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traditional illusion of control model. People will of course give up control if another person is thought to have more knowledge or skill in areas such as medicine where actual skill and knowledge are involved. In cases like these it is entirely rational to give up responsibility to people such as doctors. However, when it comes to events of pure chance, allowing another to make decisions (or gamble) on one's behalf, because they are seen as luckier is not rational and would go against people's well-documented desire for control in uncontrollable situations. However, it does seem plausible since people generally believe that they can possess luck and employ it to advantage in games of chance, and it is not a far leap that others may also be seen as lucky and able to control uncontrollable events. In a study conducted in
Singapore, the perception of control, luck, and skill when gambling led to an increase in gambling behavior.
124:. Although people are likely to overestimate their control when the situations are heavily chance-determined, they also tend to underestimate their control when they actually have it, which runs contrary to some theories of the illusion and its adaptiveness. People also showed a higher illusion of control when they were allowed to become familiar with a task through practice trials, make their choice before the event happens like with throwing dice, and when they can make their choice rather than have it made for them with the same odds. People are more likely to show control when they have more answers right at the beginning than at the end, even when the people had the same number of correct answers.
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that the overestimation of control in nondepressed people only showed up when the interval was long enough, implying that this is because they take more aspects of a situation into account than their depressed counterparts. Also, Dykman et al. (1989) showed that depressed people believe they have no control in situations where they actually do, so their perception is not more accurate overall. Allan et al. (2007) has proposed that the pessimistic bias of depressives resulted in "depressive realism" when asked about estimation of control, because depressed individuals are more likely to say no even if they have control.
364:. They each watched a graph being plotted on a computer screen, similar to a real-time graph of a stock price or index. Using three computer keys, they had to raise the value as high as possible. They were warned that the value showed random variations, but that the keys might have some effect. In fact, the fluctuations were not affected by the keys. The traders' ratings of their success measured their susceptibility to the illusion of control. This score was then compared with each trader's performance. Those who were more prone to the illusion scored significantly lower on analysis,
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not. Subjects had a variable degree of control over the lights, or none at all, depending on how the buttons were connected. The experimenters made clear that there might be no relation between the subjects' actions and the lights. Subjects estimated how much control they had over the lights. These estimates bore no relation to how much control they actually had, but was related to how often the "Score" light lit up. Even when their choices made no difference at all, subjects confidently reported exerting some control over the lights.
297:, since there is evidence that they are more common in normally mentally healthy individuals than in depressed individuals. However, in 1998 Pacini, Muir and Epstein showed that this may be because depressed people overcompensate for a tendency toward maladaptive intuitive processing by exercising excessive rational control in trivial situations, and note that the difference with non-depressed people disappears in more consequential circumstances.
71:. For example, in one study, college students were in a virtual reality setting to treat a fear of heights using an elevator. Those who were told that they had control, yet had none, felt as though they had as much control as those who actually did have control over the elevator. Those who were led to believe they did not have control said they felt as though they had little control.
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to part with it. Tickets bearing familiar symbols were less likely to be exchanged than others with unfamiliar symbols. Although these lotteries were random, subjects behaved as though their choice of ticket affected the outcome. Participants who chose their own numbers were less likely to trade their ticket even for one in a game with better odds.
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more choices for themselves, there was more sense of control over their daily lives. This increase in control increased their overall happiness and health compared to those not making as many decisions for themselves. It was even speculated that with results so promising could slow down or reverse cognitive decline that may occur with aging.
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challenged the definition of mental health used by Taylor and Brown and argue that lack of illusions is associated with a non-defensive personality oriented towards growth and learning and with low ego involvement in outcomes. They present evidence that self-determined individuals are less prone to these illusions.
