70:, generally followed by assignment to specific offices, with higher level degrees and competitive ranking within the degrees tending to lead to higher ranking placements in the imperial government service. The examination system developed largely in response to religious and philosophical ideas about ideal social order. Also, traditional Chinese religion and philosophy responded to concerns about the examination system. Both processes were intimately bound together with a literary system and other traditions which had a relative continuity of several thousand years. The actual examination process developed together with various related philosophical, religious, and narrative concepts to produce a distinct mythological motif.
172:(most notably during a certain part of the Han dynasty, during the Tang dynasty, and perhaps similarly in the Qin dynasty): this was an institution involving the setting of standards and competitive evaluations thereby. In mythology, this involves one of the motifs which provide a religious-type of sacrality to the institution. The Music Bureau or Ministry of Music was actually not a music academy in the modern sense: its function included the collection and composition of music and poetry for royal court functions of entertainment and religious rites, but its functionality was much more. The tradition behind the
282:
28:
371:
125:, to see whether Shun could maintain family harmony at home, and ended by sending him down from the mountains to the plains below where Shun had to face fierce winds, thunder, and rain during the course of some test of unexplained mystery. Candidate Shun successfully passed this series of imperial examinations and was recruited as emperor, serving, it is said, as co-emperor, until the death of Yao. Shun and Yao both became mythological
109:. As he grew old in age, the Emperor Yao perceived that he would not live long enough to see the end of the flood. Therefore, he began to seek a successor, someone worthy enough and capable enough to rescue the people from this great calamity. Yao did not turn to the patriarchal system of choosing one of his sons. Yao wished to find the most talented and worthy person in the kingdom. Yao offered his throne to
363:
192:
later cited by scholar-officials responsible in historical times for public administration institutional design was told in the story of Shun, and how he arranged his government, including a Music
Ministry (Wu, 255–256). The work of the Music Bureau was eventually incorporated into the testing curriculum of the imperial examination system.
121:. Despite this evidence of his virtue, and the recommendation of Four Mountains, Yao decided that in order to recruit a replacement for the highest of the civil service offices, that of emperor himself, it would only be prudent to instigate a series of tests. The tests included marrying Shun to his two daughters,
294:
complex than this (Yang, C. K., 265–266). The idea of Fate is a mythological motif which had a significant role in the cultural context of the examination system involving cosmic forces which predestine certain results of human affairs: particularly that individual success or failure is subject to the will of
187:
provided great prestige to this concept, together with several explicit comments commending the results in the
Confucian classics. The Han dynasty Music Bureau was also explicitly avowed to serve a similar function. This was not the only educational function attributed to the Music Bureau: even going
178:
poetry anthology was that the reason that poems (and presumably accompanying musical scores and choreography, now lost) were collected, polished, and brought to court for presentation to the emperor, was to inform him of the thoughts, feelings, and conditions of the various peoples in different parts
293:
system. The system of testing was designed according to the principle of a society ruled by men of merit, and to achieve this by objectively measuring knowledge and intelligence of vatious candidates. However, in actual operation, the system also had aspects of religious and irrational beliefs more
191:
In mythology, the original
Ministry of Music was founded by Emperor Shun, in order to teach propriety and harmony to his heirs apparent. Thus, the mythological foundation (sometimes considered to be the legendary historical foundation) of the Chinese educational system) and the original archetype
221:
by implying that this was merely an artifact of his final senile descent towards death, saying that when this prime example of a mythological beast appeared in the works of
Confucius, it caused him to "lay down his pen and write no more" and that "e died two years later" (Wu, 6); and to go on to
82:
were credited with having divinely or miraculously created them, thus giving them an aura of greater-than-human qualities, and a justification for their existence and structural qualities with an implication that these are things which mere mortals should not question (as well as avoiding giving
61:
The imperial civil service examinations were designed as objective measures to evaluate the educational attainment and merit of the examinees, as part of the process by which to make selections and appointments to various offices within the structure of the government of the
Chinese empire, or,
53:
designed to select the best potential candidates to serve as administrative officials, for the purpose of recruiting them for the state's bureaucracy. With the avowed purpose of testing and selecting candidates for merit, the examination system markedly influenced various aspects of society and
313:. The story is that a certain scholar took the tests, and, despite his most excellent performance, which should have won him first place, he was unfairly deprived of the first place prize by a corrupt official: in response, the scholar killed himself, the act of suicide condemning him to be a
204:
is a historically proven fact, as are this dynasty. However, some of the Zhou material is factual, some is known to be mythological, and sometimes the two are hard to separate. The rites and records known from the Zhou era do include a prototypical imperial examination system.
