846:, or glassy spatters of molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: scientific literature has reported that some "shock" features, such as small shatter cones, which are often associated only with impact events, have been found also in terrestrial volcanic ejecta.
898:. It is estimated that the value of materials mined from impact structures is five billion dollars/year just for North America. The eventual usefulness of impact craters depends on several factors, especially the nature of the materials that were impacted and when the materials were affected. In some cases, the deposits were already in place and the impact brought them to the surface. These are called "progenetic economic deposits." Others were created during the actual impact. The great energy involved caused melting. Useful minerals formed as a result of this energy are classified as "syngenetic deposits." The third type, called "epigenetic deposits," is caused by the creation of a basin from the impact. Many of the minerals that our modern lives depend on are associated with impacts in the past. The
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layer of impact melt coating the interior of the transient cavity. In contrast, the hot dense vaporized material expands rapidly out of the growing cavity, carrying some solid and molten material within it as it does so. As this hot vapor cloud expands, it rises and cools much like the archetypal mushroom cloud generated by large nuclear explosions. In large impacts, the expanding vapor cloud may rise to many times the scale height of the atmosphere, effectively expanding into free space.
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impacts. Small volumes of high-speed material may also be generated early in the impact by jetting. This occurs when two surfaces converge rapidly and obliquely at a small angle, and high-temperature highly shocked material is expelled from the convergence zone with velocities that may be several times larger than the impact velocity.
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In most circumstances, the transient cavity is not stable and collapses under gravity. In small craters, less than about 4 km diameter on Earth, there is some limited collapse of the crater rim coupled with debris sliding down the crater walls and drainage of impact melts into the deeper cavity.
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In large impacts, as well as material displaced and ejected to form the crater, significant volumes of target material may be melted and vaporized together with the original impactor. Some of this impact melt rock may be ejected, but most of it remains within the transient crater, initially forming a
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thrown out of the crater do not include material excavated from the full depth of the transient cavity; typically the depth of maximum excavation is only about a third of the total depth. As a result, about one third of the volume of the transient crater is formed by the ejection of material, and the
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As the shock wave decays, the shocked region decompresses towards more usual pressures and densities. The damage produced by the shock wave raises the temperature of the material. In all but the smallest impacts this increase in temperature is sufficient to melt the impactor, and in larger impacts to
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of 0.09 to 0.16 km/s. The larger the meteoroid (i.e. asteroids and comets) the more of its initial cosmic velocity it preserves. While an object of 9,000 kg maintains about 6% of its original velocity, one of 900,000 kg already preserves about 70%. Extremely large bodies (about 100,000
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and leave the impacted planet or moon entirely. The majority of the fastest material is ejected from close to the center of impact, and the slowest material is ejected close to the rim at low velocities to form an overturned coherent flap of ejecta immediately outside the rim. As ejecta escapes from
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at very high relative velocities from the surface of the target and from the rear of the impactor. Spalling provides a potential mechanism whereby material may be ejected into inter-planetary space largely undamaged, and whereby small volumes of the impactor may be preserved undamaged even in large
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Contact, compression, decompression, and the passage of the shock wave all occur within a few tenths of a second for a large impact. The subsequent excavation of the crater occurs more slowly, and during this stage the flow of material is largely subsonic. During excavation, the crater grows as the
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In physical terms, a shock wave originates from the point of contact. As this shock wave expands, it decelerates and compresses the impactor, and it accelerates and compresses the target. Stress levels within the shock wave far exceed the strength of solid materials; consequently, both the impactor
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processes, viscous relaxation, or erased entirely. These effects are most prominent on geologically and meteorologically active bodies such as Earth, Titan, Triton, and Io. However, heavily modified craters may be found on more primordial bodies such as
Callisto, where many ancient craters flatten
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the target and decelerates the impactor. Because the impactor is moving so rapidly, the rear of the object moves a significant distance during the short-but-finite time taken for the deceleration to propagate across the impactor. As a result, the impactor is compressed, its density rises, and the
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It is convenient to divide the impact process conceptually into three distinct stages: (1) initial contact and compression, (2) excavation, (3) modification and collapse. In practice, there is overlap between the three processes with, for example, the excavation of the crater continuing in some
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in the inner Solar System around 3.9 billion years ago. The rate of crater production on Earth has since been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless. Earth experiences, on average, from one to three impacts large enough to produce a 20-kilometre-diameter (12 mi) crater every
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However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where 90% of the Earth's atmospheric mass lies. Meteorites of up to 7,000 kg lose all their cosmic velocity due to atmospheric drag at a certain
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Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. Impact craters produce melted rocks as well, but usually in smaller volumes with different characteristics.
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to high density. Following initial compression, the high-density, over-compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that produces the impact crater. Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by
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Although Earth's active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 190 terrestrial impact craters have been identified. These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about 300 km (190 mi), and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the
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accelerated target material moves away from the point of impact. The target's motion is initially downwards and outwards, but it becomes outwards and upwards. The flow initially produces an approximately hemispherical cavity that continues to grow, eventually producing a
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There are approximately twelve more impact craters/basins larger than 300 km on the Moon, five on
Mercury, and four on Mars. Large basins, some unnamed but mostly smaller than 300 km, can also be found on Saturn's moons Dione, Rhea and Iapetus.
