Investor–state dispute settlement

985:"...supports the principle of national treatment — that foreign and domestic businesses are treated equally under the law. However, the Government does not support provisions that would confer greater legal rights on foreign businesses than those available to domestic businesses. Nor will the Government support provisions that would constrain the ability of Australian governments to make laws on social, environmental and economic matters in circumstances where those laws do not discriminate between domestic and foreign businesses. The Government has not and will not accept provisions that limit its capacity to put health warnings or plain packaging requirements on tobacco products or its ability to continue the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme... In the past, Australian Governments have sought the inclusion of investor-state dispute resolution procedures in trade agreements with developing countries at the behest of Australian businesses. The Gillard Government will discontinue this practice. If Australian businesses are concerned about sovereign risk in Australian trading partner countries, they will need to make their own assessments about whether they want to commit to investing in those countries... Foreign businesses investing in Australia will be entitled to the same legal protections as domestic businesses but the Gillard Government will not confer greater rights on foreign businesses through investor-state dispute resolution provisions." 1352: 1363: 542:, as of June 2017, states have won a higher percentage of ISDS cases than investors, and that around one-third of all cases end in settlement. Claimant investors, when successful, recover on average less than half of the amounts claimed. IBA notes that "only 8 per cent of ISDS proceedings are commenced by very large multinational corporations." IBA challenges the notion that ISDS is biased against developing countries, noting that there is "no correlation between the success rates of claims against states and their income levels or development status". IBA notes that ISDS is necessary even in countries with sophisticated domestic legal systems because those domestic courts rule according to domestic laws, not international law. IBA notes that "increasingly, awards require the losing party to pay arbitration costs and legal fees to the winning party", which deters investors from initiating unmeritorious cases. 620:

take into account broader constitutional and international law human rights norms. PIIE agrees "that secrecy has gone too far" in many ISDS cases, but notes that agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership did ensure greater transparency in ISDS. Proponents of ISDS point out that confidentiality is a standard feature of all arbitration and one that enables a constructive, de-politicized and fact-oriented atmosphere of dispute resolution. On the other hand, such traditional confidentiality is limited to disputes that affect the parties in question and not the broader public. Also, most ICSID awards, although confidential, are de facto published by consent of the parties. However, many awards under other arbitration rules are not public and, in the case of investor-arbitration at the ICC, there is a requirement for blanket confidentiality for all aspects of a case.

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European ban on chicken carcasses washed with chlorine" – cannot be over-ridden". He announced to "crack down on companies using legal technicalities to build frivolous cases against governments", to "open up investment tribunals to public scrutiny – documents will be public and interested parties, including NGOs, will be able to make submissions". Also, he said, the EU "will eliminate any conflicts of interest – the arbitrators who decide on EU cases must be above suspicion". However, insisting equally on the advantages of such investment protection agreements, he states along that "protect job-creating investment from discrimination and unfair treatment" and that "the task here is to find the right balance between preventing abuse and protecting investments".

627:. In any event, they say, the qualification of ISDS arbitrators matches or exceeds the qualification of most court judges. In response, critics make the point that any judge, whether domestic or international, who is part of a legal system not shown to be systematically biased or unreliable, has a greater claim to independence than an arbitrator because they are insulated from conflicts of interest that arise when arbitrators work on the side as lawyers, and is assigned cases in an objective manner rather than by the discretion of a disputing party or an executive official. Arbitrators are appointed by both parties at dispute, so such conflicts of interest may arise on both sides. 611:

use the ISDS system to sue investors, if arbitrators have any bias toward investors, this will encourage further claims and the arbitrators will personally benefit financially. The vague terms of most BITs allow this kind of bias regarding the interpretation of treaties by arbitrators. This bias, fueled by the conflict of interest in the core of the system (that need not assume any lack of integrity on a personal level on the arbitrators side, but solely the cognitive difficulty in overcoming a bias when one's personal interest is at stake) may help explain the significant growth in the number of ISDS cases in the 2000s and 2010s.

669:(ICSID) is required by ICSID Administrative and Financial Regulation 22 to make public, information on the registration of all requests for arbitration and to indicate in due course the date and method of the termination of each proceeding. It also publishes the vast majority of awards with the consent of the parties. If the parties do not consent, ICSID publishes excerpts showing the tribunal's reasoning. The ICSID website has published awards for most completed arbitrations, and decisions in investor-state arbitrations outside of ICSID are also publicly available online. 963:

eligible for investment protection under the Dutch-Kazakh BIT. This argument was dismissed by the Arbitrage. The Kazakh state then alleged that it didn't nationalize the bank, but it bailed it out (wiping out the shares' value in the process). The latter was due to the embezzlement of depositors' trust (and funds) by Mr. Ablyazov. Investigating the matter the Arbitrage reached the conclusion that the investment doesn't meet the Salini test, thus it is not protected under the BIT. As a result the Arbitrage decided it has no jurisdiction to decide the dispute.

587:

Yetkiner, 2008; Herzer, 2012) find a negative impact, and some (De Mello, 1999) find the data to be inconclusive. A fourth conclusion was proposed by others (Alfaro et al., 2004; Li and Liu, 2005; Batten and Vo, 2009): FDI may have a positive or negative impact on the GDP of developing economies depending on the existence of adequate policies to "filter" speculative or predatory investment. Thus, opponents of ISDS warn that these systems may harm the government's ability to filter FDI more favorable to development, and therefore harm GDP. The

583:(GDP) and the share of host country's FDI in total FDI outflows of a home country – concluded that BITs do not serve to attract additional FDI. Additionally, Emma Aisbett (2007) found "no evidence for the claim that BITs signal a safe investment climate". Yackee (2007) also concluded that "the apparently positive effect of BITs on FDI largely (and in some cases entirely) falls from significance", which is consistent with empirical findings that "potential investors seem to have little awareness or appreciation of specific BITs". 435:

environments and would be not possible if local remedies needed to be exhausted first. Critics argue that all other situations in international law require a private party to first show that the state's domestic courts are unreliable before the private party can sue the state. Factors in the growth of investment treaty claims since the late 1990s may have been the removal of duty to exhaust local remedies, as well as the growth in the number of bilateral free trade agreements since the breakdown of the multilateral WTO

