Immigrant health care in the United States

930:, describes the story of how detained immigrants located in a south Georgia detention center were able to devise and communicate a plan to protest against the facility and their officials during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the women and men in this detention center were separated into different units, a collection of women wrote a letter that was then placed into an article of clothing that was being moved to the men's section of the facility. They wanted to stage this protest in order to demand safer protective measures against the virus and request that ICE "release the sick, elderly and high-risk among them." Not only were these individuals able to find ways to communicate with one another within the detention facility, but they also had a means of communicating with an investigative reporter who then wrote about their efforts to mobilize a protest and try to fulfill their requests. This particular detention center had a video visitation system which detainees utilized to speak with the investigative reporter who was then able to witness the unhealthy conditions that these people were forced to live in (such that these individuals were creating their own face masks because they were not granted any, as well as the ways guards would not wear masks when moving through the facility). 570:

immigrant women have medical insurance or not, immigrant women are reluctant to seek help because some might fear that it may negatively affect their immigration status. Immigrant women are less likely to get mammograms, Pap tests, and other sexual and reproductive health services. There are about one in five immigrant women who have medical insurance but do not utilize it. Statistical data from Kaiser Family Foundation and National Immigration Law Center in 2018 shows that 34 states have permit lawfully residing immigrant children without 5-year wait (Medicaid or Children's Health Insurance Program/CHIP), 25 states permit lawfully residing pregnant women without 5-year wait (Medicaid or CHIP), and 16 states permit pregnant women regardless of status (CHIP). Current research also indicates that one's immigration status in the United States affects all aspects of sexual and reproductive health of a woman. For example, the risk for postpartum depression in women is twice as high for U.S. immigrant women than in their birth country. It is a factor to consider that other countries might not recognize postpartum depression or mental health as an important area of health and wellbeing compared to the United States, so it may be unreported in other countries.

942:, which depicts the story of an immigrant woman who underwent a dilation and curettage (D&C) procedure after expressing to the doctor at the center her concerns about her menstrual health. After her procedure, the doctor explained how one of her tubes were tied and how she may not be able to have children in the future. The woman was emotionally distraught and expressed how she had not given consent for the procedure to be done. A nurse by the name of Dawn Wooten filed a whistleblower report that claimed the doctor at the center was performing "an alarmingly high-rates of hysterectomies... on Spanish-speaking women" which herself and others nurses felt did not fully understand the procedures were being done to them. It is through the efforts of whistleblowers that these kinds of injustices are brought to the attention of the public and because of their reports, the general masses are able to become more informed on the living conditions and health matters of immigrants within these detention centers which they do not have direct access to. 566:

their families which can affect their health. There are instances when health care professionals might think that a mother or a woman is well-rounded on personal health, which may lead to the lack of giving supplemental or further information to the patient when there is a possibility that many immigrant women are not educated enough on medicine. Scientific or medical myths may also influence the opinions of immigrant women, mothers in particular, that may be the cause of their decisions regarding health that can lead to mistreatment or undiagnosed illnesses. Some immigrant women may find themselves struggling to balance their health with their culture and traditions that may dictate what they want to decide for their health, while also learning American health culture.

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undocumented immigrants, or families looking for academic or financial opportunity. The Healthy Migrant theory assumes that immigrants are able to successfully transition their lives in America, become fluent in English, or retain their health status. Consequently, continuous studies have found evidence of the uniform decline of immigrants' health advantage as the number of years in the U.S. increases until about 10 years in when health conditions align with the level of foreign born populations, and become of this, the presence of cultural barriers could perpetuate the decline especially in immigrant populations that suffer from acculturative stress in their new country.

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health services. In 1986, theorists Kyriakos Markides and Jeannine Coreil developed the idea of the Healthy Migrant theory that thought of migration to include an inherent selection process due to the physical and psychological demands of travel, searching for employment, and adjusting to new cultural norm. This paradox theorized that despite the social disadvantages of transitioning into a new country especially for ethnic minority groups, there is an inherent physical and psychological robustness in immigrants compared to populations in both their home country and the United States.

217:(EMTALA) of 1986 mandates that anyone who enters a hospital emergency department be screened and medically stabilized, without any requirements of insurance, proof of citizenship, or residency. The right to emergency screening and stabilization under EMTALA is not directly supported by federal funding; uninsured patients receive a bill for their care. Those who are unable to pay can be covered under Emergency Medicaid programs in some states, or the care is uncompensated. Immigrants are more likely to rely on emergency departments due to lack of access to preventative care. 1026:, with studies showing that preventative care acts as a cost-effective solution to overall health care costs. Finally, policies to enhance insurance affordability for workers have been proposed to potentially reduce coverage disparities, given that a large proportion of immigrants are less likely to be covered than native-born citizens. Studies indicate the overall effectiveness of state-funded coverage programs can reduce the immigrant-citizen health care disparities when compounded with other efforts such as health promotion and reduced enrollment barriers. 668:

than native-born citizens. Prentice, Pebley, and Sastry also found that immigrants tend to share more characteristic qualities of those who are uninsured and often of lower socioeconomic status. These include lower levels of education attainment, income, and ownership of non-housing assets. Additionally, lack of enrollment in public programs or health plans has been observed to disproportionately affect those in low-income families. Low-income immigrants are over two times more likely to lack health insurance than low-income citizens.

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immigrants with LEP from the early 2000s to 2017. However, LEP patients may experience greater difficulties than English-proficient patients with communicating information with their practitioners. Furthermore, language proficiency can determine the types of treatments, exams, and other health services that Latino immigrants receive. Studies demonstrate that Latina patients were more likely receive recommendations for Pap smears and similar screenings from their doctors if their level of English proficiency was higher.

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monitoring for detainees expressing suicidal ideation, and refusals to supply appropriately prescribed medications. In many reports, detainees with mental disabilities were observed as often physically restrained, shackled, or heavily medicated. The Center for Immigrants' Rights Clinic report indicated that most detainees were not informed of existing mental health services or how to file grievances. Many also expressed fear of being held in solitary confinement and thus did not express mental health concerns.

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obstacle. Proposals vary from the employment of "cultural translators" to mandating cultural education and listening practice by medical professionals. Patient-centered care, which primarily focuses on improving communication between providers and marginalized patients, is considered a more feasible approach. This is achieved through preparing medical professionals to be attentive listeners, ask open-ended questions, and practice power-sharing during patient interactions.

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argue that, because immigrants can also join the health sector's work force, their inclusion in receiving benefits is necessary in servicing the expanding population. Additionally, other arguments of support note that limited accessibility of care requires immigrants to seek care through emergency services, which ultimately results in delays in major diagnoses until the later stages of an affliction, thereby increasing a community's level of disease.

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insurance coverage. In the year 2000, immigrants' healthcare costs comprised 8.5% of total expenditures on medical care in the United States, while undocumented immigrants' costs were estimated to be approximately 1.5%. Lower costs and degrees of medical care usage may be attributable to existing barriers to care, better health outcomes as described by the "healthy immigrant effect," and reluctance to report health problems.

510:' tend to enjoy better health than the native-born populations. Multiple studies also demonstrate that black immigrants are less likely to have insurance than US-born black and white counterparts. Insurance rates of black male immigrants do not significantly vary with income, employment status, or health status. Foreign-born black men also use physician and hospital services less frequently than US-born black and white men. 725:(ICE) has increased by over five times within twenty years. Immigration detention has been cited for repeated violations of human rights, including physical and sexual abuse, insufficient or denial of medical care, and substandard living conditions. Health conditions and medical services have also received increasing attention in news coverage due to reports of premature deaths of those who had been held in detention. 144:(PRWORA) in 1996, the gap in health coverage between immigrants and citizens has grown considerably. Immigrants and their children are less likely to be insured, and the lack of insurance consequently reduces their ability to receive care. Naturalized citizens, on the other hand, generally receive the same level of health care access as U.S.-born citizens, implying that health care usage becomes more available with 497:. Another cross-sectional study among Chinese immigrants has shown that English proficiency as well as print health literacy is crucial in determining immigrants' health status. In addition to language barriers, some Asian subgroups emphasize a higher level of trust between health care practitioners and patients, and as a result, may feel alienated using the more formalized American health care system. 738:

hygienic conditions. Specifically, children did not have regular opportunities to shower or use soap to wash their hands while distributed clothing was also inadequate or dirty, with some children having to wear only diapers. Furthermore, detainees reported that some were not provided with hygiene supplies, such as soap, toothpaste, and toilet paper, and did not have access to hot water.

647:. Health benefits are largely contingent on immigrant parents in that although a child may be born in the U.S., the naturalization process for adults can take between 5 and 10 years. Since welfare reform initiatives like the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act have been enacted, states have seen an overall decline in the number of children being vaccinated. 742:

observed malnutrition and rapid weight loss. As well, according to the 2011 Performance-Based National Detention Standards published by ICE, detainees with diabetes or other health conditions are to be provided with an appropriately suited diet. However, multiple detainees received meals that were not adjusted to compensate for medical dietary restrictions.

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with better health and higher school attendance among children. However, this observation of "better health" may potentially be attributed to less diagnoses as a result of less health care utilization. Others also suggest that the higher rates of school attendance among Asian children may result from cultural values that prioritize education.

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that legislative acts like EMTALA, in ensuring emergency medical care to all, lack clarity in defining what constitutes an "emergency". As such, minor health issues such as migraines—as opposed to emergencies like gunshot wounds and cardiac arrest—are included and hurt hospitals due to the lack of additional government compensation.

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Values of stoicism and differences in disease etiology were also considered as potentially in conflict with perceptions of practicality of Western health care. Additionally, in a 2016 study of Asian immigrants, Luo Huabin found that participants with higher levels of acculturation were more likely to seek routine oral health care.