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remaining two thirds is formed by the displacement of material downwards, outwards and upwards, to form the elevated rim. For impacts into highly porous materials, a significant crater volume may also be formed by the permanent compaction of the
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and the target close to the impact site are irreversibly damaged. Many crystalline minerals can be transformed into higher-density phases by shock waves; for example, the common mineral quartz can be transformed into the higher-pressure forms
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is the largest goldfield in the world, which has supplied about 40% of all the gold ever mined in an impact structure (though the gold did not come from the bolide). The asteroid that struck the region was 9.7 km (6 mi) wide. The
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in Russia whose creation was witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the
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million years. This indicates that there should be far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far. The cratering rate in the inner solar system fluctuates as a consequence of collisions in the
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Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or
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vaporize most of it and to melt large volumes of the target. As well as being heated, the target near the impact is accelerated by the shock wave, and it continues moving away from the impact behind the decaying shock wave.
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The resultant structure is called a simple crater, and it remains bowl-shaped and superficially similar to the transient crater. In simple craters, the original excavation cavity is overlain by a lens of collapse
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that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational
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Nested
Craters on Mars, 40.104° N, 125.005° E. These nested craters are probably caused by changes in the strength of the target material. This usually happens when a weaker material overlies a stronger
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Harper, C. 1983. The
Geology and Uranium Deposits of the Central Part of the Carswell Structure, Northern Saskatchewan, Canada. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA, 337 pp
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studied a number of sites now recognized as impact craters in the United States. He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed that this force was probably
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Above a certain threshold size, which varies with planetary gravity, the collapse and modification of the transient cavity is much more extensive, and the resulting structure is called a
712:. On icy (as opposed to rocky) bodies, other morphological forms appear that may have central pits rather than central peaks, and at the largest sizes may contain many concentric rings.
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in the study of other worlds. Out of many proposed craters, relatively few are confirmed. The following twenty are a sample of articles of confirmed and well-documented impact sites.
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Most material ejected from the crater is deposited within a few crater radii, but a small fraction may travel large distances at high velocity, and in large impacts it may exceed
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the growing crater, it forms an expanding curtain in the shape of an inverted cone. The trajectory of individual particles within the curtain is thought to be largely ballistic.
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of asteroids is thought to have caused a large spike in the impact rate. The rate of impact cratering in the outer Solar System could be different from the inner Solar System.
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of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s in the "worst case" scenario in which an object in a retrograde near-parabolic orbit hits Earth. The
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French, B. 1970. Possible
Relations Between Meteorite Impact and Igneous Petrogenesis As Indicated by the Sudbury Structure, Ontario, Canada. Bull. Volcan. 34, 466–517.
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in
Germany began a methodical search for impact craters. By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50. Although their work was controversial, the American
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Leroux H., Reimold W., Doukhan, J. 1994. A TEM investigation of shock metamorphism in quartz from the
Vredefort Dome, South Africa. Tectonophysics 230: 223–230
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The time window on the impact, between July 2010 and May 2012, simply represents the time between two different
Context Camera photos of the same location
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of some material involved in the formation of impact craters is many times higher than that generated by high explosives. Since craters are caused by
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Grieve, R., Stöffler D, A. Deutsch. 1991. The
Sudbury Structure: controversial or misunderstood. Journal of Geophysical Research 96: 22 753–22 764
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Lainé, R., D. Alonso, M. Svab (eds). 1985. The
Carswell Structure Uranium Deposits. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 29: 230 pp
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Boon, John D.; Albritton, Claude C. Jr. (November 1936). "Meteorite craters and their possible relationship to "cryptovolcanic structures"".
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that create a family of fragments that are often sent cascading into the inner solar system. Formed in a collision 80 million years ago, the
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On Earth, impact craters have resulted in useful minerals. Some of the ores produced from impact related effects on Earth include ores of
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Hargraves, R. 1961. Shatter cones in the rocks of the Vredefort Ring. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 64: 147–154
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or astrobleme are more commonly used. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms
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Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided supportive evidence by recognizing the rate of impact cratering on the
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tonnes) are not slowed by the atmosphere at all, and impact with their initial cosmic velocity if no prior disintegration occurs.
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Lofgren, Gary E.; Bence, A. E.; Duke, Michael B.; Dungan, Michael A.; Green, John C.; Haggerty, Stephen E.; Haskin, L.A. (1981).
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Grieve, R., V. Masaitis. 1994. The Economic Potential of Terrestrial Impact Craters. International Geology Review: 36, 105–151.
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The cratering records of very old surfaces, such as Mercury, the Moon, and the southern highlands of Mars, record a period of
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Grieve, R., V. Masaitis. 1994. The economic potential of terrestrial impact craters. International Geology Review 36: 105–151
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Bottke, WF; VokrouhlickĂ˝ D NesvornĂ˝ D. (2007). "An asteroid breakup 160 Myr ago as the probable source of the K/T impactor".