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demonstrated that depressed individuals held a more accurate view than their non-depressed counterparts in a test which measured illusion of control. This finding held true even when the depression was manipulated experimentally. However, when replicating the findings Msetfi et al. (2005, 2007) found
223:
In 1998, Suzanne
Thompson and colleagues argued that Langer's explanation was inadequate to explain all the variations in the effect. As an alternative, they proposed that judgments about control are based on a procedure that they called the "control heuristic". This theory proposes that judgments of
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Another of Langer's experiments replicated by other researchers involves a lottery. Subjects are either given tickets at random or allowed to choose their own. They can then trade their tickets for others with a higher chance of paying out. Subjects who had chosen their own ticket were more reluctant
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Yet another way to investigate perceptions of control is to ask people about hypothetical situations, for example their likelihood of being involved in a motor vehicle accident. On average, drivers regard accidents as much less likely in "high-control" situations, such as when they are driving, than
174:
Ellen Langer's research demonstrated that people were more likely to behave as if they could exercise control in a chance situation where "skill cues" were present. By skill cues, Langer meant properties of the situation more normally associated with the exercise of skill, in particular the exercise
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One kind of laboratory demonstration involves two lights marked "Score" and "No Score". Subjects have to try to control which one lights up. In one version of this experiment, subjects could press either of two buttons. Another version had one button, which subjects decided on each trial to press or
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was secretly placed under the ice before the game, an action which the players and officials believed would bring them luck. The members of Team Canada were the only people who knew the coin had been placed there. The coin was later put in the Hockey Hall of Fame where there was an opening so people
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Fenton-O'Creevy et al. argue, as do
Gollwittzer and Kinney in 1998, that while illusory beliefs about control may promote goal striving, they are not conducive to sound decision-making. Illusions of control may cause insensitivity to feedback, impede learning and predispose toward greater objective
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A number of studies have found a link between a sense of control and health, especially in older people. This link for older people having improved health because of a sense of control was discussed in a study conducted in a nursing home. As the residents at the nursing home were encouraged to make
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In another experiment, subjects had to predict the outcome of thirty coin tosses. The feedback was rigged so that each subject was right exactly half the time, but the groups differed in where their "hits" occurred. Some were told that their early guesses were accurate. Others were told that their
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judgements can be self-limiting". His argument is essentially concerned with the adaptive effect of optimistic beliefs about control and performance in circumstances where control is possible, rather than perceived control in circumstances where outcomes do not depend on an individual's behavior.
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offers another explanation. To the extent that people are driven by internal goals concerned with the exercise of control over their environment, they will seek to reassert control in conditions of chaos, uncertainty or stress. One way of coping with a lack of real control is to falsely attribute
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In one instance, a lottery pool at a company decides who picks the numbers and buys the tickets based on the wins and losses of each member. The member with the best record becomes the representative until they accumulate a certain number of losses and then a new representative is picked based on
219:
Ellen Langer, who first demonstrated the illusion of control, explained her findings in terms of a confusion between skill and chance situations. She proposed that people base their judgments of control on "skill cues". These are features of a situation that are usually associated with games of
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that high self-efficacy can be maladaptive in some circumstances. In a scenario-based study, Whyte et al. showed in 1997 that participants in whom they had induced high self-efficacy were significantly more likely to escalate commitment to a failing course of action. In 1998 Knee and
Zuckerman
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At times, people attempt to gain control by transferring responsibility to more capable or “luckier” others to act for them. By forfeiting direct control, it is perceived to be a valid way of maximizing outcomes. This illusion of control by proxy is a significant theoretical extension of the
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The illusion is more common in familiar situations, and in situations where the person knows the desired outcome. Feedback that emphasizes success rather than failure can increase the effect, while feedback that emphasizes failure can decrease or reverse the effect. The illusion is weaker for
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successes were distributed evenly through the thirty trials. Afterwards, they were surveyed about their performance. Subjects with early "hits" overestimated their total successes and had higher expectations of how they would perform on future guessing games. This result resembles the
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control depend on two conditions; an intention to create the outcome, and a relationship between the action and outcome. In games of chance, these two conditions frequently go together. As well as an intention to win, there is an action, such as throwing a die or pulling a lever on a
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in which people give greater weight to information that occurs earlier in a series. Forty percent of the subjects believed their performance on this chance task would improve with practice, and twenty-five percent said that distraction would impair their performance.