278:, seeks to expand coverage and improve access to the health care system while simultaneously managing its costs. Among PPACA's provisions are: the requirement that all U.S. citizens and legal residents possess health insurance; the creation of refundable tax credits for households between 100% and 400% of the 993:

Although the data that supported the Healthy Migrant theory converged on the idea that general immigrants arrived to the United States healthier than native-born Americans, the theory does not take into consideration the populations that immigrate to the United States for necessity, such as refugees,

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in 2009 also suggests that increased immigrant participation in the United States' health care system yields monetary benefits. Proponents argue that expanding eligibility to include immigrants in the health care system would spread the costs of sustaining public benefits, creating more available tax

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Linguistic difficulties can prevent immigrants from completing health insurance and medical forms. A study of Korean immigrants demonstrated that language barriers and uninsured status were major obstacles to utilizing healthcare in the United States. Additionally, LEP can limit employment to a small

619:(DACA) deferments are not eligible for many of the coverage options offered through the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Coverage for U.S. born individuals is 12 percent, while immigrants with less than five years' residency in the United States have an uninsured rate of nearly 50 percent. 809:

In August 2019, a class action lawsuit was filed against ICE and the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California. The suit alleged that ICE and other federal officials were cognizant of the conditions and quality of medical care inside detention facilities yet took no action to remedy

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An inspection of two detention centers in Georgia indicated that food and water conditions were deemed unsanitary. Specifically, detainees reported that provided food was often spoiled, under-cooked, rancid, or found to contain objects such as bugs, debris, hair, teeth, and mice. Many detainees also

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Additional research indicates that, compared to children of other ethnic groups, Asian children receive the poorest quality of primary care. Despite the tendency for less health care access than non-Hispanic white citizens, data reviews find that Asian ethnicities and immigrant status are correlated

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Although immigrant populations have increasingly become the foci for analyzing health disparities, the issue of providing care within the context of the patient's cultural background was contested by studies that completely denied the presence of rising health issues in immigrants due to inadequate

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Proponents of immigrant health care reform contend that children of immigrant families are like native-born children in their need for security in health and nutrition; as such, they argue that the current state of health care access does not appropriately reflect national interest. Proponents also

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insurance. Personal characteristics that stem from structural obstacles include education; both immigrants and native-born citizens who have lower levels of education tend to be uninsured. High uninsured rates are also often correlated with greater difficulties in accessing and retaining insurance.

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A 2001 study by Sylvia Guendelman indicates that foreign-born children are less likely than American-born children to have consistent access to a reliable source of health care. Additional findings show that foreign-born children make less ambulatory and emergency visits to hospitals; however, they

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Studies indicate that, even if born in the United States, children of non-citizens tend to have poorer health than children of citizens. Not only are they more likely to be uninsured, but they also have less access to both medical and dental care. Children of immigrants are also less likely to have

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Opponents argue that immigrants to the United States intend to take advantage of public benefits and therefore favor legislation that implements more restrictions. Alternatively, others statethat health care benefits should be limited given their burden on the federal budget. There is some concern

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Unfamiliarity with the U.S. health care system has been repeatedly cited as a barrier to health care for undocumented immigrants. Hesitance to seek health services may also result from the perceived stigma associated with immigrants' utilization of welfare. A 2003 study found that Asian and Latino

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reported that fear of deportation or detention causes immigrants, especially those who are undocumented, to refrain from seeking medical care. This includes screenings, picking up prescriptions, and participation in federal nutrition programs. A study by Russell Toomey and his colleagues similarly

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reported encountering obstacles with unfamiliar healthcare systems, inefficiencies of diagnosis and treatment processes, and ineffective communication with medical professionals. Religious beliefs and practices of immigrant women may also play a role on the medical decisions of immigrant women and

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are observed to be greater among immigrant populations than U.S. citizens. Whether an immigrant woman is legally document or not, there are many constituents in laws that prevent immigrant women from qualifying for health insurance that can intercept them from getting standard medical services and

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departments. On average, immigrants report lower usages of healthcare services. As such, their per capita spending on health care is lower than that of the US-born population. In their research, Dana Goldman, James Smith, and Neeraj Sood find that health care costs are largely influenced by health

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A literature review by Kathryn Derose, Jose Escarce, and Nicole Lurie indicates that immigrant health outcomes appear to worsen as levels of acculturation increase. This may be attributable to a combination of personal behavioral changes and systemic factors, the latter of which includes disparate

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PPACA's creation of subsidies to make insurance more affordable notably benefits legal residents. In contrast, undocumented immigrants are denied these subsidies and further prohibited from participating in federal or state health insurance exchanges, though their lawfully present children will be

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health care, due to intersecting socioeconomic factors and health policies associated with immigration status. Disparities in health care usage, coverage, and quality are also observed, not only between immigrants and citizens but also among immigrant groups as well. Existing studies have revealed

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Public health scholars have acknowledged that certain marginalized groups, including immigrants, experience a lower quality of healthcare. Laura Uba proposes that culturally competent healthcare for immigrants can be delivered through improved provider education on communication patterns, others'

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The financial costs of health coverage are also often correlated with lack of insurance. Studies have shown a connection between the lack of coverage and higher poverty rates. In their research, Julia Prentice, Anne Pebley, and Narayan Sastry reported that immigrants are less likely to be insured

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Research also demonstrates that immigration status is strongly correlated with the perception of being targets of discrimination by health care providers. Foreign-born Asians and Latinos reported higher frequencies of discriminatory experiences compared to their US-born counterparts. Undocumented

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among immigrants than U.S.-born citizens. Speculation behind this phenomenon looks towards the fact that the immigrant population is generally younger than the native-born population as a whole; others believe that these medical conditions simply have not yet been detected given immigrants' lower

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Views on the act's contributions to the immigrant population vary. Some argue that the reform has immense benefits by addressing coverage gaps and extending more benefits to naturalized citizens. Others argue that substantial disparities still exist, with an estimated 3.7 million adults remaining

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and similar federal insurance programs. This legislative move largely shifted responsibility for immigrant health care from the federal government to the state and local levels; as such, its impact varies across states. Generally, the provisions of PRWORA prevent immigrants from accessing federal

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is a growing field that seeks to better educate medical professionals to see patients as complex individuals rather than an isolated set of symptoms. Proponents believe this practice can reduce the discrimination immigrants face at the hands of healthcare providers, but implementation remains an

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In 2003, the federal government created a proposal to fund hospitals over a four-year period to cover emergency treatment for uninsured and undocumented immigrants, but required asking for patients' citizenship statuses. This proposal was ultimately withdrawn due to the belief that such a policy

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Adults similarly report experiencing depression, self-harm, and post-traumatic symptoms. A review conducted by Kristen Ochoa found that detained immigrants with specific mental health needs were subjected to prolonged solitary confinement, restricted contact with family and friends, insufficient

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also reported that there had been cases where medical staff had treated patients in capacities outside of the scope of their training and licenses. Additionally, many medical practitioners in detention facilities are not multi-lingual, which impedes effective communication by patients who do not

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found that, out of five officially inspected detention facilities, four failed to meet proper standards for medical care and sanitary conditions. Inspectors noted that several detention center bathrooms had mold in the showers. Multiple detention facilities in Texas were similarly cited for poor

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Additionally, some research indicates that barriers may exist according to a group's cultural beliefs. For example, a 1992 study of Southeast Asian refugees revealed that participants tended to be less forthcoming in seeking health care due to perceived relative urgencies of pain and discomfort.

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Reasons for lack of insurance vary, but the findings of a 2005 study suggest that personal characteristics as well as the types of jobs immigrants have factor largely into the lack of coverage. There is a high concentration of immigrants in low-paying jobs and other jobs that do not offer health

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reported that they had been denied proper and timely medication, which can allow the virus to develop resistance to drug treatments. Due to weakened immunity, detainees with HIV are highly susceptible to further infections in unsanitary conditions without sufficient care. Studies also find that

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indicated that young detainees may demonstrate emotional problems and post-traumatic symptoms, which can negatively impact development. Charles Baily and his colleagues also found that negative experiences in detention centers, supplemented by difficulties encountered in migration, can increase

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reported that immigrants with limited English proficiency (LEP) and health literacy were more likely to rate their health status as poor. LEP is often correlated with experienced discrimination in medical care, as well. Studies have found that perceptions of discrimination have decreased among

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Financial costs of health care are also cited as a barrier to access, especially as they can be complicated by immigration status. A study by Nathan Gray and his colleagues found that immigrants who cannot access hospice care often must rely on more expensive choices such as hospitalization or

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and social networks, and fear of jeopardizing their relationship or their children's safety. Immigrants coming from English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Canada, or Australia may face less issues in the health care system because the language barrier is not as wide compared to

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Compared to women born in the United States, immigrant women do not have the same access to health care services and insurances. Without these, this puts immigrant women at a higher risk for health complications and illnesses, particularly in the area of sexual and reproductive health. Whether

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refugee and immigrant health needs reveals that African immigrants struggle with accessing health care services due to lack of information concerning providers, costs, and unfamiliarity with the U.S. health care system. Communications with health care providers are also complicated by language

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reported that, as of August 2019, detention facilities do not currently nor plan to administer vaccines to detained individuals. Health professionals have criticized this policy, attributing it to outbreaks among detainees. In 2019, at least three detained children died from complications of

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Culture assimilation and English literacy have been observed to be major determinants in frequency of health care usage. A study of Asian immigrants by Huabin Luo and Bei Wu found that longer residencies in the United States and English proficiency were correlated with more regular visits to

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Many studies on immigrant women in the United States conclude that advanced research and studies are needed to be done to obtain more statistical data on immigrant women's health. The missing substantial evidence can be linked to immigrant women's reluctance to finding health care and the

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announced the discontinuation of the medical deferred action policy that grants temporary protection from deportation to immigrants undertaking major, life-saving procedures. However, in September 2019, this decision was reverted after drawing substantial criticisms from advocacy groups.

754:(ACLU) have expressed concerns of systemic sub-standard and neglectful medical treatments in detention centers, reporting that detention facilities often deliver medical services with long wait times and delays. Medical experts report that detainees with serious conditions such as 156:

The health care system in the United States is made up of both public and private insurers, with the private sphere generally dominating in providing coverage. Despite this, the federal government remains important given its role in determining public health benefits—for instance,

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A study by Jacqueline Lucas, Daheia Barr-Anderson, and Raynard Kington indicates that black male immigrants demonstrate better health outcomes than US-born black men. This finding comports with the "healthy immigrant effect," which describes the idea that those who immigrate to

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Compared to accessibility and quality, there is significantly less research on the costs of immigrant health care in the United States. In general, immigrants have less interaction with the health care system, though incidences in which they do tend more likely to be through

442:. Further research indicates that this paradox exists only on some health measures; for example, Hispanic immigrants are healthier in terms of blood pressure and heart disease than non-immigrant non-Hispanic whites, but are more likely to be overweight or obese and have 428:

Data indicates that, in 2002, Latinos had an uninsured rate of 33% compared to the national average of 15%. Compared to citizens with similar wages, hours, or occupations, Hispanic non-citizens were half to two-thirds less likely to be offered health coverage in the

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insufficient and unavailable services that are difficult to acquire. Without evidence and statistical data, it is difficult to track and label the reasons for the higher health complications of immigrant women compared to women born in the United States.