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Barata, T.; Alves, E. I.; Machado, A.; Barberes, G. A. (November 2012). "Characterization of palimpsest craters on Mars".
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The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic effects, such as
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or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth.
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was caused by an impacting body over 9.7 km (6 mi) in diameter. This basin is famous for its deposits of
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are common around impact structures. Fifty percent of impact structures in North America in hydrocarbon-bearing
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altitude (retardation point), and start to accelerate again due to Earth's gravity until the body reaches its
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effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified. Such shock-metamorphic effects can include:
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revisited Bucher's studies and concluded that the craters that he studied were probably formed by impacts.
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Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the
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Complex craters have uplifted centers, and they have typically broad flat shallow crater floors, and
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Impact craters are the dominant geographic features on many solid Solar System objects including the
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Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p.
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French, Bevan M (1998). "Chapter 5: Shock-Metamorphosed Rocks (Impactites) in Impact Structures".
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to reach values more usually found deep in the interiors of planets, or generated artificially in
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Martini, J. 1978. Coesite and stishovite in the Vredefort Dome, South Africa. Nature 272: 715–717
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Daniel M. Barringer, a mining engineer, was convinced already in 1903 that the crater he owned,
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Proceedings of Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 10th, Houston, Tex., March 19–23, 1979
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30:"Meteor crater" redirects here. For the impact crater in Arizona named "Meteor Crater", see
1683: – Comprehensive technical reference on the science of impact craters, 1998 book from
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Daly, R. 1947. The Vredefort ring structure of South Africa. Journal of Geology 55: 125145
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Circular depression in a solid astronomical body formed by the impact of a smaller object
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2071:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 59, 69, 74–75, 78–79, 81–85, 99–100.
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French, Bevan M (1998). "Chapter 4: Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Rocks and Minerals".
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On Earth, the recognition of impact craters is a branch of geology, and is related to
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This describes impacts on solid surfaces. Impacts on porous surfaces, such as that of
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The depth of the transient cavity is typically a quarter to a third of its diameter.
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processes over time. Where such processes have destroyed most of the original crater
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2305:: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures
2275:: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures
1865:: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures
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in Tennessee, United States: a close-up of shatter cones developed in fine grained
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Bond, J. W. (December 1981). "The development of central peaks in lunar craters".
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Estimates crater size and other effects of a specified body colliding with Earth.
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in 1949 wrote that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin. Around 1960,
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suggested in 1893 that the Moon's craters were formed by large asteroid impacts.
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2660:. 9th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 13–17 March 1978. Houston, Texas.
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in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as
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Grieve R.A.; Shoemaker, E.M. (1994). The Record of Past Impacts on Earth in
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High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand,
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in the U.S. state of Arizona, was the world's first confirmed impact crater.
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in solid materials, and both impactor and the material impacted are rapidly
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within it increases dramatically. Peak pressures in large impacts exceed 1
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Long after an impact event, a crater may be further modified by erosion,
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Kenkmann, Thomas; Hörz, Friedrich; Deutsch, Alexander (1 January 2005).
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Weathering may change the aspect of a crater drastically. This mound on
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regions while modification and collapse is already underway in others.
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The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures
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Grieve, R.A.F.; Cintala, M.J.; Tagle, R. (2007). Planetary Impacts in
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T. Gehrels, Ed.; University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp. 417–464.
646:' north pole may be the result of an impact crater that was buried by
2735:
916:
912:
895:
891:
625:
Small volumes of un-melted and relatively un-shocked material may be
602:
467:
270:
107:
1860:
French, Bevan M (1998). "Chapter 7: How to Find Impact Structures".
3351:
2046:
Shoemaker, E.M.; Shoemaker, C.S. (1999). The Role of Collisions in
1639: – Hypothesis on the interstellar spreading of primordial life
2738:
Google Maps Page with Locations of Meteor Craters around the world
1529:– Moon – Diameter: 350 km, with rings to 930 km diameter
1307:
1247:
794:
783:
768:
754:
740:
665:
637:
626:
586:
545:
521:
435:
295:
201:
197:
144:
126:
887:
879:
643:
425:
177:
78:
2761:
1855:
1853:
445:
A laboratory simulation of an impact event and crater formation
2130:"How fast are meteorites traveling when they reach the ground"
802:
in Western Australia was renamed in memory of Gene Shoemaker.
220:, visible impact craters are less common because they become
2730:
173:
is a well-known example of a small impact crater on Earth.
1708:"Spectacular new Martian impact crater spotted from orbit"
2747:
Lunar and Planetary Institute slidshow: contains pictures
1589: – Mass extinction event about 66 million years ago
400:
Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features,
165:
to simple bowl-shaped depressions and vast, complex,
3328:
2495:"Environment and Geology: Are Impact Craters Useful?"
2110:
Grieve, R.A.F. (1990) Impact Cratering on the Earth.
670:
Multi-ringed impact basin Valhalla on Jupiter's moon
2731:
Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters
1674:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1647:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1603:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
3241:
3110:
2889:
2813:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2398:
2396:
2064:
1687:– comprehensive reference on impact crater science
2554:Die Auswurfprodukte des Ries-Impakts, Deutschland
1893:Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, p. 23.