652:, the tribunals shall, subject to the consent of the disputing parties, conduct hearings open to the public. The tribunal will make available to the public documents relating to the dispute such as the notice of intent, the notice of arbitration, pleadings, memorials, minutes or transcripts of the hearings of the tribunal, where available; orders, awards and decisions of the tribunal. In addition, third parties can and increasingly do participate in investor-state arbitration by submitting 579:(PIIE) claimed in 2015 that ISDS provisions are necessary, as they boost investment: "empirical evidence has shown that treaties including these provisions have a positive effect on foreign direct investment (FDI) flows between signatory countries." On the other hand, Hallward-Driemeier (2003) analyzed the impact of Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) and, after conducting several tests with different dependent variables – absolute amount of FDI, the ratio of FDI to host country's 711:, one is appointed by the investor, one by the state, and the third is usually chosen by agreement between the parties or their appointed arbitrators or selected by the appointing authority, depending on the procedural rules applicable to the dispute. If the parties do not agree who to appoint, this power is assigned to executive officials usually at the World Bank, the International Bureau of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, or a private chamber of commerce. 4546: 4558: 4508: 1045:. In 2015, faced with opposition to ISDS in several European countries, the European Parliament adopted a resolution requiring any new dispute settlement scheme included in TTIP "must be replaced by a new public and transparent system of investment protection, in which private interests cannot undermine public policy and which is subject to public law". (The commission's 2015 proposal in response is noted 3719: 937:) started on 19 February 2010, when the multinational tobacco company Philip Morris International filed a complaint against Uruguay seeking $ 25 million in damages. The company complained that Uruguay's anti-smoking legislation devalued its cigarette trademarks and investments in the country and based its lawsuit on the bilateral investment treaty between Switzerland and Uruguay. The 4582: 4519: 677:

parties so consent, subject to certain overwhelming confidentiality interests listed in Article 7. Original proposals to make all UNCITRAL arbitration under investment treaties public were not adopted after opposition by some states and by representatives of the arbitration industry who participated in the UNCITRAL working group negotiations as state representatives.

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over the "have nots" by giving foreign investors, especially major companies, access to a special tribunal outside any court. While the arbitration process itself does not provide explicitly privileged access for larger investors over individuals or SMEs, the costs of ISDS, as in any court or arbitration system, tend to be off-putting for smaller claimants.

681:

also applicable to disputes arising out of investment treaties that were concluded prior to 1 April 2014 if both parties to the investment treaty are also party to the Mauritius Convention. The convention has not yet entered into force since the three required ratifications have not yet been submitted. 10 States have signed the Mauritius Convention so far.

45: 163:, both the home state of the investor and the state where the investment was made must have agreed to ISDS, the investor from one state must have an investment in a foreign state and the foreign investor must put forward that the state has violated one or more of the rights granted to the investor under a certain treaty or agreement. 413:

compensation whenever a government passes a law to, say, discourage smoking, protect the environment or prevent a nuclear catastrophe. Yet that is precisely what thousands of trade and investment treaties over the past half century have done, through a process known as 'investor-state dispute settlement', or ISDS.

917:. Chemtura alleged NAFTA violations of Article 1105 (on minimum standards of treatment) and Article 1110 (on expropriation). All claims were dismissed by the Tribunal, given that the measure did not amount to a substantial deprivation of the Claimant's investment and was taken legitimately and without bad faith. 348:, ISDS requires specific treaty violations and does not allow corporations to sue solely for lost profits. Critics state that some treaties are written so that any legislation causing lost profits is by definition a treaty violation, rendering the argument null that only treaty violations are subject to ISDS. 1056:

In 2018, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that "The arbitration clause in the Agreement between The Netherlands and Slovakia on the protection of investments is not compatible with EU law". This ruling could imply that any similar arbitration tribunal considering corporate sovereignty

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rules to challenge Australian tobacco Advertising Restrictions. By 2013, Australia had not terminated any bilateral investment treaties allowing for ISDS. Even if it were to do so, most such treaties foresee post-termination-protection for many years after the termination has become effective. In any

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Compared to other factors, the effect of dispute settlement mechanisms remains particularly large and consistent across individuals' key attributes including skill levels, information, and national sentiment, which constitute major explanations of trade preferences. Introducing a private arbitration

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The claimant (company incorporated in The Netherlands) was a shell company owned by Kazakh national (Mr. Ablyazov). It owned shares in BTA Bank, which the claimant alleged were nationalized by the respondent (Kazakhstan). The state position was that as owned by a Kazakh national the claimant was not

822:

LLC, a U.S. corporation, served a Notice of Intent to Submit a Claim to Arbitration under Chapter 11 of NAFTA, for losses allegedly caused by a Quebec ban on the sale and certain uses of lawn pesticides containing the active ingredient 2,4-D. The tribunal issued a consent award as the parties to the

610:

Critics argue that, in addition to the system lacking safeguards regarding individual abuse, the most important problem is systemic. These critics note that arbitrators are paid on a case-by-case basis, and therefore they are personally benefited by an increase in claims. Because governments may not

550:

by non-democracies. The author of the study argues that the likely goal of investors is not to obtain compensation through ISDS, but to impose costs on governments contemplating regulations and therefore deter the regulatory ambitions of governments. A 2019 study shows that ISDS clauses consistently

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Apotex relied on the doctrine that a manifestly unjust domestic legal decision breaches international law and can be viewed as a substantive denial of justice. Apotex has also brought a similar claim involving U.S. regulatory provisions concerning an abbreviated new drug development application for

505:

notes that investment protections are a component of more than 3,000 trade agreements, the vast majority of which have some form of neutral arbitration. As of February 2015, the United States is party to at least 50 such agreements, has only faced 13 ISDS cases and has never lost an ISDS case.