188:
back to the early mythological tradition, the original
Ministry of Music was founded by Emperor Shun, in order to teach propriety and harmony to his heirs apparent and others. Thus, a certain moral function was built into the tradition from its origins.
222:
similarly strip other mythological elements out of the ancient writings in order to provide a history of the rise of the Zhou dynasty which lacks much from the preserved accounts (that is, it preserves the historical—especially that confirmed by the
83:
credit for their institution to a preceding rival dynasty). This applies particularly to the
Chinese system of examinations to recruit government officials and to the related institutions of governmentally sponsored and controlled education.
129:, due, in part, to their fight against the flood, and helping the people to lead better lives. The story of how Yao chose Shun by seeking and testing for the most virtuous and meritorious person in the whole empire became a mainstay of
153:
Shun is also credited with a universal gathering of his nobles and subjecting them to imperial examination every 3 years, in order to decide about promotions, demotions, or retaining of the current status in the governance structure.
382:
The symbology of the imperial examinations and that of imperial appointment to high office are much the same, as would be expected from the close relationship which they share with each other, especially in late imperial times.
325:
who vanquished evil spirits. Many people afraid of traveling on roads and paths that may be haunted by evil spirits have worshiped Zhong Kui as an efficacious protective deity (Christie, 60, and picture, 58).
272:
academy with a teaching staff of 3 elders plus 5 various others and a system of universal recruitment into service based upon merit which involved examinations, posthumously regarded as "imperial" (Wu, 256).
403:, meaning "an official") -- the caps or hats were awarded to promoted officials and so symbolic of official office (Eberhard, under "Aubergine"). Also, beans, or dried bean curd ("bean curd" referring to
226:
and other archeology—and rejects the embedded mythology); and, also there is the mythologizing and popular culture versions such as that the Ji family that founded the Zhou dynasty was the result of
268:, were posthumously conferred) was also known as the Literate Duke of Zhou, and he is credited in the dual tradition as the founder of many Chinese institutions, including the
457:
62:
sometimes, during periods of
Chinese national disunion, of offices within the various states. During more recent historical times, successful candidates could receive the
1306:
213:
Traditional
Chinese-source scholarship regarding ancient China typically involves a dual tradition: a historicizing tradition that results in scholarship such as
78:
A common mythological motif provides a religious type of sacredness to later social institutions by projecting their origins back to a time when deities and
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1245:
1384:
1061:
141:. Also, in later mythology and folk religion, the stories of the examinations of the dead in Heaven or Hell show certain parallels, in the way
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298:, and that the results of taking the imperial examinations could be influenced by the intervention of various deities (Yang C. K., 265–268).
1252:
854:
102:
1273:
679:
661:
643:
618:
309:, also spelled Chung-kuei, was a deity associated with the examination system, who achieved a major posthumous promotion during the
793:
696:
1338:
1331:
1217:
758:
1299:
711:
653:
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586:
708:
Religion in
Chinese Society : A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Historical Factors
1266:
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1001:
407:) also were used in illustrations and other symbology to represent officialdom due to the similarity in sound between
415:(大官, high official, as Eberhard discusses under "Bean"). Also, Eberhard defines the combined images of the maple (楓,
1374:
849:
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350:, he was discouraged from taking the tests (Hinton, 286). The claim was that if Li He was called a
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discourse, with Yao and Shun being glorified as epitomes of virtue. A likewise pattern, glorifying
106:
395:(茄子, qiézi), because the fruit together with its calyx looks like a man wearing a type of cap (冠,
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From a certain viewpoint, the examination system represented the most rationalistic aspect of the
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97:("Yao dian" 堯典), long before a whole bureaucracy of testing was developed. The text describes
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Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China
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354:, it would be against the rule of etiquette that a son not be called by his father's name.
1056:
859:
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739:, Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University).
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240:
version that allows the rise of Zhou to revolve around the interactions of the goddess
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50:
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145:
typically depicts the non-mundane world and the world of humans to mirror each other.
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The first instance tantamount to an idea of imperial examination is mentioned in the
43:
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435:) as related to official government service. Also, there is the scholar (士, shì).
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105:(traditional dates of rule approximately 2852-2070 BC), saw commencement of the
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Some individuals were discriminated against because of their names, due to a
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A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought
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on the expense of the family ties, is described in succession of Shun by
1196:
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During the later dynastic history of China, there existed a government
1284:
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1099:
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34:, as used for depiction on the screen of a shadow play. Qing dynasty.