98:Recently formed (between July 2010 and May 2012)
470:impact velocity on Earth is about 20 km/s.
1117:, a.k.a. Meteor Crater (Arizona, United States)
1773:Worlds Apart: A Textbook in Planetary Sciences
2773:
2658:New Morphometric Data for Fresh Lunar Craters
2160:. Geological Society of America. p. 34.
2067:Shoemaker by Levy: The man who made an impact
1743:Basaltic Volcanism on the Terrestrial Planets
1616: – Collision of two astronomical objects
495:than by mechanical displacement. Indeed, the
8:
2556:. Documenta Naturae. Vol. 162. Verlag.
1806:. New York: Pergamon Press Inc.: 1649–1663.
1337:(disputed) – Mars – Diameter: 10,600 km
315:in origin. However, in 1936, the geologists
2641:. New York: Ecco/HarperCollins Publishers.
2214:"HiRISE – Nested Craters (ESP_027610_2205)"
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
1969:"Cratering rates in the outer Solar System"
1329:List of largest craters in the Solar System
1095:hover over a structure to show its details)
959:List of possible impact structures on Earth
81:, a prominent well-structured example of a
2780:
2766:
2758:
2656:Wood, Charles A.; Andersson, Leif (1978).
2513:"Planetary and Space Science Centre – UNB"
2037:2nd ed., L-A. McFadden et al. Eds, p. 826.
1771:Consolmagno, G.J.; Schaefer, M.W. (1994).
776:: aerial electromagnetic resistivity map (
2050:4th ed., J.K. Beatty et al., Eds., p. 73.
1995:
1304:Largest named craters in the Solar System
1255:crater in Caloris Basin, photographed by
1654: – American astronomer and academic
1074:
1009:List of geological features on Enceladus
716:on Callisto is an example of this type.
345:, but explosively, in seconds." For his
55:500-kilometre-wide (310 mi) crater
3335:
2684:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
2365:
2353:
2341:
2329:
2058:
2056:
1698:
1627: – Class of Martian impact craters
1610: – Depth of projectile penetration
1601: – Type of secondary impact crater
923:. An impact was involved in making the
2742:Solarviews: Terrestrial Impact Craters
2493:Priyadarshi, Nitish (23 August 2009).
1794:Morrison, D.A.; Clanton, U.S. (1979).
1660: – Specific type of impact crater
1054:List of geological features on Titania
1039:List of geological features on Miranda
1029:List of geological features on Iapetus
277:into Earth's interior by processes of
1587:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
1059:List of geological features on Oberon
1014:List of geological features on Tethys
984:List of geological features on Phobos
482:Impacts at these high speeds produce
307:In the 1920s, the American geologist
271:stable interior regions of continents
7:
2610:Impact Cratering: A Geologic Process
2197:'Key to Giant Space Sponge Revealed'
1904:Hazards due to Comets and Asteroids,
1044:List of geological features on Ariel
1019:List of geological features on Dione
1004:List of geological features on Mimas
157:of a smaller object. In contrast to
125:east of Flagstaff, Arizona, U.S. on
1355:– Mercury – Diameter: 1,550 km
1034:List of geological features on Puck
1024:List of geological features on Rhea
1837:American Museum of Natural History
1541:– Ganymede – Diameter: 343 km
1127:Chicxulub, Extinction Event Crater
406:Dominion Astrophysical Observatory
42:Impact craters in the Solar System
25:
2380:"Iowa Meteorite Crater Confirmed"
2035:Encyclopedia of the Solar System,
1547:– Titania – Diameter: 326 km
1517:– Iapetus – Diameter: 377 km
1511:– Mercury – Diameter: 380 km
1505:– Mercury – Diameter: 390 km
1493:– Mercury – Diameter: 400 km
1487:– Iapetus – Diameter: 424 km
1469:– Iapetus – Diameter: 445 km
1463:– 4 Vesta – Diameter: 460 km
1439:– Iapetus – Diameter: 504 km
1427:– Iapetus – Diameter: 580 km
1409:– Mercury – Diameter: 625 km
1391:– Mercury – Diameter: 715 km
1361:– Pluto – Diameter: 1,300 km
3398:
3386:
3374:
3362:
3350:
3338:
2880:
2874:
2713:
1967:Zahnle, K.; et al. (2003).
1706:Timmer, John (6 February 2014).