680:

On 17 March 2015, the United Nations Convention on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration ('Mauritius Convention') was opened for signatures in Port Louis, Mauritius. The Mauritius Convention will render the UNCITRAL Rules on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor State Arbitration

478:

and the human rights crisis. Other critics argue that ISDS threatens democracy and the rule of law, in part because investor state claims (or the threat of them) inhibit the ability of domestic governments to pass legislation addressing public concerns, such as health and environmental protection,

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Other individuals cannot initiate a claim against a state under an investment treaty. Also, no individual or state can initiate a claim against a foreign investor under an investment treaty. This has led to criticisms that investor-state arbitration is not balanced and that it favours the "haves"

676:

Rules on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration entered into force. Article 3 foresees a general duty to publish all documents pertaining to an ISDS-procedure under UNCITRAL Rules, where the treaty establishing the ISDS-mechanism has been concluded after 1 April 2014 or where the

619:

Opponents of ISDS argue that arbitrations are sometimes carried out in secret by trade lawyers who do not enjoy the typical safeguards of judicial independence and procedural fairness, who earn income only if a case is brought and proceeds, and who are not accountable to the public or required to

336:

Foreign investors can sue states under investment treaties, but states cannot sue foreign investors, because only states are the parties to the treaty, and therefore only states can be held liable to pay damages for breach of the treaty. Thus, a decision in favor of the state means that the state

434:

Because NAFTA Chapter 11 Article 1121 waives the 'local remedies' rule, investors are not required to exhaust local remedies before filing Chapter 11 claims. While this fact has been criticized, proponents of ISDS assert that speedy dispute resolution through ISDS is critical in modern economic

776:

and half of the costs of the tribunal, making its total penalty around $ 2.4 billion. The South American country annulled a contract with the oil firm on the grounds that it violated a clause that the company would not sell its rights to another firm without permission. The tribunal agreed the

1025:

declared on 18 December 2014 that future agreements shall become more transparent, shall "fully enshrine democratic prerogatives" and "explicitly state that legitimate government public policy decisions – on issues such as the balance between public and private provision of healthcare or "the

586:

The impact of FDI on the GDP of developing economies is, itself, a matter of research. While some research (Olofsdotter, 1998; Reisen and Soto, 2001) finds a positive impact on developing countries, other authors (Mencinger, 2003; Carkovic and Levine, 2005; Johnson, 2006; Türkcan, Duman, and

723:

According to a 2011 paper, "In terms of wins and losses, U.S. has never lost a case as the respondent country. U.S. investors have won 15 cases, lost 22 cases and settled 14 cases. In terms of performance with respect to developing countries, U.S. investors have won 14 cases and lost 17."

412:

If you wanted to convince the public that international trade agreements are a way to let multinational companies get rich at the expense of ordinary people, this is what you would do: give foreign firms a special right to apply to a secretive tribunal of highly paid corporate lawyers for

398:

proposed an investment court system (ICS). Not long afterwards, ICS was declared illegal by the German Association of Magistrates, though the Commission dismissed the magistrates' judgement as based on a misunderstanding. As of February 2016, the US wants an ISDS clause reinstated.

551:

sparks significant public opposition to treaties. This trend is observed irrespective of individuals' various characteristics, such as their skill levels, access to information, and national sentiments, which are typically considered crucial factors influencing trade attitudes.

844:, a Canadian pharmaceuticals corporation, has alleged that U.S. courts committed errors in interpreting federal law, and that such errors were in violation of NAFTA Article 1102 (national treatment) and Article 1105 (minimum standard of treatment under international law). 1833: 535:, that it says required compensation if costs increased; the company maintains that the wage increases triggered this provision. The case — which would result, at most, in a monetary award to Veolia, not the overthrow of the minimum wage — remains in litigation." 1757: 972:

After ISDS claims by investors sharply increased starting in the late 1990s, ISDS came under greater public attention and criticism, in particular NAFTA claims against the United States in the late 1990s, Philip Morris's claim against Australia in 2011, and

268:

to adjudicate claims involving treatment of foreign nationals and their property by the host state ("state-state-dispute-settlement" or SSDS), which can help avoid coercive resolutions and protect against reneging. Notable examples of this practice are the

870:. Apotex has two claims involving different generic products. On 14 June 2013, the Tribunal issued an Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, dismissing all of the claims and ordering Apotex to pay the United States' legal fees and arbitral expenses. 317:

without full compensation) and access to ISDS for redress against host states for breaches of such protection. Some of these protections are framed in vague terms and give extensive discretion to arbitrators for their interpretation and application.

1052:

South Africa has stated it will withdraw from treaties with ISDS clauses, and India is also considering such a position. Indonesia plans to let treaties with ISDS clauses lapse when they need renewal. Brazil has refused any treaty with ISDS clauses.

312:

The majority of the treaties provide foreign investors with substantive legal protection (including the right to "fair and equitable treatment", "full protection and security", "free transfer of means" and the right not to be directly or indirectly

598:

Finally, opponents of ISDS also argue that these systems increase inequalities, harm public services, threaten labor and consumer protections, threaten financial stability and the environment, all of which have significant economic consequences.

1009:

proposed September 2015 an 'Investment Court System' to replace ISDS clauses (notably in the draft TTIP), with the scope for investor challenge much reduced and with 'highly skilled judges' rather than arbitrators used to determine cases.

337:

does not pay compensation, not that it will receive compensation from the investor (although litigation costs can be awarded against the investor). A state that wishes to sue a foreign investor does so through the state's domestic courts.

369:

An example of ISDS is NAFTA Chapter 11. NAFTA went into effect in 1994 between the parties of Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Chapter 11 allows investors of one party to bring claims against another party before an international

491:

states that "while investment treaties limit states' ability to inflict arbitrary or discriminatory treatment, they do not limit (and, in fact, expressly safeguard) a state's sovereign right to regulate in the public interest in a

193:

The ISDS system has been criticized for its perceived failures, including investor bias, inconsistent or inaccurate rulings, high damage awards, and high costs, and there have been widespread calls for reform. Since 2015, the

980:

In 2011, the Australian government announced that it would discontinue the practice of seeking inclusion of investor-state dispute settlement provisions in trade agreements with developing countries. It stated that it:

994:

event, since the election of the conservative Coalition Government in 2013, the Government has entered into free trade agreements (such as the China-Australia Free Trade Agreement, Ch 9 section B) that include ISDS.

752:, of which the United States is not a party. Waste treatment company S.D. Myers then sued the Canadian government under NAFTA Chapter 11 for $ 20 million in damages. The claim was upheld by a NAFTA Tribunal in 2000. 3448: 486:

Proponents of ISDS argue that governments retain their regulatory ability if the agreements in question specify that regulations protecting health, the environment, labor rights, and human rights are allowed. The

281:. However, these treaties were limited to the treatment of foreign investors during a past period of time, whereas modern ISDS allows investors to make claims against states in general and on a prospective basis. 797:, the additive's manufacturer, sued the Canadian government under NAFTA Chapter 11 for $ 251 million, to cover losses resulting from the "expropriation" of both its MMT production plant and its "good reputation". 545:

A 2017 study found that the success rate of investors in investor-state disputes has sharply fallen over time because most legal challenges today seek compensation for regulation implemented by democracies, not

1029:

Current controversies over ISDS appear driven by attempts to expand its scope to new countries and, especially, to relations between developed countries with mature court systems and democratic governments.