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then argued that people's failure to detect noncontingencies may result in their attributing uncontrollable outcomes to personal causes. Nearer to the present, Taylor and Brown argued that positive illusions, including the illusion of control, foster mental health.
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in "low-control" situations, such as when they are in the passenger seat. They also rate a high-control accident, such as driving into the car in front, as much less likely than a low-control accident such as being hit from behind by another driver.
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Dykman BM, Abramson LY, Alloy LB, Hartlage S (March 1989). "Processing of ambiguous and unambiguous feedback by depressed and nondepressed college students: schematic biases and their implications for depressive realism".
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In 1988 Taylor and Brown have argued that positive illusions, including the illusion of control, are adaptive as they motivate people to persist at tasks when they might otherwise give up. This position is supported by
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The illusion of control is demonstrated by three converging lines of evidence: 1) laboratory experiments, 2) observed behavior in familiar games of chance such as lotteries, and 3) self-reports of real-world behavior.
510:
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The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events, for example, when someone feels a sense of control over outcomes that they demonstrably do not influence.
258:. While those with high core self-evaluations are likely to believe that they control their own environment (i.e., internal locus of control), very high levels of CSE may lead to the illusion of control.
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228:, which is immediately followed by an outcome. Even though the outcome is selected randomly, the control heuristic would result in the player feeling a degree of control over the outcome.
289:"In activities where the margins of error are narrow and missteps can produce costly or injurious consequences, personal well-being is best served by highly accurate efficacy appraisal."
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wins and losses. Even though no member is truly better than the other and it is all by chance, they still would rather have someone with seemingly more luck to have control over them.
67:. Instead, they may judge their degree of control by a process which is often unreliable. As a result, they see themselves as responsible for events to which there is little or no
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individuals and is stronger when individuals have an emotional need to control the outcome. The illusion is strengthened by stressful and competitive situations, including
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later proposed that humans have a strong motive to control their environment and Wyatt Mann hypothesized a basic competence motive that people satisfy by exerting control.
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2770:Arab–Israeli conflict
2497:Social influence bias
2442:Out-group homogeneity
2098:Psychological Science
1921:Thinking and deciding
758:Psychological Science
287:
240:core self-evaluations
2412:Mere-exposure effect
2342:Extrinsic incentives
2288:Selective perception
2035:. In Pohl RF (ed.).
2029:Thompson SC (2004).
1325:Bandura, A. (1997).
729:Brian Klaas (2021).
37:illusory superiority
2637:Social desirability
2532:von Restorff effect
2407:Mean world syndrome
2382:Hostile attribution
1950:. Wiley-Blackwell.
888:Podnieks A (2009).
484:(3). Archived from
462:, pp. 187, 124
308:In the late 1970s,
21:illusion of control
2552:Statistical biases
2330:Curse of knowledge
1946:Hardman D (2009).
1774:Wegner DM (2008).
1164:, pp. 101–103
450:, pp. 129–130
302:empirical evidence
268:Depressive realism
45:positive illusions
2855:
2854:
2492:Social comparison
2273:Choice-supportive
2079:978-0-19-513634-0
2052:978-1-84169-351-4
1976:978-0-07-050477-6
1957:978-1-4051-2398-3
1930:978-0-521-65030-4
1901:978-0-19-926948-8
1796:978-0-19-518963-6
1468:978-0-89859-018-0
1235:978-0-7623-0179-9
905:978-1-55168-323-2
861:(Pt 1): 183–200.
742:978-1-9821-5411-0
414:Hedonic treadmill
400:Philosophy portal
386:Psychology portal
122:financial trading
2890:
2878:Magical thinking
2868:Cognitive biases
2652:Systematic error
2607:Omitted-variable
2522:Trait ascription
2362:Frog pond effect
2190:Cognitive biases
2174:
2167:
2160:
2151:
2142:
2129:
2083:
2068:Vyse SA (1997).