1553:– Tethys – Diameter: 320 km
1475:– Tethys – Diameter: 445 km
1373:– Mars – Diameter: 1,100 km
1367:– Moon – Diameter: 1,100 km
1349:– Mars – Diameter: 2,100 km
1343:– Moon – Diameter: 2,500 km
1335:North Polar Basin/Borealis Basin
114:
91:
67:
48:
1571:– Pluto – Diameter: 296 km
1565:– Earth – Diameter: 300 km
1535:– Dione – Diameter: 350 km
1499:– Titan – Diameter: 392 km
1141:(Northern Territory, Australia)
1101:List of impact craters on Earth
954:List of impact craters on Earth
650:and subsequently re-exposed by
337:revived the idea. According to
2499:nitishpriyadarshi.blogspot.com
1523:– Rhea – Diameter: 360 km
1481:– Moon – Diameter: 430 km
1457:– Mars – Diameter: 470 km
1451:– Mars – Diameter: 470 km
1445:– Rhea – Diameter: 480 km
1433:– Moon – Diameter: 540 km
1421:– Moon – Diameter: 590 km
1403:– Moon – Diameter: 700 km
1397:– Moon – Diameter: 700 km
1385:– Mars – Diameter: 800 km
1379:– Moon – Diameter: 870 km
1231:(Western Australia, Australia)
1207:(Western Australia, Australia)
729:into bright ghost craters, or
353:(1960), under the guidance of
1:
3311:Lunar and Planetary Institute
3143:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
2638:Dark Matter and the Dinosaurs
2309:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2279:Lunar and Planetary Institute
2006:10.1016/s0019-1035(03)00048-4
1869:Lunar and Planetary Institute
1775:. Prentice Hall. p. 56.
1685:Lunar and Planetary Institute
1645: – type of impact crater
1244:Some extraterrestrial craters
397:, proving its impact origin.
275:subduction of the ocean floor
2752:Earth Impact Effects Program
1169:Manicouagan impact structure
1121:Chesapeake Bay impact crater
865:Buried craters, such as the
817:Impacts produce distinctive
224:, buried, or transformed by
3203:Planar deformation features
2736:Impact Meteor Crater Viewer
2237:Planetary and Space Science
2157:Large Meteorite Impacts III
1631:Nemesis (hypothetical star)
999:List of craters on Callisto
994:List of craters on Ganymede
969:List of craters on the Moon
192:, and most small moons and
3462:
3306:Impact Field Studies Group
2535:planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov
2531:"Planetary Names: Welcome"
1563:Vredefort impact structure
1326:
1223:Vredefort impact structure
1098:
1081:equirectangular projection
1049:List of craters on Umbriel
964:List of craters on Mercury
737:Identifying impact craters
410:Victoria, British Columbia
167:multi-ringed impact basins
29:
2872:
2795:
2789:Impact cratering on Earth
2257:10.1016/j.pss.2012.09.015
1297:South Pole – Aitken basin
1123:(Virginia, United States)
1064:List of craters on Triton
989:List of craters on Europa
825:A layer of shattered or "
683:gravitational equilibrium
634:Modification and collapse
381:and Shoemaker identified
249:intense early bombardment
3276:William Kenneth Hartmann
2942:Clearwater East and West
2890:Confirmed≥20 km diameter
2573:The Moon and the Planets
2552:Baier, Johannes (2007).
2218:HiRISE Operations Center
1595: – Optical illusion
1199:Popigai impact structure
1091:as of November 2017 (in
979:List of craters on Venus
943:contain oil/gas fields.
3193:Ordovician meteor event
2680:Mark, Kathleen (1987).
2585:1981M&P....25..465B
2249:2012P&SS...72...62B
2134:American Meteor Society
1341:South Pole-Aitken basin
1071:Impact craters on Earth
974:List of craters on Mars
921:platinum group elements
748:of craters: simple and
720:Subsequent modification
518:Contact and compression
321:Claude C. Albritton Jr.
3296:Eugene Merle Shoemaker
3173:Late Heavy Bombardment
2635:Randall, Lisa (2015).
2608:Melosh, H. J. (1989).
2378:US Geological Survey.
2094:Field & Laboratory
1324:
1262:
1145:Haughton impact crater
1096:
931:, Canada; it contains
803:
792:
781:
766:
752:
674:
655:
598:
528:
446:
418:University of TĂĽbingen
404:and colleagues at the
304:
3441:Depressions (geology)
3421:Earth Impact Database
3317:Traces of Catastrophe
3301:Earth Impact Database
3249:Ralph Belknap Baldwin
2303:Traces of Catastrophe
2273:Traces of Catastrophe
2222:University of Arizona
2048:The New Solar System,
1863:Traces of Catastrophe
1680:Traces of Catastrophe
1311:
1251:
1238:Earth Impact Database
1177:(Iowa, United States)
1089:Earth Impact Database
1078:
902:in the center of the
798:
787:
772:
758:
744:
669:
641:
590:
525:
444:
299:
100:impact crater on Mars
2722:at Wikimedia Commons
2114:, April 1990, p. 66.
2063:Levy, David (2002).
1891:The surface of Mars;
351:Princeton University
266:Sikhote-Alin craters
143:in the surface of a
3436:Geology of the Moon
2690:1987mecr.book.....M
2666:1978LPSC....9.3669W
2618:1989icgp.book.....M
2344:, pp. 154–155.
2112:Scientific American
1988:2003Icar..163..263Z
1938:10.1038/nature06070
1930:2007Natur.449...48B
1812:1979LPSC...10.1649M
1781:1994watp.book.....C
1377:Mare Tranquilitatis
1201:, (Siberia, Russia)
1139:Gosses Bluff crater
904:Witwatersrand Basin
874:Economic importance
706:multi-ringed basins
414:Wolf von Engelhardt
102:showing a pristine
3213:Shock metamorphism
3118:Alvarez hypothesis
2593:10.1007/BF00919080
2311:. pp. 61–78.