706:

Investment disputes can be initiated by corporations and natural persons and in almost all cases, investment tribunals are composed of three arbitrators (unless otherwise agreed by the parties). As in most

500:

similarly states that "ISDS does nothing that takes away the sovereign ability of governments impose any measure they wish to protect labor rights, the environment, or other issues of public welfare." The

2131: 3074:"INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR SETTLEMENT OF INVESTMENT DISPUTES (ICSID) : IN THE MATTER OF AN ARBITRATION UNDER CHAPTER 11 OF THE NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT AND THE UNCITRAL ARBITRATION RULES" 2165: 666: 321:

The overall number of ISDS cases reached 500 in 2012. Of these, 244 were concluded, of which 42% were decided in favor of the host state, 31% in favor of the investor, and 27% settled out of court.

198:

has been seeking to create a multilateral investment court to replace investor-state arbitration. Since 2017, multilateral negotiations for reform have been taking place in Working Group III of the

591:

warns that the creation of a two-tier justice system, by which foreign investors are subject to a set of rules different from domestic investors, apart from being contrary to the principle of the

2355: 2664: 1099: 938: 167: 567:, was protested by a social movement or the local community affected. The foreign corporations often initiate litigation under ISDS to fight back against putting a halt to the activities. 2690: 2981: 2766: 1180: 2716: 641:

briefs are allowed. However, no investment treaty allows other parties who have an interest in the dispute, other than the claimant investor and respondent government, to obtain

3456: 1129: 199: 187: 945:

decided it had jurisdiction on 2 July 2013, and three years later ruled in favor of Uruguay, ordering Philip Morris to pay Uruguay $ 7 million, in addition to all court costs.

695:

Development under the draft Pan-African Investment Code, envisaged strengthening the role of defending states by allowing them to initiate counter-claims against investors.

63: 2826: 1498: 125:

between the foreign investor and the state. As of June 2024, over US$ 113 billion has been paid by states to investors under ISDS, the vast majority of the money going to

2621: 634:, the general trend in the last decade has been to allow for more openness and transparency. On the other hand, there is still widespread confidentiality in the system. 344:, ISDS cannot overturn local laws which violate trade agreements, but the ISDS can grant monetary damages to investors adversely affected by such laws. According to the 136:, granting private parties (the foreign investors) the right to sue a state in a forum other than that state's domestic courts. Investors are granted this right through 1072:

and subsequently having suffered adverse consequences of the loss of such access under different arrangements, could have an actionable case against the UK Government.

806:, and was upheld by a Canadian dispute settlement panel. Consequently, the Canadian government repealed the ban and paid Ethyl Corporation $ 15 million as compensation. 3285: 2914: 1803: 1614: 497: 345: 3256: 2233: 623:

It is further pointed out that judges are not elected in most countries outside the US, so that "public accountability of judges" may not be considered a standard of

521:

used the example of a French company suing Egypt because Egypt raised its minimum wage, as an argument against the ISDS provisions of the TPP. The editorial board of

2017: 607:

PIIE challenges the claim that ISDS "arbitrators lack integrity", noting that arbitrators take an oath of impartiality and both sides of a case choose arbitrators.

1219: 1123: 1038: 728:, the UK's Minister of State for Trade and Investment, reported in 2015 that the UK was involved in 94 existing ISDS agreements and "had not lost a single case". 576: 391: 149: 309:(NAFTA). Most of these treaties were signed in the late 1980s and early 1990s before the increase of investor claims under the treaties began in the late 1990s. 2005: 790: 725: 698:

A counter-claim may be a way of rebalancing investment law, by allowing states to file claims against investors, as a means to sanction investor misconduct.

649: 3310: 493: 447:

Much debate and criticism has arisen concerning the impact of ISDS on the capacity of governments to implement reforms and legislative programs related to

1087: 474:

and the environment, found compelling evidence that ISDS has had a chilling effect on governments' ability to enact essential regulations to address the

374:. NAFTA Chapter 11 was the first instance of an ISDS provision receiving widespread public attention, especially in the United States in the wake of the 183: 2638: 1457: 483:

reports that the $ 80 billion awarded to fossil fuel firms exceeds the total climate finance provided by developed countries for developing countries.

175: 2046: 3017: 2200: 2668: 3692: 2953: 2328: 235: 1525: 274: 3712: 2694: 1034: 2773: 1989: 1896: 1553: 1436: 4055: 3073: 2006:"Paying Polluters: The Catastrophic Consequences of Investor-State Dispute Settlement for Climate and Environment Action and Human Rights" 4060: 3422: 3370: 2723: 3657: 2801: 3156: 2396:

Yackee, Jason W (2007). "Do Bits Really Work? Revisiting the Empirical Link between Investment Treaties and Foreign Direct Investment".

1244: 364: 306: 4602: 4401: 4301: 1105: 1022: 278: 137: 4154: 4045: 3906: 3478: 1952: 1590: 890: 467: 179: 81: 1064:) that the process might generate ISDS cases against the UK. For example, non-EU financial firms which had based themselves in the 2748: 3039: 3323: 4612: 4147: 1502: 1018: 1296: 4607: 1001:, including ISDS, but with more concern for transparency and the balancing of economic and non-economic interests. As noted 934: 4082: 2618: 2114: 1834:"Who Settles Disputes? Treaty Design and Trade Attitudes Toward the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)" 1758:"Who Settles Disputes? Treaty Design and Trade Attitudes Toward the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)" 539: 488: 351:

Critics also state that government violations may be difficult to foresee, and the threat of exorbitant fines may cause a

4536: 3783: 1353:"International Investment Protection Made in Germany? On the Domestic and Foreign Policy Dynamics behind the First BITs" 1323: 4201: 3773: 3748: 3685: 2478: 2098: 1081: 803: 690: 294: 243: 239: 141: 3345: 1271:"Working Group III: Investor-State Dispute Settlement Reform | United Nations Commission On International Trade Law" 4622: 4226: 4075: 3232: 2423: 2077: 3500: 2329:"What Do the Data Say about the Relationship between Investor-State Dispute Settlement Provisions and FDI? | PIIE" 4632: 3921: 3884: 3616: 1871:

court significantly reduces public support for the TTIP, compared to a domestic court across different subgroups.