247:(CAM) is also comparatively lower than usage by U.S.-born citizens. A study by Bilikisu Elewonibi and Rhonda BeLue found that overall CAM usage is more likely with health insurance coverage, the latter of which tends to be less common among immigrants. 174:(SCHIP) until after they have held lawful permanent residency for five years (except in cases of emergency). However, several states have responded by fully funding Medicaid-covered services, thus expanding eligibility; among these are 140:. Overall, analyses indicate that after factors such as health status, income, and race and ethnicity are controlled for, citizenship status plays a significant role in determining one's medical care access. Since the enactment of the 375:

have considerably higher costs on average when they do, suggesting that immigrant children are sicker or more severely affected during emergencies. This inference is drawn from their lower rates of outpatient and office-based visits.

577:(IPV) may encounter difficulties in obtaining medical help. In a focus group by Heidi Bauer and her colleagues, abused Asian and Latina immigrant women expressed hesitance to seek health care. due to linguistic obstructions, lack of 164:

Following the enactment of PRWORA in 1996, existing gaps in health care coverage between immigrants and citizens have increased significantly. PRWORA, in particular, created stricter requirements for immigrants' eligibility for

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Policy efforts at reforming the health care system in regards to treatment of immigrants have varied in the past decade. The subject of health care benefits for immigrants has become increasingly popular in political discourse.

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Homer Venters and Francesca Gany found that cultural perceptions of disease models and illness can impede effective communications between African immigrants and health care providers. Specifically, hypertension, diabetes,

229: 822:. Unsafe or isolating conditions can exacerbate mental health conditions such as depression or trauma, yet distrust, due to being forcibly detained, also prevents many immigrants from seeking mental health services. 4876:

MacLean, Sarah A.; Agyeman, Priscilla O.; Walther, Joshua; Singer, Elizabeth K.; Baranowski, Kim A.; Katz, Craig L. (June 1, 2019). "Mental health of children held at a United States immigration detention center".

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Policy proposals to expand health care benefits focus on allocating more funds to community health centers and to SCHIP and/or state programs. Similarly, another proposal specifically targets increased funding for

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Boise, Linda; Tuepker, Anais; Gipson, Teresa; Vigmenon, Yves; Soule, Isabelle; Onadeko, Sade (December 23, 2013). "African Refugee and Immigrant Health Needs: Report From a Community-Based House Meeting Project".

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Varan, Aiden K.; Lederman, Edith R.; Stous, Shanon S.; Elson, Diana; Freiman, Jennifer L.; Marin, Mona; Lopez, Adriana S.; Stauffer, William M.; Joseph, Rachael H.; Waterman, Stephen H. (September 25, 2017).

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The Center for Immigrants' Rights Clinic reported that medical units in detention facilities were also severely understaffed, requiring some patients to travel to off-site centers for their treatments. The

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Hilfinger Messias, DeAnne K.; McEwen, Marylyn Morris; Clark, Lauren (January 1, 2015). "The impact and implications of undocumented immigration on individual and collective health in the United States".

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Nguyen, Oanh Kieu; Vazquez, Miguel A.; Charles, Lakeesha; Berger, Joseph R.; Quiñones, Henry; Fuquay, Richard; Sanders, Joanne M.; Kapinos, Kandice A.; Halm, Ethan A.; Makam, Anil N. (February 1, 2019).

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emergency services instead. Additionally, bureaucratic procedures, such as extensive paperwork, may deter immigrants from seeking health care due to both the cost of completion and lack of familiarity.

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Whistleblowers are individuals who have played a significant role in communicating the unjust and illicit treatment of immigrants held within detention centers. An example includes a news article from

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indicated increasing outbreaks of mumps in facilities, as well. Both studies concluded that health initiatives that incorporated targeted vaccination efforts could mitigate the frequency of outbreaks.

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uninsured due to their undocumented status. Furthermore, because the act does not address the five-year waiting period placed by PRWORA, more recent low-income legal immigrants may not seek insurance.

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The barriers that immigrants face in health care settings are similar to the barriers that they face in communicating their health circumstances when detained in detention facilities. An article from

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has stated that receiving Medicaid or SCHIP benefits (with the exception of long-term care) does not jeopardize residency status, many lawful permanent residents are unaware and perceive otherwise.

190:. These services differ accordingly, with some providing the same coverage as Medicaid or SCHIP, while others limit coverage to specific categories of immigrants. Conversely, other states like 282:; the expansion of Medicaid eligibility; the provision of free preventative services; the extension of dependent coverage to age 26; new funding to support community health centers; and more. 2336:

Lauderdale, Diane S.; Wen, Ming; Jacobs, Elizabeth A.; Kandula, Namratha R. (2006). "Immigrant Perceptions of Discrimination in Health Care: The California Health Interview Survey 2003".

343:, despite the higher efficacy of scheduled treatments compared to emergency-only. Overall, immigrants report more displeasure with their health care experiences than US-born patients do. 4978: 5419:

Uretsky, Mathew Cory; Mathiesen, Sally G. (January 4, 2007). "The Effects of Years Lived in the United States on the General Health Status of California's Foreign-Born Populations".

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Lauderdale, Diane; Wen, Ming; Jacobs, Elizabeth; Kandula, Namratha (2006). "Immigrant Perceptions of Discrimination in Health Care: The California Health Interview Survey 2003".

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in 2007 indicated that factors that determined quality of care included years of residency in the United States, income level, education status, health insurance coverage, and

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tend to be less frequently utilized due to stigma concerning mental health disorders and social pressures to characterize mental and emotional struggles as offshoots of

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Findings indicate that a large body of Hispanic and Latino Americans have similar or better outcomes than the average population—a phenomenon that has been labeled the

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Latino immigrants also reported more negative experiences overall. Undocumented patients are less likely receive regular, scheduling for life-saving treatments such as

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Kennedy, Steven; Kidd, Michael P.; McDonald, James Ted; Biddle, Nicholas (April 15, 2014). "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries".

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from public clinics and community health centers. However, the services offered by this type of health care tends to be uneven; for example, specialty services like

3823:"Impact of Arizona's SB 1070 Immigration Law on Utilization of Health Care and Public Assistance Among Mexican-Origin Adolescent Mothers and Their Mother Figures" 1759: 1053: 643:

Overall, undocumented immigrants are likely to be uninsured due to lack of employer-sponsored insurance and ineligibility for Medicare, Medicaid, CHIP, and PPACA

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Leung, Jessica; Elson, Diana; Sanders, Kelsey; Marin, Mona; Leos, Greg; Cloud, Brandy; McNall, Rebecca J.; Hickman, Carole J.; Marlow, Mariel (August 30, 2019).

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Leung, Jessica; Elson, Diana; Sanders, Kelsey; Marin, Mona; Leos, Greg; Cloud, Brandy; McNall, Rebecca J.; Hickman, Carole J.; Marlow, Mariel (August 30, 2019).

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Pitkin Derose, Kathryn; Bahney, Benjamin W.; Lurie, Nicole; Escarce, José J. (January 29, 2009). "Review: Immigrants and Health Care Access, Quality, and Cost".

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would delay immigrants from actively seeking care unless in extreme need, thereby contributing to overall higher incidences of medical problems in a community.

886:, and other immigration advocacy groups compiled a report of complaints regarding the treatment of multiple pregnant detainees by ICE. This included inaccurate 734: 109: 781:

contracting influenza while in detention. A study by Aiden Varan and his colleagues also found that ICE detainees were particularly susceptible to contracting

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Guendelman, Sylvia; Schauffler, Helen Halpin; Pearl, Michelle (January 1, 2001). "Unfriendly Shores: How Immigrant Children Fare In The U.S. Health System".

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confirmed that Mexican-born teenagers and mothers decreased their usage of preventive health care and public assistance programs after the implementation of

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In interviews conducted by the Human Rights Watch, participating detainees stated that they had been denied forms of gynecological care such as Pap smears,

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speak English. Various detention centers provide phone translation services for this purpose. Laura Redman, the director of the Health Justice Program at

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and labor market, this rise in the immigrant population has had a disparate impact on the United States' health care system and its surrounding dialogue.

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Toomey, Russell B.; Umaña-Taylor, Adriana J.; Williams, David R.; Harvey-Mendoza, Elizabeth; Jahromi, Laudan B.; Updegraff, Kimberly A. (February 2014).

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How Race/Ethnicity, Immigration Status and Language Affect Health Insurance Coverage, Access to Care and Quality of Care Among the Low-Income Population

433:. Further studies show that regardless of immigration status, non-white Hispanics have less access to health care services than white citizens overall. 4546:

Venters, Homer; Dasch-Goldberg, Dana; Rasmussen, Andrew; Keller, Allen S. (2009). "Into the Abyss: Mortality and Morbidity among Detained Immigrants".

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Bauer, Heidi; Rodriguez, Michael; Quiroga, Seline; Flores-Ortiz, Yvette (2000). "Barriers to Health Care for Abused Latina and Asian Immigrant Women".

5817: 762:. Detainees often report receiving insufficient treatments and services, as well. Patients in various detention centers stated that they were denied 256: 5822: 5490:

Lo, Ming-Cheng Miriam (2010). "Cultural brokerage: Creating linkages between voices of lifeworld and medicine in cross-cultural clinical settings".

2395:

Ortega, Alexander N.; Fang, Hai; Perez, Victor H.; Rizzo, John A.; Carter-Pokras, Olivia; Wallace, Steven P.; Gelberg, Lillian (November 26, 2007).