2281:. pp. 31–60.
1889:Carr, M.H. (2006)
1871:. pp. 97–99.
1833:"Barringer Crater"
1325:
1263:
1229:Wolfe Creek Crater
1183:(Labrador, Canada)
1097:
941:sedimentary basins
804:
793:
782:
767:
760:Wells Creek crater
753:
675:
656:
599:
553:nuclear explosions
531:In the absence of
529:
447:
377:in 1955. In 1960,
355:Harry Hammond Hess
327:Grove Karl Gilbert
305:
3446:Planetary geology
3326:
3325:
3266:Edward C. T. Chao
2718:Media related to
2699:978-0-8165-0902-7
2682:Meteorite Craters
2648:978-0-06-232847-2
2627:978-0-19-510463-9
2563:978-3-86544-162-1
2167:978-0-8137-2384-6
1395:Serenitatis Basin
1219:(Ontario, Canada)
1193:Pingualuit crater
1147:(Nunavut, Canada)
1107:planetary geology
1085:impact structures
819:shock-metamorphic
698:peak-ring craters
594:on Saturn's moon
476:terminal velocity
442:
379:Edward C. T. Chao
359:explosion craters
258:Baptistina family
148:astronomical body
59:on Saturn's moon
16:(Redirected from
3453:
3403:
3402:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3355:
3354:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3334:
3291:Peter H. Schultz
3254:Daniel Barringer
3163:Impact structure
2884:
2878:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2759:
2717:
2703:
2669:
2652:
2631:
2604:
2567:
2539:
2538:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2421:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2403:
2400:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2351:
2345:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2210:
2204:
2194:
2188:
2185:
2172:
2171:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2126:
2115:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2070:
2060:
2051:
2044:
2038:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2014:
2008:. Archived from
1999:
1973:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1913:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1857:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1714:. Archived from
1703:
1675:
1670:Secondary crater
1652:Peter H. Schultz
1648:
1604:
1359:Sputnik Planitia
1205:Shoemaker crater
1195:(Quebec, Canada)
1181:Mistastin crater
1171:(Quebec, Canada)
1135:(Quebec, Canada)
1133:Clearwater Lakes
1115:Barringer Crater
947:Lists of craters
800:Shoemaker Crater
746:Impact structure
443:
432:Crater formation
402:Carlyle S. Beals
367:Nevada Test Site
309:Walter H. Bucher
301:Eugene Shoemaker
238:impact structure
159:volcanic craters
121:50,000-year-old
118:
95:
83:multi-ring basin
71:
52:
21:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3397:
3387:
3385:
3375:
3373:
3363:
3361:
3349:
3339:
3337:
3329:
3327:
3322:
3271:Robert S. Dietz
3259:Barringer Medal
3237:
3148:Cryptoexplosion
3106:
3037:Puchezh-Katunki
3017:Nördlinger Ries
2885:
2879:
2870:
2836:Asia and Russia
2809:
2791:
2786:
2710:
2700:
2679:
2676:
2674:Further reading
2655:
2649:
2634:
2628:
2607:
2570:
2564:
2551:
2548:
2543:
2542:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2464:
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2455:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2394:
2384:
2382:
2377:
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2372:
2364:
2360:
2352:
2348:
2340:
2336:
2328:
2324:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2175:
2168:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2136:
2128:
2127:
2118:
2109:
2105:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2045:
2041:
2032:
2028:
2018:
2016:
2015:on 30 July 2009
2012:
1997:10.1.1.520.2964
1971:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1924:(7158): 48–53.
1915:
1914:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1888:
1884:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1816:
1814:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:. p. 765.
1739:
1738:
1734:
1721:
1719:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1673:
1646:
1643:Pedestal crater
1602:
1599:Expanded crater
1593:Crater illusion
1582:
1527:Orientale Basin
1383:Argyre Planitia
1371:Isidis Planitia
1331:
1315:straddling the
1306:
1291:Petrarch crater
1279:Herschel crater
1246:
1234:
1187:Nördlinger Ries
1103:
1073:
1068:
949:
876:
858:, varieties of
750:complex craters
739:
722:
636:
619:escape velocity
592:Herschel Crater
577:
520:
493:high explosives
464:escape velocity
436:
434:
395:Nördlinger Ries
387:silicon dioxide
287:
279:plate tectonics
242:cryptoexplosion
133:
132:
131:
130:
129:
119:
111:
110:
96:
87:
86:
85:
72:
64:
63:
53:
44:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3459:
3457:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3431:Impact geology
3428:
3426:Impact craters
3423:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3407:
3395:
3383:
3371:
3359:
3347:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3251:
3245:
3243:
3239:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3218:Shocked quartz
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3178:Lechatelierite
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3153:Ejecta blanket
3150:
3145:
3140:
3138:Complex crater
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3114:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2932:Chesapeake Bay
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2886:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2817:
2815:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2720:Impact craters
2709:
2708:External links
2706:
2705:
2704:
2698:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2653:
2647:
2632:
2626:
2605:
2579:(4): 465–476.