1117: 514: 402:

According to a 2019 study, ISDS is the single most important factor motivating opposition to TTIP among Germans.

122: 118: 2453: 355:

which halts regulation or legislation in the public interest (e.g. human health and environmental protection).

4142: 3820: 3763: 3722: 1111: 998: 930: 745: 624: 452: 341: 290: 2918: 2642: 4446: 3998: 3842: 3790: 3593:"The Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership: European Disintegration, Unemployment and Instability" 3152: 2819: 1973: 4511: 4386: 4028: 4018: 3901: 3837: 3768: 3753: 3678: 3585:"The Transatlantic Colossus: Global Contributions to Broaden the Debate on the EU-US Free Trade Agreement" 3181: 1069: 580: 394:(TTIP) treaty caused this clause to be removed from the draft treaty in September 2015. In its place, the 3396:"Commission proposes new Investment Court System for TTIP and other EU trade and investment negotiations" 637:

Under Art. 29 of the U.S. Model-BIT of 2004, all documents pertaining to ISDS have to be made public and

4617: 4326: 4164: 3896: 3825: 3257:"Investment tribunal dismisses Philip Morris Asia's challenge to Australia's plain packaging | WHO FCTC" 2995: 1093: 302: 298: 247: 153: 31: 3206: 777:

violation took place but judged that the annulment was not fair and equitable treatment to the company.

2356:"Do bilateral investment treaties attract foreign direct investment? Only a bit - and they could bite" 4637: 4451: 4356: 4169: 4137: 4127: 4112: 4013: 4008: 3951: 882: 867: 765: 475: 238:

and Pakistan for the Promotion and Protection of Investments was concluded in 1959 and was the first

2590: 4627: 4231: 3988: 3978: 3973: 3956: 3847: 3830: 3743: 3662: 3644: 1154: 1006: 523: 395: 2166:"Secretive court system has awarded over $ 100bn public money to corporations, finds new analysis" 1981: 1181:"Secretive court system has awarded over $ 100bn public money to corporations, finds new analysis" 4296: 4122: 4070: 4033: 3778: 3114: 2298: 1861: 1785: 1608: 1409: 564: 531:

of France, a waste management company, invoked ISDS to enforce a contract with the government of

502: 2917:, 28 January 2015, quoted in House of Commons Business, Innovation and Skills Select Committee, 2562: 2534: 2506: 2850: 1968:

Dupuy, Pierre-Marie; Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich; Francioni, Francesco, eds. (10 September 2009).

4484: 4351: 4236: 4117: 4023: 3889: 3795: 3547: 2896: 2876: 2409: 2405: 2290: 2241: 2139: 1985: 1948: 1925: 1892: 1853: 1777: 1596: 1586: 1432: 1190: 794: 773: 371: 265: 222:

advocated for the creation of an international investor–state dispute settlement system after

219: 215: 160: 133: 110: 2931: 2018:"Still not loving ISDS: 10 reasons to oppose investors' super-rights in EU trade deals | CEO" 1458:"Assessing the Trans-Pacific Partnership, Volume 1: Market Access and Sectoral Issues | PIIE" 1270: 4574: 4391: 4371: 4286: 4211: 4040: 3911: 3810: 3599: 3592: 3584: 3537: 2888: 2282: 1977: 1845: 1769: 1401: 819: 749: 518: 231: 227: 2691:"International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes, View Decisions and Awards" 2375:"Bilateral Investment Treaties and Foreign Direct Investment: Correlation versus Causation" 4586: 4562: 4523: 4474: 4406: 4381: 4346: 4261: 4132: 4050: 3968: 3877: 3805: 3758: 2625: 2614: 2073: 2042: 352: 3449:"Powerful Members of Congress Oppose Special 'Corporate Court' Rights for European Firms" 3395: 852:

drug company expropriated Apotex's investments in generic versions of the antidepressant

3371:"Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) : State of play and prospects for reform" 2079:

Joseph Stiglitz: Under TPP, Polluters Could Sue U.S. for Setting Carbon Emissions Limits

4376: 4241: 4216: 4087: 3933: 3872: 3727: 2205: 1888: 1065: 1042: 1014: 642: 588: 387: 195: 4557: 2767:"United Nations Convention on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration" 1676: 140:

between the investor's home state and the host state. Such agreements can be found in

4596: 4489: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4411: 4321: 4291: 4251: 4159: 3926: 3800: 3701: 2302: 1865: 1789: 1499:"Investor-state dispute settlement: the importance of an informed, fact-based debate" 1413: 1328: 1301: 793:, a gasoline additive, over concerns that it poses a significant public health risk. 654: 638: 547: 463: 448: 420: 1102: – International arbitration institution affiliated with the World Bank (ICSID) 595:, is itself a market distortion prone to inefficiencies that are bound to harm GDP. 4469: 4396: 4366: 4311: 4221: 3993: 3648: 2048:

Opinion: The Trans-Pacific Partnership charade: TPP isn't about 'free' trade at all

1914:"The Nafta Chapter 11 Expropriation Debate Through the Eyes of a Property Theorist" 1185: 906: 471: 456: 314: 223: 145: 3452: 2749:"2014 - UNCITRAL Rules on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration" 2717:"UNCITRAL : Rules on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration" 3542: 3525: 3423:"You're wrong, George Monbiot – there is nothing secret about this EU trade deal" 2374: 4545: 4479: 4361: 4316: 4306: 4256: 4246: 4196: 4003: 2069: 1390:"Impact of bilateral investment treaties on foreign direct investment in Africa" 910: 863: 841: 708: 631: 592: 246:, an investor-state can vindicate injury caused by the host state by exercising 126: 1832:

Hahm, Hyeonho; König, Thomas; Osnabrügge, Moritz; Frech, Elena (October 2019).