2064:
2034:
2025:
1988:
1965:Plous S (1993).
1961:
1942:
1919:Baron J (2000).
1906:
1905:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1874:
1866:
1848:
1830:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1805:
1799:. Archived from
1780:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1754:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1593:
1585:
1559:
1541:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1507:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1425:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1349:(4): 1056–1068.
1338:
1332:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1291:(9): 1175–1184.
1280:
1274:
1273:
1255:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1165:
1159:
1148:
1147:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1051:
1040:
1039:
1009:
1000:
999:
988:10.1037/h0081013
971:
960:
959:
948:10.1037/h0093874
931:
925:
919:
910:
909:
885:
879:
878:
850:
844:
843:
833:
823:
799:
790:
789:
753:
747:
746:
726:
720:
719:
699:
693:
692:
672:
655:
649:
638:
632:
623:
617:
602:
601:
585:
574:
573:
567:
559:
533:
515:
506:
497:
496:
494:
493:
469:
463:
457:
451:
445:
429:Toxic positivity
402:
397:
396:
395:
388:
383:
382:
381:
362:investment banks
343:magical thinking
244:locus of control
2898:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2832:
2806:
2671:
2546:
2527:Turkey illusion
2295:Compassion fade
2192:
2183:
2178:
2147:
2145:
2132:
2095:
2091:
2089:Further reading
2086:
2080:
2067:
2053:
2028:
1991:
1977:
1969:. McGraw-Hill.
1964:
1958:
1945:
1931:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1867:
1846:10.1.1.405.3118
1828:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1778:
1776:"Self is Magic"
1773:
1772:
1768:
1752:10.1.1.515.1673
1734:
1733:
1729:
1708:(12): 897–902.
1699:
1698:
1694:
1686:
1682:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1586:
1557:10.1.1.510.1590
1539:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1423:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1324:
1320:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1223:
1222:
1218:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1168:
1160:
1151:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1011:
1010:
1003:
973:
972:
963:
933:
932:
928:
920:
913:
906:
887:
886:
882:
852:
851:
847:
814:(5): e0178036.
801:
800:
793:
755:
754:
750:
743:
728:
727:
723:
701:
700:
696:
674:
673:
658:
650:
641:
633:
626:
618:
605:
587:
586:
577:
560:
531:10.1.1.385.9509
513:
508:
507:
500:
491:
489:
471:
470:
466:
458:
454:
446:
442:
438:
433:
398:
393:
391:
384:
379:
377:
374:
366:risk management
331:
270:
264:
217:
208:
179:: when rolling
172:
163:
154:
133:
113:
77:
53:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2896:
2894:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2860:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2811:Bias reduction
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2787:Political bias
2784:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2715:Infrastructure
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2690:
2685:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2632:Self-selection
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2467:Pro-innovation
2464:
2459:
2454:
2452:Overton window
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2320:Dunning–Kruger
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2234:Correspondence
2231:
2229:Actor–observer
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2169:
2162:
2154:
2144:
2143:
2130:
2104:(4): 502–508.
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2078:
2065:
2051:
2026:
2000:(6): 187–190.
1989:
1975:
1962:
1956:
1943:
1929:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1907:
1900:
1882:
1839:(2): 218–231.
1816:
1795:
1766:
1745:(4): 531–542.
1727:
1692:
1680:
1653:(3): 482–495.
1637:
1618:(3): 431–445.
1601:
1527:
1490:(3): 461–481.
1474:
1467:
1445:
1434:(2): 115–130.
1411:
1392:(5): 415–432.
1376:
1333:
1318:
1275:
1264:(4): 331–341.
1241:
1234:
1216:
1197:(2): 143–161.
1181:
1166:
1149:
1122:
1110:
1097:10.1086/224479
1091:(3): 316–330.