1117: 1058: 803: 722: 537:, and other chronic conditions are considered to be less understood due to their relative greater prevalence in nations such as the United States. 1577:"Covering New Americans: A Review of Federal and State Policies Related to Immigrants' Eligibility and Access to Publicly Funded Health Insurance" 819: 5187: 4038:

Gray, Nathan A.; Boucher, Nathan A.; Kuchibhatla, Maragatha; Johnson, Kimberly S. (April 1, 2017). "Hospice Access for Undocumented Immigrants".

640:

in Arizona. Prolonged fear of deportation has also been observed to exacerbate mental health conditions such as stress, depression, and anxiety.

382:

in 2000 found that how children with undocumented parents encountered greater obstacles when trying to access and utilize health care resources.

5796: 5766: 5671: 5009: 1011: 628: 616: 21: 4601: 2773: 4089:

Page, Kathleen R.; Polk, Sarah (March 23, 2017). "Chilling Effect? Post-Election Health Care Use by Undocumented and Mixed-Status Families".

790: 77: 5293: 4825: 2447:"Association of Scheduled vs Emergency-Only Dialysis With Health Outcomes and Costs in Undocumented Immigrants With End-stage Renal Disease" 454:

Health insurance coverage rates vary among Asian immigrant subgroups; some Asian subgroups match those European immigrants but others, like

5791: 3240:

Read, Jen'nan Ghazal; Reynolds, Megan (2012). "Gender Differences in Immigrant Health: The Case of Mexican and Middle Eastern Immigrants".

1098: 5162: 3879: 5721: 5771: 5115: 81: 1863: 59: 604:

Lack of health insurance has been cited as a major reason behind immigrants' low usage of the United States health care services. The

390: 5611: 298:

Studies on immigrant health care more commonly focus on accessibility, compared to quality. Collected data indicates lower levels of

5661: 5543: 112:, the influx of immigrants into the States has been 1.7 million in 2014, indicating a constant flow of immigrants. Furthermore, the 2866:"Health Status and Health Services Utilization Among US Chinese, Asian Indian, Filipino, and Other Asian/Pacific Islander Children" 1429: 5676: 5571: 5095: 5726: 5374: 2782: 1068: 402:

Though no precise data on the undocumented immigrant population is available, estimates in 2009 suggest that 70% are from either

137: 72: 2009: 1018:

passed a policy called "Opposition to Criminalization of Medical Care Provided to Undocumented Immigrant Patients" in response.

5761: 5591: 965: 699:

immigrants who seek healthcare are more likely to report discrimination than U.S. nationals, even when adjusted for ethnicity.

522: 117: 4748:"Notes from the Field: Mumps in Detention Facilities that House Detained Migrants — United States, September 2018–August 2019" 4688:"Notes from the Field: Mumps in Detention Facilities that House Detained Migrants — United States, September 2018–August 2019" 2812:"Health Insurance Coverage of Immigrants Living in the United States: Differences by Citizenship Status and Country of Origin" 5781: 826: 751: 379: 268: 53: 5776: 4438:"Lack of soap, filthy onesies and too few beds have created a 'health crisis' at border detention facilities, monitors warn" 3395:"Somali immigrant women and the American health care system: Discordant beliefs, divergent expectations, and silent worries" 557:

from their immigration status, health status, and gender status. In a survey by Carol Pavlish, Sahra Noor, and Joan Brandt,

228:

may be offered but not blood pressure tests or follow-up treatments. Several municipalities in the United States also offer

206:, have implemented laws that further restrict noncitizens' access to health care. Legislation of similar nature include the 5786: 4249:

Jang, Sou Hyun (2016). "First-generation Korean immigrants' barriers to healthcare and their coping strategies in the US".

2031:

Elewonibi, Bilikisu Reni; BeLue, Rhonda (June 2016). "Prevalence of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Immigrants".

5756: 5666: 5616: 5576: 5136: 2910:"The Health Care Consumption Patterns of Asian Immigrants: Grounded Theory Implications for Consumer Acculturation Theory" 831: 425:

communities tend to undergo challenges in healthcare settings and receive lower quality of care than other ethnic groups.

422: 207: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5596: 3905: 5736: 5651: 5626: 5536: 4437: 2655:

Gelatt, Julia (September 1, 2016). "Immigration Status and the Healthcare Access and health of Children of Immigrants".

1015: 883: 851: 718: 644: 608:(SIPP) indicated that in 2002, 13.4% of native-born citizens were not insured compared to 43.8% of foreign-born adults. 5701: 5636: 5606: 5581: 1765: 5731: 5716: 5711: 5641: 5621: 5071: 4472: 1007: 847: 113: 5656: 5646: 5586: 4979:"The Psychosocial Context and Mental Health Needs of Unaccompanied Children in United States Immigration Proceedings" 4411: 3788: 1486: 5706: 5631: 3939: 1617:

Mohanty, Sarita; Steffie Woolhandler; David Himmelstein; Sumita Pati; Olveen Carrasquillo; David Bor (August 2005).

88:. Intersections of health and immigration policies also create distinctive outcomes for immigrants, such as medical 5601: 5209:

Venters, Homer D.; McNeely, Jennifer; Keller, Allen S. (2009). "Hiv Screening and Care for Immigration Detainees".

4522:"Death in Detention: Medical and Mental Health Consequences of Indefinite Detention of Immigrants in United States" 116:

projects that this number will continue to increase in the next decade. In addition to its impact on the country's

5318: 2682:

Calvo, Rocío (February 2016). "Health Literacy and Quality of Care among Latino Immigrants in the United States".

960: 574: 5039:"Disparities in Justice and Care: Persons With Severe Mental Illnesses in the U.S. Immigration Detention System" 2936:

Luo, Huabin; Wu, Bei (December 2016). "Acculturation and Dental Service Use Among Asian Immigrants in the U.S".

210:, which requires proof of identity and U.S. citizenship from all those applying for/renewing Medicaid coverage. 4803: 969: 76:

strong correlation of these disparities with a combination of structural and social factors, including lack of

4851: 825:

Studies reveal that children are particularly vulnerable to adverse impacts on mental health. A review by the

806:, reported that numerous detained clients were never instructed on how they could make sick calls if needed. 2909: 534: 627:

Many immigrants report that distrust prevents them from actively seeking out health services. Although the

335:

from public clinics or community health centers. Such services tend to perform more poorly in rural areas.

3358:

Gotlib, Anna (2009). "Stories from the margins: Immigrant patients, health care, and narrative medicine".

1372:

Morris, Juliana E.; Palazuelos, Daniel (April 21, 2015). "The Health Implications of Deportation Policy".

898: 299: 5188:"Detained and Dismissed | Women's Struggles to Obtain Health Care in United States Immigration Detention" 4494: 545:

Studies have found that immigrant men demonstrate greater health outcomes than immigrant women; gendered

4194:"Health Care Access Among Hispanic Immigrants: ¿alguien Está Escuchando?[Is Anybody Listening?]" 2282:

Okie, Susan (August 9, 2007). "Immigrants and Health Care — At the Intersection of Two Broken Systems".

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Okie, Susan (August 9, 2007). "Immigrants and Health Care—At the Intersection of Two broken Systems".

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Linton, Julie M.; Griffin, Marsha; Shapiro, Alan J.; Pediatrics, Council on Community (May 1, 2017).

2168:"The Affordable Care Act's Impacts on Access to Insurance and Health Care for Low-Income Populations" 1031: 470: 455: 353: 244: 199: 183: 133: 129: 2865: 2397:"Health Care Access, Use of Services, and Experiences Among Undocumented Mexicans and Other Latinos" 3314:"Immigrant Women's Access to Sexual and Reproductive Health Coverage and Care in the United States" 2786: 1619:"Health Care Expenditures of Immigrants in the United States: A Nationally Representative Analysis" 414: 5294:"Effects of non-health-targeted policies on migrant health: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 4631:"Serological Susceptibility to Varicella Among U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement Detainees" 5515: 5226: 5001: 4929: 4910: 4579: 4571: 4317: 4301: 4071: 3769: 3591: 3545: 3490: 3375: 3273: 3257: 3222: 3171: 3115: 2734: 2377: 2361: 2315: 2064: 1941: 1891: 1544: 1405: 1194: 1063: 1035: 798: 632: 546: 233: 5400: 4826:"ICE sued for 'abject failure' to provide basic health care to detained migrants in 158 centers" 2125: 255: 5507: 5467: 5444: 5436: 5234: 5218: 5053: 4959: 4951: 4902: 4894: 4785: 4767: 4725: 4707: 4668: 4650: 4563: 4393: 4363: 4309: 4266: 4231: 4213: 4174: 4156: 4135:

Schulson, Lucy B.; Paasche-Orlow, Michael K.; Xuan, Ziming; Fernandez, Alicia (July 3, 2019).

4114: 4106: 4063: 4055: 4020: 4002: 3947: 3913: 3860: 3842: 3796: 3730: 3722: 3686: 3668: 3583: 3537: 3529: 3482: 3474: 3424: 3333: 3325: 3265: 3214: 3163: 3155: 3107: 3072: 3054: 3035:"Health Status, Health Insurance, and Health Care Utilization Patterns of Immigrant Black Men" 3008: 2979:"Healthcare Communication Barriers and Self-Rated Health in Older Chinese American Immigrants" 2953: 2885: 2841: 2726: 2637: 2629: 2594: 2536: 2528: 2484: 2466: 2426: 2418: 2369: 2353: 2307: 2299: 2259: 2251: 2205: 2187: 2056: 2048: 1990: 1982: 1933: 1883: 1817: 1809: 1740: 1694: 1648: 1536: 1494: 1397: 1389: 1348:"Systemic Indifference | Dangerous & Substandard Medical Care in US Immigration Detention" 1256: 1238: 1186: 1178: 507: 307: 5262: 2183: 1014:

proposed bills to criminalize health care providers who service undocumented immigrants. The

5499: 5428: 5137:"ICE Increased Risks for Pregnant Migrants in Detention. What Is the Agency Doing About It?" 4993: 4941: 4886: 4775: 4759: 4715: 4699: 4658: 4642: 4555: 4353: 4293: 4258: 4221: 4205: 4164: 4148: 4098: 4047: 4010: 3992: 3850: 3834: 3761: 3714: 3676: 3660: 3575: 3521: 3464: 3414: 3406: 3367: 3249: 3206: 3147: 3099: 3062: 3046: 2998: 2990: 2945: 2877: 2831: 2823: 2718: 2691: 2664: 2621: 2584: 2576: 2518: 2474: 2458: 2408: 2345: 2291: 2241: 2195: 2179: 2040: 1972: 1925: 1875: 1799: 1730: 1684: 1638: 1630: 1528: 1381: 1246: 1230: 1170: 1078: 871: 526: 459: 438: 179: 85: 2565:"Health Status and Health Service Access and Use Among Children in U.S. Immigrant Families" 385: 128:

Accessibility of health care services is contingent on factors such as insurance coverage,

2104: 855: 850:

indicated that detainees at LaSalle Detention Facility in Louisiana received insufficient

818:

A report from the Office of Inspector General has also indicated substandard treatment of

759: 637: 554: 418: 407: 340: 332: 221: 45: 5528: 5492:

Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine

2753:"Health Coverage in Latino Communities: What's the problem and what can you do about it?" 890:, stress-inducing conditions, vaginal bleeding, denied requests for parole, insufficient 2709:

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1441: 690:

range of certain jobs, often those that are less likely to provide job-based insurance.