4550: 4421: 4416: 4281: 4206: 4065: 3983: 3963: 3040:"NAFTA's Chapter 11 Makes Canada Most-Sued Country Under Free Trade Tribunals" 2286: 1849: 1773: 997:

An alternative way ahead may be the preservation of investor protection under

974: 942: 662: 532: 436: 270: 171: 3551: 3139: 3127: 3100: 3060: 2900: 2665:"International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes, ICSID Cases" 2294: 2245: 2143: 1929: 1857: 1781: 1600: 1194: 4092: 3916: 3815: 2892: 1628: 1554:"ISDS: Important Questions and Answers | United States Trade Representative" 1405: 886: 255: 251: 764:

In October 2012, an ICSID tribunal awarded a judgment of $ 1.8 billion for

4581: 4518: 1389: 1731: 1702: 1651: 990: 914: 902: 789:

In April 1997 the Canadian parliament banned the import and transport of

744:

Between 1995 and 1997 the Canadian government banned the export of toxic

673: 560: 375: 114: 2877:"Investment Treaty Arbitration and Developing Countries: A Re-Appraisal" 2431: 802:

A similar challenge was launched by three Canadian provinces, under the

3061:"Dow AgroSciences LLC v. Government of Canada", US Department of State. 2921:, HC804, paragraph 25, published 25 March 2015, accessed 6 January 2024 1913: 1756:

Hahm, Hyeonho; König, Thomas; Osnabrügge, Moritz; Frech, Elena (2019).

894: 769: 324: 3617:"Dispute settlement provisions in international investment agreements" 2851:"Counterclaims in Investment Arbitration: Old Questions, New Answers?" 1126: – Proposed free trade agreement between the EU and the US (TTIP) 3635: 3576: 2996:"NAFTA & Environmental Laws: Ethyl Corp. v. Government of Canada" 2316: 2183: 1429:

Law and practice of investment treaties : standards of treatment

1061: 898: 853: 849: 848:

also alleged that the challenged U.S. court decision in favor of the

845: 528: 260: 1885:

The Backlash against Investment Arbitration: Perceptions and Reality

289:

As of 2024, the legal protection of foreign direct investment under

258:. In addition to diplomatic protection, states can and do establish 17: 2270: 3128:"Apotex Inc. v. United States of America", US Department of State. 510: 329: 323: 3140:"Chemtura Corp. v. Government of Canada", US Department of State. 2915:

House of Commons Business, Innovation and Skills Select Committee

3670: 3623: 2271:"What Explains the Low Success Rate of Investor-State Disputes?" 2218: 2201:"Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) Questions and Answers" 989:

This statement is a reaction to Philip Morris' ISDS claim under

559:

In 117 ISDS cases, the foreign corporate activity, for example,

3674: 1526:"The obscure legal system that lets corporations sue countries" 3501:"Judgment in Case C-284/16 - Slowakische Republik v Achmea BV" 1037:

expressed opposition to the inclusion of ISDS in the proposed

889:

products manufacturer, alleged that the Canadian government's

772:. Additionally, Ecuador had to pay $ 589 million in backdated 667:

International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes

38: 3568: 2132:"The Trans-Pacific Partnership clause everyone should oppose" 1245:"Multilateral Investment Court project - European Commission" 3233:"International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes" 2855:

The Law & Practice of International Courts and Tribunals

2619:"OECD Document Discusses Investor State Dispute Settlement". 1970:

Human Rights in International Investment Law and Arbitration

630:

While ISDS has traditionally been confidential as any other

3610:. Faculty of Law, University of Victoria, British Columbia. 1585:. Colombia Global Reports. pp. Chapter: Introduction. 159:

To be allowed to bring an investor-state dispute before an

3631: 3286:"Investor-state dispute settlement - The arbitration game" 3207:"Phillip Morris loses tough-on-tobacco lawsuit in Uruguay" 3157:"How can Philip Morris sue Uruguay over its tobacco laws?" 1388:

Beri, Parfait Bihkongnyuy; Nubong, Gabila Fohtung (2021).

1100:

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

939:

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

390:

to the US proposal to include an ISDS clause in the draft

168:

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

121:(FDI) of that investor. This most often takes the form of 3632:"Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development" 3615:

Pohl, Joachim; Kekeletso, Mashigo; Nohen, Alexis (2012).

748:

waste, in order to comply with its obligations under the

3479:"Euractiv: European Parliament backs TTIP, rejects ISDS" 2820:"Reforming Investment Dispute Settlement: A stocktaking" 2117:

L. Johnson, L. Sachs and J. Sachs, CNN, 19 February 2016

2454:"Special Courts for Foreign Investors | Cato Institute" 1096: – International cross-border agreement for energy 893:(PMRA) wrongfully terminated its pesticide business in 59: 3607: 2875:

Gallacher, Kevin P.; Shrestha, Elen (1 January 2011).

2099:

Why the TPP Is Too Flawed for a 'Yes' Vote in Congress

2004:

United Nations Document Symbol A/78/168, 13 July 2023

1732:"EU defends TTIP investor court after German backlash" 1297:"How two businessmen wrote the rules of globalisation" 297:(BITs), multilateral investment treaties, such as the 4534: 3280: 3278: 1945:

The Right to Regulate in International Investment Law

1068:

in the expectation of continued participation in the

1060:

It was suggested before the UK left the EU (known as

166:

ISDS claims are often brought under the rules of the

3658:"Mammoth Trade Deal Confirms Advocates' Worst Fears" 3324:"Tobacco plain packaging—investor-state arbitration" 1220:"From ISDS to ICS: A Leopard Can't Change Its Spots" 1130:

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

200:

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

188:

United Nations Commission on International Trade Law

4460: 4335: 4270: 4187: 4178: 4105: 3942: 3863: 3856: 3736: 1583:

