-28 6361: 6352: 6341:. Retrieved 6331: 6320:. Retrieved 6318:. Neowin.net 6310: 6299:. Retrieved 6289: 6277: 6271:. Retrieved 6267:the original 6260: 6251: 6240:. Retrieved 6236:the original 6231: 6222: 6211:the original 6198: 6187:. Retrieved 6180:the original 6167: 6156:. Retrieved 6149:the original 6144: 6132: 6121:. Retrieved 6117:the original 6112: 6103: 6093: 6082:. Retrieved 6061: 6050:. Retrieved 6029: 6018:. Retrieved 6008: 5997:. Retrieved 5987: 5976:. Retrieved 5966: 5957: 5951:. Retrieved 5937: 5926:. Retrieved 5916: 5905:. Retrieved 5901:the original 5896: 5887: 5876:. Retrieved 5866: 5854: 5849: 5838:. Retrieved 5834:the original 5829: 5820: 5812: 5807: 5793: 5785:the original 5775: 5767:the original 5757: 5746:. Retrieved 5734: 5722: 5711:. 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Retrieved 3864:the original 3855: 3848: 3835: 3827:the original 3823:IBM Archives 3822: 3812: 3801:. Retrieved 3796: 3783: 3775: 3769:. Retrieved 3762:the original 3757: 3753: 3740: 3732: 3726:. Retrieved 3722:the original 3716: 3709: 3701: 3681: 3668: 3660: 3652: 3645: 3636: 3628: 3626:IBM (1972). 3621: 3603: 3599: 3572: 3554: 3548: 3540: 3522: 3516: 3507: 3489: 3483: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3420: 3398: 3388: 3379: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3340: 3330: 3326: 3316: 3306: 3300:. Retrieved 3291: 3278: 3253: 3240: 3234: 3190: 3184: 3174: 3163:. Retrieved 3133: 3123: 3112:. Retrieved 3092: 3034: 3028: 3018: 3007:. Retrieved 3003: 2994: 2983:. Retrieved 2975: 2952:. Retrieved 2950:. 2010-01-13 2943: 2934: 2922: 2911:. Retrieved 2895: 2885: 2882: 2876:. Retrieved 2854: 2780: 2772:flash memory 2757: 2748: 2746: 2708: 2705: 2653: 2646: 2635: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2613: 2608: 2602: 2599: 2590: 2582: 2574:IEC 80000-13 2564: 2556: 2541: 2492: 2470: 2465: 2454: 2452: 2447: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2419: 2414: 2408: 2404: 2400:flash memory 2365: 2360: 2354: 2346: 2325: 2316:Donald Knuth 2313: 2277: 2258: 2233: 2190:200 MHz 2184:memory on a 2125: 2091:, is indeed 2087:, quoted as 2064:Parallel ATA 2061: 2035: 2023: 1990:Blu-ray Disc 1982:optical disc 1979: 1971:700 MiB 1964: 1925: 1900: 1866: 1863: 1851:Floppy disks 1849: 1846:Floppy disks 1813: 1742: 1728: 1709: 1672: 1624: 1590: 1582: 1563: 1521: 1514: 1508: 1193: 1183: 1179: 1170: 1164: 1157: 783: 774:1024 Hz 759: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 724: 622: 558: 520: 506: 498: 495:power of two 478: 476: 239: 6745:Measurement 6113:Samsung.com 5949:. p. 8 5859:SI prefixes 4919:Sandisk.com 4845:sandisk.com 4175:. 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