4780: 4747: 4720: 4687: 4663: 4630: 4358: 4341: 4297: 4226: 4193: 4169: 4136: 4015: 3980: 3855: 3822: 3681: 3648: 3419: 3394: 3379: 3067: 3034: 3003: 2978: 2836: 2811: 2752: 2589: 2564: 2479: 2446: 2349: 2200: 2167: 1643: 1618: 1251: 1218: 1083: 887: 474: 80:, high costs of care, restrictions associated with undocumented status, perceptions of 5357:

The Future of a Generation: How New Americans Will Help Support Retiring Baby Boomers.

5163:"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's Detention and Treatment of Pregnant Women" 4152: 1977: 1960: 5811: 5519: 5005: 4914: 4583: 4209: 4137:"Changes in Perceptions of Discrimination in Health Care in California, 2003 to 2017" 3615: 3494: 3226: 1879: 1284: 1023: 494: 145: 44:" is often used to encompass non-citizens of varying status; this includes permanent 4890: 4321: 4262: 4075: 4051: 3549: 3410: 3277: 3175: 3119: 3033:

Lucas, Jacqueline W.; Barr-Anderson, Daheia J.; Kington, Raynard S. (October 2003).

2738: 2462: 2381: 2319: 1945: 1895: 1409: 1219:"Disparities in Quality of Healthcare of Children from Immigrant Families in the US" 1198: 5038: 3595: 2068: 1548: 879: 513: 486: 328: 311: 271: 237: 26: 3718: 2085: 882:

stated that they faced delays and neglect by medical personnel as well. The ACLU,

4602:"The US won't provide flu vaccines to migrant families at border detention camps" 3469: 3453:"Immigrant Women's Experiences as Mothers in the United States: A Scoping Review" 3452: 2949: 2413: 2396: 3979:

Hacker, Karen; Anies, Maria; Folb, Barbara L; Zallman, Leah (October 30, 2015).

2974: 1671:

Derose, Kathryn Pitkin; Jose J. Escarce; Nicole Lurie (September–October 2007).

902: 875: 863: 859: 682: 478: 89: 41: 37: 161:, the United States health program for families and individuals of low income. 5471: 5432: 4397: 3151: 3103: 2994: 2523: 2506: 2246: 2229: 2044: 1689: 1672: 1234: 867: 782: 758:

are similarly subjected to long wait times and do not receive proper care nor

187: 5503: 5440: 5222: 4997: 4955: 4898: 4771: 4711: 4654: 4646: 4567: 4217: 4160: 4110: 4059: 4006: 3951: 3917: 3846: 3838: 3800: 3726: 3672: 3664: 3533: 3478: 3329: 3253: 3218: 3159: 3111: 3058: 2722: 2633: 2625: 2580: 2532: 2470: 2422: 2357: 2303: 2255: 2191: 2052: 1986: 1813: 1804: 1787: 1735: 1718: 1634: 1532: 1498: 1393: 1242: 1182: 1174: 5263:"Fear, Illness and Death in ICE Detention: How a Protest Grew on the Inside" 3313: 3050: 2166:

Kominski, Gerald F.; Nonzee, Narissa J.; Sorensen, Andrea (March 20, 2017).

891: 771: 755: 562: 553:

Immigrant women who become ill in the United States face multiple levels of

430: 303: 5511: 5448: 5238: 5057: 4963: 4946: 4906: 4789: 4763: 4729: 4703: 4672: 4390:

Concerns about ICE detainee treatment and care at four detention facilities

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Pérez-Escamilla, Rafael; Garcia, Jonathan; Song, David (November 1, 2010).

4178: 4118: 4067: 4024: 3940:"Deportation Exemptions to Resume for Immigrants Needing Medical Treatment" 3864: 3734: 3690: 3587: 3541: 3486: 3428: 3337: 3269: 3167: 3076: 3012: 2957: 2889: 2881: 2845: 2730: 2641: 2598: 2540: 2488: 2430: 2373: 2311: 2263: 2209: 2060: 1994: 1961:"State Flexibility in Emergency Medicaid to Care for Uninsured Noncitizens" 1937: 1887: 1821: 1744: 1698: 1652: 1540: 1401: 1260: 1190: 913:

detention facilities typically do not provide adequate screenings for HIV.

4367: 3981:"Barriers to health care for undocumented immigrants: a literature review" 3579: 3312:

Hasstedt, Kinsey; Desai, Sheila; Ansari-Thomas, Zhora (November 1, 2018).

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Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action

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Venters, Homer; Gany, Francesca (April 2011). "African Immigrant Health".

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Derose, Kathryn Pitkin; Escarce, José J.; Lurie, Nicole (September 2007).

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Park, Jin K.; Reyes-Becerra, Clarisa; Makhlouf, Medha D. (July 14, 2023).

1385: 389:

Distribution of new immigrants to the United States from 2013 to 2017, by

5371:"Sharing the Costs, Sharing the Benefits: Inclusion is the Best Medicine" 5116:"Immigrant Miscarriages in ICE Detention Have Nearly Doubled Under Trump" 4102: 3649:"Immigration Status and Health Insurance Coverage: Who Gains? Who Loses?" 3508:

Alhasanat, Dalia; Fry-McComish, Judith; Yarandi, Hossein N. (July 2017).

3371: 2695: 521:

barriers, differing degrees of English literacy, and immigration status.

443: 225: 203: 195: 175: 166: 158: 64: 16:

Overview of social and economic factors in health policies for immigrants

5319:"Facts About Immigrants' Low Use of Health Services and Public Benefits" 5230: 4575: 4305: 3997: 3773: 3749: 3509: 3261: 2365: 2295: 1929: 5330: 4559: 3765: 3525: 2668: 766:

due to delays by ICE or other forms of care such as physical exams and

763: 578: 558: 482: 191: 49: 2010:"LA County to launch new health care program for uninsured immigrants" 3647:

Prentice, Julia C.; Pebley, Anne R.; Sastry, Narayan (January 2005).

2810:

Carrasquillo, Olveen; Angeles Carrasquillo; Steven Shea (June 2000).

1118:"Immigrant Eligibility for Health Care Programs in the United States" 767: 517: 403: 319: 315: 2150:"Left Behind: Undocumented Immigrants under the Affordable Care Act" 1864:"Immigrant health care in the United States: What ails our system?" 36:

refers to the collective systems in the United States that deliver

5073:

Imprisoned Justice: Inside Two Georgia Immigrant Detention Centers

4474:

Imprisoned Justice: Inside Two Georgia Immigrant Detention Centers

2105:"The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: Detailed Summary" 254: 2505:

Goldman, Dana P.; Smith, James P.; Sood, Neeraj (November 2006).

220:

In some areas like Washington D.C., uninsured immigrants receive

5401:"Immigrants, Welfare Reform and the Coming Reauthorization Vote" 3451:

Oerther, Sarah; Lach, Helen W.; Oerther, Daniel (January 2020).

1487:"What Would Giving Health Care to Undocumented Immigrants Mean?" 777: 5532: 4342:"Cultural Barriers to Health Care for Southeast Asian Refugees" 1519:

Hall, Eleanor (2016). "Immigrant Health in the United States".

1089:

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

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in ICE custody have increased. Pregnant detainees who suffered

3906:"Sick Migrants Undergoing Lifesaving Care Can Now Be Deported" 917:

Science communication of immigrant health in detention centers

909: 327:

deliveries of medical care and public health services such as

259:

President Barack Obama signing the Affordable Care Act, 2010

3748:

Pandey, Sanjay K.; Cantor, Joel C.; Lloyd, Kristen (2014).

1788:"Left Out: Immigrants' Access To Health Care And Insurance" 1719:"Left Out: Immigrants' Access to Health Care and Insurance" 1317:

The Landscape of Immigration Detention in the United States

854:, such as sanitary pads and tampons. Media outlets such as 5373:. Immigration Policy Center. July 22, 2009. Archived from 3750:"Immigrant Health Care Access and the Affordable Care Act" 2864:

Yu, Stella M.; Zhihuan Huang; Gopal Singh (January 2004).

750:

Investigative journalists and advocacy groups such as the

371:

received proper immunizations than their U.S.-born peers.

5046:

Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law

4412:"ICE Opens Family Detention Center In Texas To Reporters" 3360:

International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics

2563:

Huang, Jennifer; Stella Yu; Rebecca Ledsky (April 2006).

1217:

Calvo, Rocío; Hawkins, Summer Sherburne (October 2015).

785:

due to increased exposure in facilities. A study in the

4541: 4539: 3393:

Pavlish, Carol Lynn; Noor, Sahra; Brandt, Joan (2010).

1868:

Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants

4436:

Nick Valencia; Catherine E. Shoichet (June 21, 2019).

3904:

Jordan, Miriam; Dickerson, Caitlin (August 29, 2019).

2230:"Immigrants And Health Care: Sources Of Vulnerability" 1764:, American Medical Student Association, archived from 1717:

Ku, Leighton; Sheetal Matani (January–February 2001).

1673:"Immigrants and Health Care: Sources of Vulnerability" 5037:

Ochoa, Kristen; Pleasants, Gregory (September 2010).