2568:
2562:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2522:
2504:
2485:
2476:
2467:
2458:
2449:
2440:
2431:
2422:
2413:
2404:
2392:
2370:
2368:, p. 155.
2358:
2356:, p. 156.
2346:
2334:
2332:, p. 157.
2322:
2292:
2262:
2227:
2205:
2189:
2173:
2166:
2146:
2116:
2103:
2084:
2077:
2052:
2039:
2026:
1959:
1908:
1895:
1882:
1849:
1824:
1786:
1763:
1756:
1748:Pergamon Press
1732:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
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1327:Main article:
1323:, lower right.
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1285:Mare Orientale
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1099:Main article:
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900:Vredeford Dome
875:
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867:Decorah crater
863:
860:shocked quartz
847:
836:
830:
774:Decorah crater
738:
735:
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718:
708:, for example
700:, for example
690:terraced walls
679:complex crater
635:
632:
576:
573:
519:
516:
497:energy density
451:speed of sound
433:
430:
335:Gene Shoemaker
286:
283:
163:Apollo Program
150:formed by the
120:
113:
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90:
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75:Mare Orientale
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2856:South America
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2800:Impact crater
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2203:, 4 July 2007
2202:
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2078:9780691113258
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2027:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1989:
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1981:
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1963:
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1951:
1947:
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1757:0-08-028086-2
1753:
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1729:
1718:on 5 May 2022
1717:
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1620:Lakes on Mars
1618:
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1369:
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1365:Imbrium Basin
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1353:Caloris Basin
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1313:Tirawa crater
1310:
1303:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1267:Caloris Basin
1265:
1264:
1260:
1259:
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1243:
1241:
1239:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1217:Sudbury Basin
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1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
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1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:Manson crater
1173:
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1128:
1125:
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1119:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1102:
1094:
1093:the SVG file,
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:World map in
1077:
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1060:
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944:
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927:structure in
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918:
914:
910:
909:Sudbury Basin
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
873:
868:
864:
861:
857:
853:
848:
845:
841:
837:
834:
833:Shatter cones
831:
828:
824:
823:
822:
820:
815:
813:
812:shatter cones
808:
801:
797:
790:
789:Meteor Crater
786:
779:
775:
771:
765:
761:
757:
751:
747:
743:
736:
734:
732:
727:
719:
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711:
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684:
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673:
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628:
623:
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568:
566:
562:
556:
554:
550:
547:
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538:
534:
524:
517:
515:
511:
509:
504:
502:
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485:
480:
477:
471:
469:
465:
460:
456:
452:
431:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
412:, Canada and
411:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
365:tests at the
364:
361:created from
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:David H. Levy
336:
332:
331:Ralph Baldwin
328:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
302:
298:
294:
292:
291:Meteor Crater
284:
282:
280:
276:
272:
267:
261:
259:
255:
254:asteroid belt
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
171:Meteor Crater
168:
164:
160:
156:
153:
152:hypervelocity
149:
146:
142:
138:
137:impact crater
128:
124:
123:Meteor Crater
117:
109:
105:
101:
94:
84:
80:
76:
70:
62:
58:
51:
37:
33:
32:Meteor Crater
19:
3393:Solar System
3315:
3286:Graham Ryder
3208:Shatter cone
3198:Philippinite
3157:
3047:Saint Martin
3042:Rochechouart
2947:Gosses Bluff
2902:Amelia Creek
2805:Impact event
2799:
2681:
2657:
2637:
2609:
2576:
2572:
2553:
2546:Bibliography
2534:
2525:
2516:
2507:
2498:
2488:
2479:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2443:
2434:
2425:
2416:
2407:
2383:. Retrieved
2373:
2366:Randall 2015
2361:
2354:Randall 2015
2349:
2342:Randall 2015
2337:
2330:Randall 2015
2325:
2301:
2295:
2271:
2265:
2243:(1): 62–69.
2240:
2236:
2230:
2217:
2208:
2200:
2192:
2156:
2149:
2137:. Retrieved
2133:
2111:
2106:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2066:
2047:
2042:
2034:
2029:
2017:. Retrieved
2010:the original
1979:
1975:
1962:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1890:
1885:
1861:
1840:. Retrieved
1836:
1827:
1815:. Retrieved
1803:
1799:
1789:
1772:
1766:
1746:. New York:
1742:
1735:
1727:
1722:26 September
1720:. Retrieved
1716:the original
1712:Ars Technica
1711:
1701:
1679:
1625:LARLE crater
1614:Impact event
1608:Impact depth
1574:
1455:Schiaparelli
1347:Hellas Basin
1273:Hellas Basin
1256:
1235:
1163:Lonar crater
1159:(Tajikistan)
1151:Kaali crater
1104:
937:Hydrocarbons
929:Saskatchewan
877:
816:
809:
805:
726:mass wasting
723:
687:
676:
657:
624:
616:
612:
600:
578:
569:
557:
530:
512:
505:
481:
472:
459:vaporization
448:
399:
373:in 1951 and
325:
317:John D. Boon
306:
288:
262:
246:
236:, the terms
175:
136:
134:
36:
18:Impact basin
3381:Outer space
3369:Spaceflight
3082:Tookoonooka
3067:Steen River
3057:Siljan Ring
2987:Manicouagan
2972:Keurusselkä
2139:1 September
1842:16 November
1491:Dostoevskij
1419:Hertzsprung
1401:Mare Nubium
1211:Siljan Ring
840:spherulites
731:palimpsests
702:Schrödinger
537:accelerates
484:shock waves
385:(a form of
363:atomic bomb
3415:Categories
3223:Stishovite
3123:Australite
3102:Yarrabubba
3072:Strangways
3032:Presqu'île
3007:Montagnais
2977:Lappajärvi
2927:Charlevoix
2912:Beaverhead
2907:Araguainha
2861:By country
2831:Antarctica
2019:24 October
1982:(2): 263.