Shadow courts: the tribunals that rule global trade

54:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

2932:"Canada's PCB Export Ban Could Cost Taxpayer Dear" 2827:United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2591:"Investment Dispute Settlement Navigator | UNCTAD" 856:under NAFTA Article 1110 as was manifestly unjust. 3112:McFadden, M. 1995. "Provincialism in US Courts", 3311:"Trade Policy Statement", Australian Government. 2424:"Corporate Attacks on Our Laws | Public Citizen" 1703:"TTIP investor court illegal, say German judges" 1524:Claire Provost and Matt Kennard (10 June 2015). 1155:"Recent Developments in Investor-State Disputes" 1084: – Treaty for interstate private investment 498:Office of the United States Trade Representative 346:Office of the United States Trade Representative 3018:"Ethyl Corporation v. the Government of Canada" 2796: 2794: 2398:Univ. Of Wisconsin Legal Studies Research Paper 2360:World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series 1827: 1825: 1501:. International Bar Association. Archived from 1427:Newcombe, Andrew Paul; Paradell, Lluís (2009). 1114: – Arbitration case on smoking regulations 410: 3656:Marans, Daniel; Walsh, Ben (5 November 2015). 2919:Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership 1431:. Austin : Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. 1324:"Unraveling Democracy: The Corporate Takeover" 1124:Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership 1039:Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership 577:Peterson Institute for International Economics 392:Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership 382:Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership 293:is guaranteed by a network of more than 2,750 27:Rules for suing countries by foreign investors 3686: 913:infestations, and on cereal crops to control 8: 2982:"The emerging crisis of investment treaties" 1629:"Methanex Corp. v. United States of America" 1613:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 691:Bilateral investment treaty § Criticism 650:Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership 479:labor rights or human rights. For climate, 3101:"Apotex Inc v USA", US Department of State. 2881:The Journal of World Investment & Trade 1132: – Trade law body of the UN (UNCITRAL) 1120: – 2016 proposed trade agreement (TPP) 132:ISDS most often is an instrument of public 109:), is a set of rules through which states ( 30:"ISDS" redirects here. For other uses, see 4184: 3860: 3693: 3679: 3671: 2184:"How Corporate Courts Threaten Our Future" 1088:Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement 1057:cases would also be illegal under EU law. 1046: 1002: 184:Hong Kong International Arbitration Centre 3541: 3096: 3094: 2954:"S.D. Myers Inc. v. Government of Canada" 1982:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199578184.001.0001 1681:European Commission - European Commission 1362:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 1041:(TTIP) between the United States and the 176:London Court of International Arbitration 82:Learn how and when to remove this message 66:, without removing the technical details. 3569:"Stop Investor-State Dispute Settlement" 3499:Court of Justice of the European Union. 2379:MPRA Paper, University Library of Munich 1576: 1574: 1108: – Treaty on interstate investments 494:fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory 117:for certain state actions affecting the 4541: 3526:"Brexit, the City and Options for ISDS" 3350:Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1548: 1546: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1141: 226:. Abs saw it as a solution to unwanted 3346:"China–Australia Free Trade Agreement" 2195: 2193: 2130:Warren, Elizabeth (25 February 2015). 1650:Nielsen, Nikolaj (16 September 2015). 1606: 1225:. Greenpeace Position Paper. p. 1 1090: – Canada–EU free trade agreement 1035:United States House of Representatives 956:KT Asia Investment Group v. Kazakhstan 555:Social movements and local populations 3020:. Global Affairs Canada. 31 July 2002 2975: 2973: 2971: 2956:. Global Affairs Canada. 31 July 2002 2849:Arnaud de Nanteuil (17 August 2018). 2693:. Icsid.worldbank.org. Archived from 2667:. Icsid.worldbank.org. Archived from 2641:. Icsid.worldbank.org. Archived from 2264: 2262: 2125: 2123: 1730:Nielsen, Nikolaj (17 February 2016). 1725: 1723: 1652:"EU proposes new trade court with US" 332:includes an Investor-State provision. 150:United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement 64:make it understandable to non-experts 7: 4056:New international division of labour 1701:Nielsen, Nikolaj (4 February 2016). 1213: 1211: 1149: 1147: 1145: 935:es:Caso Philip Morris contra Uruguay 3447:Drake, Celeste (18 December 2014). 2234:"Don't buy the trade deal alarmism" 2045:; Hersh, Adam S. (5 October 2015), 1295:van der Merwe, Ben (2 April 2021). 1023:International Investment Agreements 897:-based products, which are used on 540:International Bar Association (IBA) 489:International Bar Association (IBA) 365:North American Free Trade Agreement 307:North American Free Trade Agreement 138:international investment agreements 3587:. Berlin Forum on Global Politics. 3042:. Huffington Post. 14 January 2015 2269:Pelc, Krzysztof J. (31 May 2017). 1581:Sweetland, Edwards, Haley (2016). 1106:International investment agreement 279:American-Mexican Claims Commission 275:Iran–United States Claims Tribunal 152:, or other treaties like the 1991 25: 2913:Lord Livingston, evidence to the 2232:Editorial Board (11 March 2015). 1351:Ingo Venzke and Philipp Günther. 891:Pest Management Regulatory Agency 468:United Nations Special Rapporteur 180:International Chamber of Commerce 95:Investor–state dispute settlement 4580: 4568: 4556: 4544: 4517: 4507: 4506: 3717: 3524:Glinavos, Ioannis (1 May 2018). 2563:"Profiting from injustice | TNI" 2535:"Profiting from injustice | TNI" 2507:"Profiting from injustice | TNI" 1033:In 2014, several members of the 43: 3718: 3643:Hamby, Chris (30 August 2016). 3608:"Investment Treaty Arbitration" 1218:Greenpeace (11 February 2016). 885:, a United States agricultural 242:under international law. Under 3645:"The Billion-dollar Ultimatum" 2722:. Uncitral.org. Archived from 1179:Neslen, Arthur (6 June 2024). 876:Chemtura Corporation v. Canada 866:and patents allegedly held by 1: 2164:Arthur Neslen (6 June 2024). 1883:Waibel, Michael, ed. (2010). 823:dispute reached a settlement. 645:in the adjudicative process. 295:bilateral investment treaties 206:Foreign investment protection 142:bilateral investment treaties 2595:investmentpolicy.unctad.org/ 240:investment protection treaty 3774:Environmental globalization 3749:Anti-globalization movement 3313:Accessed: 5 September 2014. 2354:Hallward-Driemeier (2003). 