3880:"Health Coverage and Care of Undocumented Immigrants" 3789:"Sick and Afraid, Some Immigrants Forgo Medical Care" 733:

A report from the Office of Inspector General at the

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undergoing mandatory health inspections, 19th century

5464:

The Healthy Immigrant Paradox and Health Convergence

4515: 4513: 4511: 4509: 3709:. Undocumented Immigrations: Health Considerations. 1074:

Inequality within immigrant families (United States)

1030:

perceptions of health and fatality, and traditional

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Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010

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Performance-Based National Detention Standards 2011

3568:

Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved

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MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing

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Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved

4852:"Shadow Prisons: Immigrant Detention in the South" 3092:Journal of International Migration and Integration 652:United States Citizenship and Immigration Services 71:Immigrant health care is considered distinct from 4502:. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. 2011. 2110:. Democratic Policy and Communications Committee. 1786:Ku, Leighton; Matani, Sheetal (January 1, 2001). 1474:, Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured 582:countries whose primary language is not English. 5097:Shadow Prisons: Immigrant Detention in the South 1049:Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act 230:health care coverage for undocumented immigrants 215:Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act 142:Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act 5466:. Maastricht: Global Labor Organization (GLO). 4804:"US: Detention Hazardous to Immigrants' Health" 4383: 4381: 4379: 4377: 3616:"Unequal Access: Immigrants And US Health Care" 2080: 2078: 1584:Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured 1285:"Unequal Access: Immigrants And US Health Care" 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1470:Ku, Leighton; Timothy Waidmann (August 2003), 1430:"Immigrants and Medicaid After Welfare Reform" 1054:Health care reform debate in the United States 5544: 5079:. Center for Immigrants' Rights Clinic. 2017. 4741: 4739: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4480:. Center for Immigrants' Rights Clinic. 2017. 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 2155:. State Health Access Data Assistance Center. 1849: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 462:immigrants, had uninsured rates of over 30%. 110:United States Department of Homeland Security 8: 4977:Baily, Charles; Henderson, Schuyler (2011). 3609: 3607: 3605: 3561: 3559: 2969: 2967: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1575:Fremstad, Shawn; Laura Cox (November 2004). 976:Opposition to immigrant health care benefits 964:dollars to alleviate the financial costs of 707:Health care in immigration detention centers 4692:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2931: 2929: 2927: 1612: 1610: 1608: 5551: 5537: 5529: 5485: 5483: 5481: 5394: 5392: 5287: 5285: 5283: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5248: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2119: 2117: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1270: 951:Support for immigrant health care benefits 713:Immigration detention in the United States 606:Survey of Income and Program Participation 481:immigrants use healing techniques such as 473:after migration. For example, Vietnamese, 265:Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 251:Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 34:Immigrant health care in the United States 5350: 5348: 4945: 4779: 4719: 4662: 4357: 4225: 4168: 4014: 3996: 3854: 3680: 3514:Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health 3468: 3418: 3066: 3002: 2835: 2588: 2522: 2507:"Immigrants And The Cost Of Medical Care" 2478: 2412: 2245: 2199: 1976: 1803: 1734: 1688: 1642: 1250: 1094:State Children's Health Insurance Program 172:State Children's Health Insurance Program 5421:Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 4600:Bursztynsky, Jessica (August 20, 2019). 3140:Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 2908:Houston, Rika; Alladi Venkatesh (1996). 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2184:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044555 2033:Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1059:Illegal immigration to the United States 804:New York Lawyers for the Public Interest 723:U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement 384: 58: 20: 5559:Immigrant health care in North America 5414: 5412: 5410: 5329:(5). September 29, 2006. Archived from 3642: 3640: 3638: 3636: 2938:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2767: 2765: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1862:Footracer, Katherine (April 13, 2009). 1761:Overview of the U.S. Health Care System 1109: 721:, the number of immigrants detained by 615:Undocumented immigrants and those with 5292:Bryant, Miranda (September 21, 2020). 5090: 5088: 5086: 5032: 5030: 4986:Graduate Student Journal of Psychology 4467: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4392:. US Department of Homeland Security. 4335: 4333: 4331: 4130: 4128: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3307: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 2500: 2498: 2331: 2329: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2008:Florido, Adrian (September 30, 2014). 1666: 1664: 1662: 1434:The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 1423: 1421: 1419: 629:Immigration and Naturalization Service 617:Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals 331:. Uninsured immigrants typically seek 245:complementary and alternative medicine 4752:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 4489: 4487: 4340:Uba, Laura (September–October 1992). 3985:Risk Management and Healthcare Policy 3938:Jordan, Miriam (September 19, 2019). 3884:The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3242:Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2859: 2857: 2855: 2772:Taningo, Maria Teresa (August 2007), 2126:"Reform's Mixed Impact on Immigrants" 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1138: 791:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 7: 5190:. Human Rights Watch. March 17, 2009 5103:. Southern Poverty Law Center. 2016. 2775:Revisiting the Latino Health Paradox 1758:Chua, Kao-Ping (February 10, 2006), 1367: 1365: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1099:United States immigration statistics 274:. This legislation, joined with the 92:and delivery of medical services in 4635:Journal of Correctional Health Care 1918:The New England Journal of Medicine 5355:Ewing, Walter A. (February 2012), 4526:Seattle Journal for Social Justice 4298:10.1097/01.mlr.0000220829.87073.f7 2350:10.1097/01.mlr.0000220829.87073.f7 717:According to a 2018 report by the 485:, also known as coin rubbing, and 63:Doctors inspecting immigrants for 40:services to immigrants. The term " 14: 5261:Wessler, Seth F. (June 4, 2020). 4930:"Detention of Immigrant Children" 4806:. Human Rights Watch. May 8, 2017 4520:Mukhopadhyay, Riddhi (May 2008). 4153:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6665 3827:American Journal of Public Health 3653:American Journal of Public Health 3039:American Journal of Public Health 2816:American Journal of Public Health 2569:American Journal of Public Health 2148:Blewett, Lynn (October 5, 2010). 1978:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2023.1997 1623:American Journal of Public Health 1350:. Human Rights Watch. May 8, 2017 1314:Ryo, Emily; Peacock, Ian (2018). 1223:Maternal and Child Health Journal 834:(PTSD), anxiety, and depression. 5818:Immigration to the United States 5672:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 4210:10.1111/j.1556-4797.2010.01051.x 2124:Abascal, Maria (July 29, 2010). 2087:Summary of New Health Reform Law 1880:10.1097/01720610-200904000-00009 1521:Journal of Transcultural Nursing 1163:Medical Care Research and Review 1069:Immigration to the United States 138:United States health care system 5823:Healthcare in the United States 5403:. Migration Information Source. 4891:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.04.013 4263:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.09.007 4091:New England Journal of Medicine 4052:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.8870 3411:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.010 3318:Issue Brief (Commonwealth Fund) 2463:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.5866 2284:New England Journal of Medicine 1323:. American Immigration Council. 959:A fact report published by the 735:Department of Homeland Security 694:Social and cultural familiarity 550:causing the negative outcomes. 421:. Among many immigrant groups, 267:(PPACA) was signed into law by 5399:Singer, Audrey (August 2002). 5114:Bixby, Scott (March 1, 2019). 3787:Hoffman, Jan (June 26, 2017). 2758:. Families USA. December 2002. 2172:Annual Review of Public Health 908:Additionally, immigrants with 842:Reproductive and sexual health 832:post-traumatic stress disorder 827:American Academy of Pediatrics 752:American Civil Liberties Union 469:Asian immigrants may practice 1: 4879:Social Science & Medicine 4388:Office of Inspector General. 4251:Social Science & Medicine 3878:Diaz, Maria (July 15, 2019). 3719:10.1016/j.outlook.2014.11.004 3399:Social Science & Medicine 2914:Advances in Consumer Research 2783:Tomás Rivera Policy Institute 2401:Archives of Internal Medicine 1485:Hoffman, Jan (July 3, 2019). 208:Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 94:immigration detention centers 5797:United States Virgin Islands 5462:Constant, Amelie F. (2017). 