1075:
1064:(6): 951–955.
1041:
1022:(2): 311–328.
1001:
961:
926:
911:
904:
880:
845:
791:
764:(4): 502–508.
748:
741:
721:
710:(2): 104–114.
694:
656:
639:
624:
603:
575:
524:(2): 193–210.
498:
464:
452:
439:
437:
434:
432:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
405:
404:
403:
389:
373:
370:
358:City of London
330:
327:
300:There is also
275:Albert Bandura
263:
260:
216:
213:
207:
204:
171:
168:
162:
159:
153:
150:
132:
129:
112:
109:
76:
73:
52:
49:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2895:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2835:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2765:United States
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2740:False balance
2738:
2737:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2612:Participation
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2580:Psychological
2578:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
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2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2347:Fading affect
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
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2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
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2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
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2279:
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2257:
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2253:
2252:
2249:
2247:
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2242:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
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2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2081:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1911:
1903:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1820:
1817:
1806:on 2017-01-20
1802:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1781:. In Baer J,
1777:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1739:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1696:
1693:
1690:, p. 172
1689:
1684:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1641:
1638:
1633:
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1625:
1621:
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1613:
1605:
1602:
1597:
1591:
1583:
1579:
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1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1528:
1523:
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1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
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1337:
1334:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
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1290:
1286:
1279:
1276:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1231:
1227:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1182:
1179:, p. 122
1178:
1177:Thompson 2004
1173:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1120:, p. 115
1119:
1118:Thompson 2004
1114:
1111:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
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1048:
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1042:
1037:
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1021:
1017:
1016:
1008:
1006:
1002:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
970:
968:
966:
962:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
930:
927:
924:, p. 116
923:
922:Thompson 2004
918:
916:
912:
907:
901:
897:
893:
892:
884:
881:
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872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
849:
846:
841:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
813:
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805:
798:
796:
792:
787:
783:
779:
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738:
734:
733:
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717:
713:
709:
705:
698:
695:
690:
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682:
678:
671:
669:
667:
665:
663:
661:
657:
654:, p. 188
653:
652:Thompson 1999
648:
646:
644:
640:
637:, p. 187
636:
635:Thompson 1999
631:
629:
625:
622:, p. 171
621:
616:
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612:
610:
608:
604:
599:
595:
591:
584:
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545:
541:
537:
532:
527:
523:
519:
512:
505:
503:
499:
488:on 2016-06-01
487:
483:
479:
475:
468:
465:
461:
460:Thompson 1999
456:
453:
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441:
435:
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427:
425:
422:
420:
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406:
401:
390:
387:
376:
371:
369:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:psychokinesis
336:
335:Daniel Wegner
333:Psychologist
328:
326:
322:
318:
315:
311:
306:
303:
298:
296:
290:
286:
283:
280:
276:
269:
261:
259:
257:
253:
252:self-efficacy
249:
245:
241:
236:
233:
229:
227:
221:
214:
212:
205:
203:
199:
196:
195:
188:
186:
182:
178:
169:
167:
160:
158:
152:Demonstration
151:
149:
146:
145:Canadian coin
141:
137:
130:
128:
125:
123:
119:
110:
108:
106:
101:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
72:
70:
66:
62:
61:introspective
57:
50:
48:
46:
42:
41:optimism bias
38:
35:. Along with
34:
30:
26:
22:
2725:In education
2692:
2676:Other biases
2662:Verification
2647:Survivorship
2597:Non-response
2570:Healthy user
2512:Substitution
2487:Self-serving
2283:Confirmation
2251:Availability
2199:Acquiescence
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2097:
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1997:
1993:
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1590:cite journal
1550:(1): 10–22.
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1162:Hardman 2009
1138:(1): 39–50.