2317:"ISDS vs. Social Movements" 1082:Bilateral investment treaty 840:Under Chapter 11 of NAFTA, 834:Apotex v. the United States 804:Agreement on Internal Trade 783:Ethyl Corporation v. Canada 244:customary international law 236:Federal Republic of Germany 4654: 3922:Offshore financial centres 3543:10.1093/icsidreview/siy003 3182:"Decision on Jurisdiction" 2934:. Environment News Service 2639:"ICSID, Arbitration Rules" 2275:International Organization 1838:International Organization 1762:International Organization 1394:African Development Review 909:and cole crops to control 812:Dow AgroSciences v. Canada 768:against the government of 688: 362: 119:foreign direct investments 29: 4603:Foreign direct investment 4502: 3708: 2479:"Red Carpet Courts | CEO" 2428:isdscorporateattacks.org/ 2287:10.1017/S0020818317000212 1912:Poirier, Marc R. (2003). 1850:10.1017/S0020818319000249 1774:10.1017/S0020818319000249 1360:watermark.silverchair.com 1249:policy.trade.ec.europa.eu 1118:Trans-Pacific Partnership 1021:in charge of negotiating 977:against Germany in 2016. 732:Cases lost by governments 515:Trans-Pacific Partnership 234:. The Treaty between the 123:international arbitration 113:) can be sued by foreign 3764:Democratic globalization 3142:Accessed: 12 April 2010. 3103:Accessed: 12 April 2010. 3063:Accessed: 12 April 2010. 1943:Titi, Catharine (2014). 1112:Philip Morris v. Uruguay 999:public international law 931:Philip Morris v. Uruguay 923:Philip Morris v. Uruguay 828:Cases won by governments 625:public international law 453:environmental protection 342:World Trade Organization 291:public international law 4046:Investor-state disputes 3999:Illicit financial flows 3843:Political globalization 3791:Global financial system 3400:The European Commission 3153:Alfred-Maurice de Zayas 3130:Accessed: 18 April 2014 2893:10.1163/221190011X00355 1974:Oxford University Press 1406:10.1111/1467-8268.12583 941:(ICSID), a part of the 103:investment court system 4613:Economic globalization 4387:Christopher Chase-Dunn 4155:Primitive accumulation 3838:Military globalization 3769:Economic globalization 3754:Cultural globalization 2628:Accessed: 7 July 2011. 2624:4 January 2019 at the 2373:Aisbett, Emma (2007). 2115:The real danger in TPP 1804:"The arbitration game" 1070:European Single Market 987: 603:Conflicts of Interests 581:gross domestic product 415: 333: 211:Historical development 144:(BITs), international 4608:Free trade agreements 3577:"Global ISDS Tracker" 3079:. International.gc.ca 2998:. Global Policy Forum 1094:Energy Charter Treaty 983: 758:Occidental v. Ecuador 672:On 1 April 2014, the 406:Debates and criticism 327: 303:free trade agreements 299:Energy Charter Treaty 248:diplomatic protection 154:Energy Charter Treaty 32:ISDS (disambiguation) 4452:Immanuel Wallerstein 4113:Capital accumulation 3979:Endangered languages 3376:. Europarl.europa.eu 3155:(16 November 2015). 2980:Martin Khor (2012). 2486:corporateeurope.org/ 2315:Global ISDS Tracker 1505:on 30 September 2020 883:Chemtura Corporation 868:Bristol Myers Squibb 766:Occidental Petroleum 738:S.D. Myers v. Canada 561:fossil fuel drilling 517:(TPP), U.S. Senator 476:environmental crisis 250:, which may include 4524:Business portal 4083:Transnational crime 3989:Forced displacement 3974:Economic inequality 3848:Trade globalization 3744:Alter-globalization 3663:The Huffington Post 3459:on 21 December 2014 3402:. 16 September 2015 2238:The Washington Post 2136:The Washington Post 2103:The Huffington Post 2076:(27 October 2015), 2022:corporateeurope.org 1007:European Commission 818:On 25 August 2008, 524:The Washington Post 509:In a February 2016 481:Global ISDS Tracker 443:Regulatory capacity 396:European Commission 4297:Andre Gunder Frank 4071:Race to the bottom 4061:North–South divide 3779:Global citizenship 3115:Cornell Law Review 2209:. 26 February 2015 2105:, 11 November 2015 1947:. Nomos and Hart. 975:Vattenfall's claim 968:Prospects for ISDS 565:mineral extraction 439:in the mid-2000s. 334: 266:arbitral tribunals 4623:International law 4532: 4531: 4498: 4497: 4357:K. Anthony Appiah 4352:Daniele Archibugi 4101: 4100: 3890:COVID-19 pandemic 3796:Global governance 3292:. 11 October 2014 2729:on 25 August 2014 2671:on 1 January 2012 2645:on 4 January 2012 2362:. 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Livingston 721: 704: 693: 687: 617: 605: 573: 571:Economic impact 557: 445: 432: 427: 417: 408: 384: 367: 361: 353:chilling effect 287: 285:Modern practice 213: 208: 170:(ICSID) of the 88: 77: 71: 68: 60:help improve it 57: 48: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4651: 4649: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4589: 4577: 4565: 4553: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4526: 4514: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4466: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4377:Zygmunt Bauman 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4343: 4341: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4278: 4276: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4242:Thomas Piketty 4239: 4237:Kevin O'Rourke 4234: 4229: 4227:Michael Hudson 4224: 4219: 4217:Robert Brenner 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4193: 4191: 4182: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 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H. M. Ling 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4412:Michael Hardt 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4392:Alfred Crosby 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4334: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4322:Susan Strange 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4292:Robert W. Cox 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4279: 4277: 4269: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4252:Jeffrey Sachs 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4171: 4170:World-systems 4168: 4166: 4165:World history 4163: 4161: 4160:Social change 4158: 4156: 4153: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4140: 4139: 4138:Modernization 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4104: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4077: 4074: 4073: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4042: 4039: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4006: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3953: 3950: 3949: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3891: 3888: 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The 495: 490: 484: 482: 477: 473: 469: 465: 464:David R. Boyd 460: 458: 454: 450: 449:public health 442: 440: 438: 429: 426: 423: 422: 421:The Economist 414: 405: 403: 400: 397: 393: 389: 381: 379: 377: 373: 366: 358: 356: 354: 349: 347: 343: 338: 331: 326: 322: 319: 316: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 284: 282: 280: 276: 272: 267: 263: 262: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 210: 205: 203: 201: 197: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 164: 162: 157: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 130: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 86: 83: 75: 65: 61: 55: 52:This article 50: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 4618:Human rights 4485:John R. Saul 4470:Noam Chomsky 4462:Non–academic 4402:Susan George 4397:Nancy Fraser 4367:Walden Bello 4312:David Harvey 4302:Stephen Gill 4222:Jayati Ghosh 4128:Earth system 3994:Human rights 3934:Water crisis 3831:early modern 3661: 3649:Buzzfeed.com 3533: 3530:ICSID Review 3529: 3519: 3507:. Retrieved 3494: 3482:. Retrieved 3473: 3461:. 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