3754:Public Administration Review 3470:10.1097/NMC.0000000000000582 2950:10.1016/j.amepre.2016.07.041 2414:10.1001/archinte.167.21.2354 1016:American Medical Association 884:American Immigration Council 719:American Immigration Council 5359:, Immigration Policy Center 5267:The New York Times Magazine 4856:Southern Poverty Law Center 2983:Journal of Community Health 998:Policy reform and proposals 928:The New York Times Magazine 922:Demonstrations and protests 848:Southern Poverty Law Center 573:Immigrant women who endure 213:In contrast to PRWORA, the 136:, and familiarity with the 114:United States Census Bureau 5839: 787:Center for Disease Control 710: 323:rates of health coverage. 5772:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 5433:10.1007/s10903-006-9017-7 5323:Immigrants' Rights Update 3152:10.1007/s10903-009-9243-x 3104:10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x 2995:10.1007/s10900-015-0148-4 2524:10.1377/hlthaff.25.6.1700 2247:10.1377/hlthaff.26.5.1258 2045:10.1007/s10903-015-0210-4 1690:10.1377/hlthaff.26.5.1258 1428:Gold, Rachel (May 2003). 1235:10.1007/s10995-015-1740-z 961:Immigration Policy Center 575:intimate partner violence 5792:Turks and Caicos Islands 5504:10.1177/1363459309360795 4998:10.52214/gsjp.v13i.10856 4647:10.1177/1078345817727287 3839:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301655 3665:10.2105/AJPH.2003.028514 3254:10.1177/0022146511431267 2723:10.1177/1077558708330425 2684:Health & Social Work 2657:Social Science Quarterly 2626:10.1377/hlthaff.20.1.257 2581:10.2105/AJPH.2004.049791 1805:10.1377/hlthaff.20.1.247 1736:10.1377/hlthaff.20.1.247 1635:10.2105/AJPH.2004.044602 1533:10.1177/1043659616672534 1175:10.1177/1077558708330425 1012:House of Representatives 820:detainees' mental health 600:Lack of health insurance 5211:Health and Human Rights 3380:10.2979/fab.2009.2.2.51 3051:10.2105/ajph.93.10.1740 899:hormonal contraceptives 535:coronary artery disease 263:On March 23, 2010, the 186:, and some counties in 5722:British Virgin Islands 4947:10.1542/peds.2017-0483 4764:10.15585/mmwr.mm6834a4 4704:10.15585/mmwr.mm6834a4 4548:Human Rights Quarterly 4040:JAMA Internal Medicine 2882:10.1542/peds.113.1.101 2451:JAMA Internal Medicine 1006:In 2005 and 2006, the 985:Healthy Migrant Theory 729:Hygiene and sanitation 523:Mental health services 394: 378:Another study done in 260: 68: 54:undocumented residents 30: 5662:Saint Kitts and Nevis 4346:Public Health Reports 3580:10.1353/hpu.2010.0590 3211:10.1353/cpr.2013.0054 2828:10.2105/ajph.90.6.917 2130:The American Prospect 1386:10.1353/hpu.2015.0038 413:A study conducted by 398:Hispanics and Latinos 388: 258: 67:at Ellis Island, 1910 62: 24: 5168:. September 26, 2017 4103:10.1056/NEJMp1700829 3372:10.3138/ijfab.2.2.51 830:children's risk for 650:In August 2019, the 471:alternative medicine 347:Costs of health care 280:federal poverty line 184:District of Columbia 152:Healthcare providers 134:language proficiency 130:socioeconomic status 5677:Trinidad and Tobago 5572:Antigua and Barbuda 5015:on October 24, 2019 3998:10.2147/RMHP.S70173 2296:10.1056/NEJMp078113 1930:10.1056/NEJMp078113 1440:(2). Archived from 595:Structural barriers 508:developed countries 415:Pew Hispanic Center 243:Immigrant usage of 5612:Dominican Republic 4560:10.1353/hrq.0.0074 3944:The New York Times 3910:The New York Times 3793:The New York Times 3766:10.1111/puar.12280 3526:10.1111/jmwh.12617 2696:10.1093/hsw/hlv076 2669:10.1111/ssqu.12261 1491:The New York Times 1064:Immigration reform 1036:Narrative medicine 852:menstrual products 799:Human Rights Watch 633:The New York Times 623:Citizenship status 547:health disparities 395: 380:Los Angeles County 261: 234:Los Angeles County 170:benefits like the 69: 31: 5805: 5804: 5694:other territories 5377:on March 18, 2012 4832:. August 20, 2019 4141:JAMA Network Open 3620:Immigration Daily 3614:Mohanty, Sarita. 3045:(10): 1740–1747. 2407:(21): 2354–2360. 1965:JAMA Health Forum 1593:on August 7, 2012 1444:on April 13, 2012 1289:Immigration Daily 1283:Mohanty, Sarita. 1229:(10): 2223–2232. 894:, and shackling. 770:, receiving only 391:country of origin 108:According to the 86:language barriers 5830: 5762:Saint Barthélemy 5692:Dependencies and 5565:Sovereign states 5553: 5546: 5539: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5487: 5476: 5475: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5416: 5405: 5404: 5396: 5387: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5352: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5333:on June 24, 2013 5315: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5289: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5258: 5243: 5242: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5195: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5167: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5092: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5043: 5034: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5020: 5014: 5008:. Archived from 4983: 4974: 4968: 4967: 4949: 4940:(5): e20170483. 4925: 4919: 4918: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4783: 4743: 4734: 4733: 4723: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4666: 4625: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4597: 4588: 4587: 4543: 4534: 4533: 4517: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4491: 4482: 4481: 4479: 4469: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4385: 4372: 4371: 4361: 4337: 4326: 4325: 4281: 4275: 4274: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4229: 4189: 4183: 4182: 4172: 4132: 4123: 4122: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4018: 4000: 3976: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3858: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3684: 3644: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3611: 3600: 3599: 3563: 3554: 3553: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3472: 3448: 3433: 3432: 3422: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3355: 3342: 3341: 3309: 3282: 3281: 3237: 3231: 3230: 3193: 3180: 3179: 3135: 3124: 3123: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3070: 3030: 3017: 3016: 3006: 2977:(January 2016). 2971: 2962: 2961: 2933: 2922: 2921: 2905: 2894: 2893: 2861: 2850: 2849: 2839: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2791: 2785:, archived from 2780: 2769: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2706: 2700: 2699: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2592: 2560: 2545: 2544: 2526: 2517:(6): 1700–1711. 2502: 2493: 2492: 2482: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2416: 2392: 2386: 2385: 2333: 2324: 2323: 2279: 2268: 2267: 2249: 2240:(5): 1258–1268. 2225: 2214: 2213: 2203: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2134: 2133: 2121: 2112: 2111: 2109: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2082: 2073: 2072: 2028: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2005: 1999: 1998: 1980: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1913: 1900: 1899: 1859: 1826: 1825: 1807: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1775: 1773: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1738: 1714: 1703: 1702: 1692: 1683:(5): 1258–1268. 1668: 1657: 1656: 1646: 1629:(8): 1431–1438. 1614: 1603: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1592: 1586:. Archived from 1581: 1572: 1553: 1552: 1516: 1510: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1482: 1476: 1475: 1467: 1454: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1425: 1414: 1413: 1369: 1360: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1344: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1297: 1295: 1280: 1265: 1264: 1254: 1214: 1203: 1202: 1158: 1133: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1114: 1079:Multiculturalism 872:vaginal bleeding 846:A report by the 746:Medical services 590:Barriers to care 439:Hispanic paradox 5838: 5837: 5833: 5832: 5831: 5829: 5828: 5827: 5808: 5807: 5806: 5801: 5695: 5693: 5686: 5560: 5557: 5527: 5489: 5488: 5479: 5461: 5460: 5456: 5418: 5417: 5408: 5398: 5397: 5390: 5380: 5378: 5369: 5368: 5364: 5354: 5353: 5346: 5336: 5334: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5302: 5300: 5291: 5290: 5281: 5271: 5269: 5260: 5259: 5246: 5208: 5207: 5203: 5193: 5191: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5146: 5144: 5143:. April 5, 2019 5135: 5134: 5130: 5120: 5118: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5084: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5065: 5041: 5036: 5035: 5028: 5018: 5016: 5012: 4981: 4976: 4975: 4971: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4850: 4849: 4845: 4835: 4833: 4824: 4823: 4819: 4809: 4807: 4802: 4801: 4797: 4758:(34): 749–750. 4745: 4744: 4737: 4698:(34): 749–750. 4685: 4684: 4680: 4627: 4626: 4617: 4607: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4545: 4544: 4537: 4519: 4518: 4507: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4485: 4477: 4471: 4470: 4453: 4443: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4387: 4386: 4375: 4339: 4338: 4329: 4292:(10): 914–920. 4283: 4282: 4278: 4248: 4247: 4243: 4191: 4190: 4186: 4134: 4133: 4126: 4088: 4087: 4083: 4037: 4036: 4032: 3978: 3977: 3966: 3956: 3954: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3922: 3920: 3903: 3902: 3898: 3888: 3886: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3833:(S1): S28–S34. 3820: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3747: 3746: 3742: 3707:Nursing Outlook 3703: 3702: 3698: 3646: 3645: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3613: 3612: 3603: 3565: 3564: 3557: 3507: 3506: 3502: 3450: 3449: 3436: 3392: 3391: 3387: 3357: 3356: 3345: 3311: 3310: 3285: 3239: 3238: 3234: 3195: 3194: 3183: 3137: 3136: 3127: 3089: 3088: 3084: 3032: 3031: 3020: 2973: 2972: 2965: 2935: 2934: 2925: 2907: 2906: 2897: 2863: 2862: 2853: 2809: 2808: 2804: 2795: 2793: 2792:on May 23, 2012 2789: 2778: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2750: 2746: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2562: 2561: 2548: 2504: 2503: 2496: 2443: 2442: 2438: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2344:(10): 914–920. 