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486:the original
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329:Applications
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226:slot machine
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215:Explanations
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105:Ellen Langer
102:
81:Alfred Adler
78:
58:
54:
25:Ellen Langer
20:
18:
2792:Publication
2745:Vietnam War
2592:Length time
2575:Information
2517:Time-saving
2377:Horn effect
2367:Halo effect
2315:Distinction
2224:Attribution
2219:Attentional
419:Neuroticism
351:free throws
256:self-esteem
248:neuroticism
93:attribution
69:causal link
2862:Categories
2755:South Asia
2730:Liking gap
2542:In animals
2507:Status quo
2422:Negativity
2325:Egocentric
2300:Congruence
2278:Commitment
2268:Blind spot
2256:Mean world
2246:Automation
1912:References
1810:2008-07-02
1783:Kaufman JC
1688:Plous 1993
1574:10344/2360
1505:10344/2571
620:Plous 1993
492:2016-05-16
347:basketball
266:See also:
111:Occurrence
51:Definition
33:paranormal
2873:Illusions
2823:Debiasing
2802:White hat
2797:Reporting
2710:Inductive
2627:Selection
2587:Lead time
2560:Estimator
2537:Zero-risk
2502:Spotlight
2482:Restraint
2472:Proximity
2457:Precision
2417:Narrative
2372:Hindsight
2357:Frequency
2337:Emotional
2310:Declinism
2241:Authority
2214:Anchoring
2204:Ambiguity
2022:145714398
1939:316403966
1841:CiteSeerX
1747:CiteSeerX
1552:CiteSeerX
1105:143467043
526:CiteSeerX
448:Vyse 1997
409:Free will
279:veridical
118:depressed
2720:Inherent
2683:Academic
2657:Systemic
2642:Spectrum
2622:Sampling
2602:Observer
2565:Forecast
2477:Response
2437:Optimism
2432:Omission
2427:Normalcy
2397:In-group
2392:Implicit
2305:Cultural
2209:Affinity
2118:19309464
2061:55124398
2014:20182602
1985:26931106
1863:16881760
1675:17018149
1667:17366313
1582:15702960
1522:17008352
1514:17366312
1406:15120827
1371:15955274
1313:23051981
1036:30043741
996:11520741
982:: 1–11.
956:14300511
875:18034916
840:28542389
808:PLOS ONE
778:19309464
372:See also
310:Abramson
295:adaptive
131:By proxy
29:gambling
2842:General
2840:Lists:
2775:Ukraine
2700:Funding
2462:Present
2447:Outcome
2352:Framing
2139:bbc.com
2126:6480784
2043:115–125
1632:2926638
1363:9569659
1305:2782727
1211:9522682
831:5436884
786:6480784
548:3283814
177:casinos
75:History
2847:Memory
2760:Sweden
2750:Norway
2617:Recall
2387:Impact
2263:Belief
2181:Biases
2124:
2116:
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2049:
2020:
2012:
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254:, and
97:Kelley
89:Wiener
85:Heider
2735:Media
2705:FUTON
2122:S2CID
2018:S2CID
2010:JSTOR
1829:(PDF)
1804:(PDF)
1779:(PDF)
1671:S2CID
1540:(PDF)
1518:S2CID
1424:(PDF)
1402:S2CID
1367:S2CID
1309:S2CID
1254:(PDF)
1101:S2CID
1032:S2CID
992:S2CID
782:S2CID
552:S2CID
514:(PDF)
436:Notes
314:Alloy
185:craps
183:in a
91:, an
2114:PMID
2074:ISBN
2057:OCLC
2047:ISBN
1981:OCLC
1971:ISBN
1952:ISBN
1935:OCLC
1925:ISBN
1896:ISBN
1877:link
1859:PMID
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1663:PMID
1628:PMID
1596:link
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1230:ISBN
1207:PMID
952:PMID
900:ISBN
871:PMID
836:PMID
774:PMID
737:ISBN
600:(3).
570:link
544:PMID
312:and
238:The
181:dice
39:and
19:The
2782:Net
2667:Wet
2106:doi
2002:doi
1851:doi
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