1817:3 February
1693:References
1664:Ray system
1637:Panspermia
1461:Rheasilvia
1317:terminator
1253:Balanchine
935:deposits.
852:stishovite
827:brecciated
608:pore space
582:paraboloid
575:Excavation
565:stishovite
533:atmosphere
501:explosions
488:compressed
375:Teapot Ess
369:, notably
349:degree at
234:topography
141:depression
104:ray system
3345:Astronomy
3188:Moldavite
3183:Meteorite
3168:Impactite
3097:Woodleigh
3092:Vredefort
3052:Shoemaker
3012:Morokweng
2997:Mistastin
2937:Chicxulub
2841:Australia
2821:Worldwide
2601:120197487
2201:Space.com
2100:(1): 1–9.
1992:CiteSeerX
1515:Malprimis
1407:Beethoven
1389:Rembrandt
1293:(Mercury)
1269:(Mercury)
1258:MESSENGER
1189:(Germany)
1153:(Estonia)
710:Orientale
527:material.
194:asteroids
3242:Research
3087:Tunnunik
2982:Logancha
2952:Haughton
2922:Carswell
2866:Possible
2317:40770730
2287:40770730
1946:17805288
1877:40770730
1580:See also
1545:Gertrude
1485:Falsaron
1473:Odysseus
1437:Engelier
1413:Valhalla
1236:See the
1213:(Sweden)
1129:(Mexico)
925:Carswell
844:tektites
764:dolomite
714:Valhalla
672:Callisto
648:sediment
542:pressure
508:Hyperion
371:Jangle U
313:volcanic
230:volcanic
226:tectonic
190:Ganymede
186:Callisto
57:Engelier
3405:Science
3331:Portals
3233:Tektite
3228:Suevite
3133:Coesite
3128:Breccia
3077:Sudbury
3027:Popigai
3022:Obolon'
3002:Mjølnir
2967:Karakul
2957:Kamensk
2917:Boltysh
2897:Acraman
2686:Bibcode
2662:Bibcode
2614:Bibcode
2581:Bibcode
2385:7 March
2245:Bibcode
1984:Bibcode
1954:4322622
1926:Bibcode
1808:Bibcode
1777:Bibcode
1551:Telemus
1539:Epigeus
1533:Evander
1503:Tolstoj
1479:Korolev
1449:Huygens
1443:Mamaldi
1281:(Mimas)
1165:(India)
1087:on the
1083:of the
933:uranium
884:uranium
856:coesite
661:breccia
652:erosion
627:spalled
561:coesite
455:melting
416:of the
391:suevite
383:coesite
285:History
182:Mercury
77:on the
61:Iapetus
3111:Topics
2992:Manson
2846:Europe
2826:Africa
2696:
2645:
2624:
2599:
2560:
2517:unb.ca
2315:
2285:
2164:
2075:
1994:
1976:Icarus
1952:
1944:
1918:Nature
1875:
1754:
1569:Burney
1557:Asgard
1521:Tirawa
1509:Goethe
1497:Menrva
1431:Apollo
1425:Turgis
1299:(Moon)
1287:(Moon)
1275:(Mars)
1261:, 2011
919:, and
917:copper
913:nickel
896:nickel
894:, and
892:copper
603:Ejecta
468:median
422:Apollo
222:eroded
218:Triton
216:, and
206:Europa
155:impact
108:ejecta
3357:Stars
2814:Lists
2597:S2CID
2013:(PDF)
1972:(PDF)
1950:S2CID
1467:Gerin
694:Tycho
596:Mimas
214:Titan
202:Venus
198:Earth
145:solid
139:is a
127:Earth
2962:Kara
2694:ISBN
2643:ISBN
2622:ISBN
2558:ISBN
2387:2013
2313:OCLC
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2162:ISBN
2141:2015
2073:ISBN
2021:2017
1942:PMID
1873:OCLC
1844:2021
1819:2022
1752:ISBN
1724:2022
1321:Rhea
888:gold
880:iron
854:and
842:and
778:USGS
644:Mars
563:and
457:and
426:Moon
343:eons
319:and
228:and
178:Moon
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2253:doi
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