2335: 2334: 2327: 2281: 2280: 2271: 2227: 2226: 2217: 2165: 2164: 2160: 2152: 2147: 2146: 2137: 2123: 2122: 2115: 2107: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2090: 2084: 2083: 2076: 2030: 2029: 2025: 2015: 2013: 2007: 2006: 2002: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1915: 1914: 1903: 1861: 1860: 1829: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1771: 1769: 1757: 1756: 1752: 1716: 1715: 1706: 1670: 1669: 1660: 1616: 1615: 1606: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1579: 1574: 1573: 1556: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1503: 1501: 1484: 1483: 1479: 1469: 1468: 1457: 1447: 1445: 1427: 1426: 1417: 1371: 1370: 1363: 1353: 1351: 1346: 1345: 1328: 1320: 1313: 1312: 1303: 1293: 1291: 1282: 1281: 1268: 1216: 1215: 1206: 1160: 1159: 1136: 1126: 1124: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1045: 1000: 987: 978: 966:Social Security 953: 948: 936: 924: 919: 888:pregnancy tests 856:The Daily Beast 844: 816: 760:pain management 748: 731: 715: 709: 696: 679: 674: 672:Social barriers 661: 659:Financial costs 625: 602: 597: 592: 555:marginalization 543: 503: 452: 419:health literacy 408:Central America 400: 368: 363: 349: 333:outpatient care 296: 294:Quality of care 253: 222:outpatient care 154: 126: 106: 46:legal residents 17: 12: 11: 5: 5836: 5834: 5826: 5825: 5820: 5810: 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5782:Sint Eustatius 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5727:Cayman Islands 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5698: 5696: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5548: 5541: 5533: 5526: 5525: 5498:(5): 484–504. 5477: 5454: 5427:(2): 125–136. 5406: 5388: 5362: 5344: 5310: 5279: 5244: 5201: 5179: 5154: 5128: 5106: 5082: 5063: 5052:(3): 392–399. 5026: 4969: 4920: 4868: 4843: 4817: 4795: 4735: 4678: 4615: 4589: 4554:(2): 474–495. 4535: 4505: 4483: 4451: 4428: 4403: 4373: 4352:(5): 544–548. 4327: 4276: 4241: 4184: 4147:(7): e196665. 4124: 4081: 4046:(4): 579–580. 4030: 3964: 3930: 3896: 3870: 3813: 3779: 3760:(6): 749–759. 3740: 3696: 3659:(1): 109–116. 3632: 3601: 3555: 3520:(4): 470–476. 3500: 3434: 3405:(2): 353–361. 3385: 3343: 3283: 3232: 3205:(4): 359–360. 3181: 3146:(2): 333–344. 3125: 3098:(2): 317–332. 3082: 3018: 2989:(4): 741–752. 2963: 2944:(6): 939–946. 2923: 2895: 2876:(1): 101–107. 2851: 2822:(6): 917–923. 2802: 2761: 2744: 2717:(4): 355–408. 2711:Health Affairs 2701: 2674: 2663:(3): 540–554. 2647: 2620:(1): 257–266. 2614:Health Affairs 2604: 2575:(4): 634–640. 2546: 2511:Health Affairs 2494: 2457:(2): 175–183. 2436: 2387: 2325: 2290:(6): 525–529. 2269: 2234:Health Affairs 2215: 2158: 2135: 2113: 2096: 2074: 2039:(3): 600–607. 2023: 2000: 1971:(7): e231997. 1951: 1924:(6): 525–529. 1901: 1827: 1798:(1): 247–256. 1792:Health Affairs 1778: 1768:on May 6, 2012 1750: 1729:(1): 247–256. 1723:Health Affairs 1704: 1677:Health Affairs 1658: 1604: 1554: 1527:(6): 611–626. 1511: 1477: 1455: 1415: 1380:(2): 406–409. 1361: 1326: 1301: 1266: 1204: 1169:(4): 355–408. 1134: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1084:Naturalization 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1044: 1041: 1032:folk medicines 999: 996: 986: 983: 977: 974: 952: 949: 947: 946:Public opinion 944: 935: 934:Whistleblowers 932: 923: 920: 918: 915: 843: 840: 815: 812: 747: 744: 730: 727: 711:Main article: 708: 705: 695: 692: 678: 675: 673: 670: 660: 657: 624: 621: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 542: 539: 502: 499: 495:dental clinics 451: 448: 399: 396: 367: 364: 362: 359: 348: 345: 295: 292: 252: 249: 153: 150: 125: 122: 105: 102: 82:discrimination 25:Immigrants at 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5835: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5689: 5683: 5682:United States 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5554: 5549: 5547: 5542: 5540: 5535: 5534: 5531: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5458: 5455: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5407: 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Retrieved 1121: 1112: 1028: 1020: 1005: 1001: 992: 988: 979: 958: 954: 940:The Guardian 939: 937: 927: 925: 907: 896: 864:miscarriages 862:report that 845: 836: 824: 817: 808: 795: 776: 772:pain killers 749: 740: 732: 716: 701: 697: 688: 680: 666: 662: 649: 645:Marketplaces 642: 626: 614: 610: 603: 584: 572: 568: 552: 544: 531: 514:Project MUSE 512: 504: 491: 487:fire cupping 468: 464: 453: 437: 435: 427: 412: 401: 377: 373: 369: 361:Demographics 350: 337: 325: 312:hypertension 297: 288: 284: 272:Barack Obama 262: 242: 238:My Health LA 232:, including 219: 212: 163: 155: 127: 118:demographics 107: 98: 90:deportations 70: 33: 32: 27:Ellis Island 18: 5757:Puerto Rico 5667:Saint Lucia 5617:El Salvador 5194:October 24, 5147:October 24, 5141:Rewire.News 5121:October 24, 5019:October 24, 4885:: 303–308. 4861:October 24, 4836:October 23, 4810:October 23, 4608:October 23, 4444:October 23, 4097:(12): e20. 3991:: 175–183. 3957:October 24, 3923:October 24, 3889:October 24, 3806:October 24, 3463:(1): 6–16. 2690:: e44–e51. 2178:: 489–505. 2016:January 23, 1354:October 10, 876:breast pain 868:stillbirths 860:Rewire News 783:chicken pox 683:Janice Tsoh 681:A study by 38:health care 5812:Categories 5752:Montserrat 5747:Martinique 5742:Guadeloupe 5597:Costa Rica 5472:1013694704 5298:The Lancet 5172:August 13, 4934:Pediatrics 4532:: 693–736. 4398:1104227376 4257:: 93–100. 2920:: 418–429. 2870:Pediatrics 1127:October 9, 1105:References 903:mammograms 479:Indonesian 456:Vietnamese 308:depression 286:eligible. 226:Pap smears 188:California 5737:Greenland 5652:Nicaragua 5627:Guatemala 5520:206717144 5441:1557-1912 5223:1079-0969 5006:257066825 4956:0031-4005 4915:143435282 4899:0277-9536 4772:0149-2195 4712:0149-2195 4655:1078-3458 4584:143979116 4568:0275-0392 4218:1556-4797 4161:2574-3805 4111:0028-4793 4060:2168-6106 4007:1179-1594 3952:0362-4331 3918:0362-4331 3847:0090-0036 3801:0362-4331 3727:0029-6554 3673:0090-0036 3625:March 17, 3534:1526-9523 3495:204883211 3479:0361-929X 3330:1558-6847 3227:201778378 3219:1557-055X 3160:1557-1912 3112:1488-3473 3059:0090-0036 2796:April 10, 2634:0278-2715 2533:0278-2715 2471:2168-6106 2423:0003-9926 2358:0025-7079 2304:0028-4793 2256:0278-2715 2192:0163-7525 2053:1557-1912 1987:2689-0186 1814:0278-2715 1772:April 10, 1499:0362-4331 1394:1548-6869 1294:March 17, 1243:1092-7875 1183:1077-5587 892:nutrition 774:instead. 764:surgeries 756:pneumonia 563:Minnesota 561:women in 431:workplace 354:emergency 304:arthritis 269:President 240:program. 78:insurance 42:immigrant 5702:Anguilla 5637:Honduras 5607:Dominica 5582:Barbados 5512:20801996 5449:17111215 5381:April 2, 5337:April 2, 5239:20845844 5231:25653105 5058:20852226 4992:: 4–11. 4964:28289140 4907:31047760 4790:31465321 4730:31465321 4673:28945148 4576:20486760 4322:21769087 4314:17001262 4306:41219540 4271:27639484 4236:21116464 4179:31268540 4119:28273008 4076:33573633 4068:28166315 4025:26586971 3865:24354823 3774:24029499 3735:25645486 3691:15623869 3588:10778041 3550:19049301 3542:28731624 3487:31651421 3429:20494500 3338:30458586 3324:: 1–10. 3278:20672439 3270:22343940 3262:23113205 3176:11748335 3168:19347581 3120:79484876 3077:14534231 3013:26746205 2958:27720339 2890:14702456 2846:10846509 2739:41583770 2731:19179539 2642:11194849 2599:16507736 2541:17102196 2489:30575859 2431:18039995 2382:21769087 2374:17001262 2366:41219540 2320:39066609 2312:17687126 2264:17848435 2210:27992730 2061:25921731 1995:37450294 1946:39066609 1938:17687126 1896:39289745 1888:19452819 1822:11194848 1745:11194848 1699:17848435 1653:16043671 1597:April 2, 1541:27738287 1448:April 2, 1410:23121994 1402:25913338 1261:25987471 1199:41583770 1191:19179539 1122:ncsl.org 1043:See also 970:Medicare 768:biopsies 677:Language 501:Africans 444:diabetes 366:Children 341:dialysis 204:Virginia 196:Colorado 180:New York 176:Illinois 167:Medicaid 159:Medicaid 104:Overview 65:trachoma 50:refugees 5732:Curaçao 5717:Bonaire 5712:Bermuda 5642:Jamaica 5622:Grenada 5577:Bahamas 4781:6715258 4721:6715258 4664:5828995 4416:NPR.org 4368:1410235 4359:1403696 4227:2992323 4170:6613287 4016:4634824 3856:3924594 3682:1449861 3596:6585953 3420:2893335 3068:1448043 3004:4930414 2837:1446276 2590:1470552 2480:6439652 2201:5886019 2069:3366467 1644:1449377 1549:3593144 1252:4575861 638:SB 1070 579:kinship 518:African 483:gua sha 475:Chinese 200:Georgia 192:Arizona 73:citizen 5657:Panama 5647:Mexico 5592:Canada 5587:Belize 5518: 5510: 5470: 5447: 5439: 5237: 5229: 5221: 5056: 5004: 4962: 4954: 4913: 4905: 4897: 4788: 4778: 4770: 4728: 4718: 4710: 4671: 4661: 4653: 4604:. CNBC 4582: 4574: 4566: 4396: 4366: 4356: 4320: 4312: 4304: 4269: 4234: 4224: 4216: 4177: 4167: 4159: 4117: 4109: 4074: 4066: 4058: 4023: 4013: 4005: 3950: 3916: 3863: 3853: 3845: 3799: 3772: 3733: 3725: 3689: 3679: 3671: 3594: 3586: 3548: 3540: 3532: 3493: 3485: 3477: 3427: 3417: 3378: 3336: 3328: 3276: 3268: 3260: 3225: 3217: 3174: 3166: 3158: 3118: 3110: 3075: 3065: 3057: 3011: 3001: 2956: 2888: 2844: 2834: 2737: 2729: 2640: 2632: 2597: 2587: 2539: 2531: 2487: 2477: 2469: 2429: 2421: 2380: 2372: 2364: 2356: 2318: 2310: 2302: 2262: 2254: 2208: 2198: 2190: 2067: 2059: 2051: 2012:. KPCC 1993: 1985: 1944: 1936: 1894: 1886: 1820: 1812: 1743: 1697: 1651: 1641: 1547: 1539: 1497: 1408: 1400: 1392: 1259: 1249: 1241: 1197: 1189: 1181: 1008:Senate 901:, and 878:, and 810:this. 559:Somali 527:stress 477:, and 460:Korean 450:Asians 423:Latino 404:Mexico 393: 320:cancer 318:, and 316:asthma 202:, and 182:, the 84:, and 52:, and 5707:Aruba 5632:Haiti 5516:S2CID 5227:JSTOR 5166:(PDF) 5101:(PDF) 5077:(PDF) 5042:(PDF) 5013:(PDF) 5002:S2CID 4982:(PDF) 4911:S2CID 4830:Axios 4580:S2CID 4572:JSTOR 4500:(PDF) 4478:(PDF) 4440:. 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