743:
101:'s intent of examining abilities of his successor. Yao, one of the
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260:(a musical instrument capable of assuming human form), and so on.
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387:(article under title "Official", 214–216) lists a number in his
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was impressed of his strong character, and he became a powerful
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747:
735:
Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions", in
650:
Poetry and Painting in Song China: The Subtle Art of Dissent
117:. At the time, Shun is said to have been at home displaying
113:, but Four Mountains declined. Instead, they recommended
217:'s, which removes the unicorns from the writings of
1316:
1174:
1148:
1072:
908:
842:
781:
1307:Notes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations
123:Fairy Radiance (Ehuang) and Maiden Bloom (Nüying)
458:Civil Service of the People's Republic of China
200:Much of the literary phenomena associated with
759:
338:. For example, because the Tang dynasty poet
183:himself served as the editor-in-chief of the
8:
196:Zhou selection of the worthy and the capable
737:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2
766:
752:
744:
609:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press/
285:Zhong Kui the Demon Queller with Five Bats
18:Imperial examinations in Chinese mythology
674:. New York, New York: Thames and Hudson.
449:, especially regarding the "Canon of Yao"
652:. Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London:
630:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
514:
628:Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology
725:. New York: Oxford University Press.
54:culture in Imperial China, including
7:
656:for the Harvard-Yenching Institute.
1253:Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio
710:(1967 ). Berkeley and Los Angeles:
179:of the empire. That tradition that
855:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
103:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
25:
1274:What the Master Would Not Discuss
252:that is a thousand years old, a
1385:Imperial examination in fiction
1339:The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl
1332:Dong Yong and the Seventh Fairy
342:father's name sounded like the
149:Triennial examination tradition
1300:Records of the Grand Historian
712:University of California Press
691:. New York: Crown Publishers.
654:Harvard University Asia Center
581:. Feltham: Hamlyn Publishing.
230:'s supernatural conception of
87:Origin myth: Shun's succession
1:
1267:In Search of the Supernatural
1183:Classic of Mountains and Seas
723:Handbook of Chinese Mythology
389:Dictionary of Chinese Symbols
366:Eggplant fruit, or aubergine.
378:, 18th century wooden image.
264:(the name and title "king",
399:, which is homonymous with
1401:
577:Christie, Anthony (1968).
411:(豆乾, dried bean curd) and
161:
86:
1353:Mulian Rescues His Mother
1325:Legend of the White Snake
1225:The Peach Blossom Spring
611:Harvard University Press
1346:The Magic Lotus Lantern
1239:Investiture of the Gods
648:Murck, Alfreda (2000).
393:eggplant (or aubergine)
66:(chin-shih), and other
1161:Peaches of Immortality
986:Chinese guardian lions
909:Mythological creatures
379:
367:
286:
35:
1246:The Sorcerer's Revolt
834:Chinese folk religion
530:Yang, Lihui, 202-205.
453:Chinese classic texts
373:
365:
284:
277:Confucian rationalism
162:Further information:
143:Chinese folk religion
30:
794:Godly world concepts
689:The Chinese Heritage
607:China: A New History
478:Imperial examination
429:a monkey and a horse
254:nine-headed pheasant
40:imperial examination
1380:Confucian education
1260:Journey to the West
603:Fairbank, John King
493:Scholar-bureaucrats
209:Myth versus history
1281:Heavenly Questions
1095:Gate of the Ghosts
850:Gods and immortals
814:Gods and immortals
463:Eight-legged essay
380:
368:
287:
47:examination system
36:
1375:Chinese mythology
1362:
1361:
1232:The Four Journeys
775:Chinese mythology
731:978-0-19-533263-6
593:Eberhard, Wolfram
579:Chinese Mythology
551:, "Da Yu mo" 大禹謨
446:Book of Documents
56:Chinese mythology
16:(Redirected from
1392:
1317:Other folk tales
1047:Nine-headed Bird
1042:Peng (mythology)
948:Four Holy Beasts
843:Major personages
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704:Yang Ch'ing-k'un
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473:History of China
385:Wolfram Eberhard
262:King Wen of Zhou
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111:Four Mountains
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80:culture heroes
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1195:
1188:
1181:
1120:Moving Sands
1062:
982:(Fox spirit)
926:Azure Dragon
916:Four Symbols
736:
722:
718:
707:
697:0-517-54475X
688:
671:
668:Paludan, Ann
649:
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351:
347:
343:
336:naming taboo
333:
330:Naming taboo
311:Tang dynasty
305:
288:
269:
265:
235:
224:oracle bones
212:
202:Zhou dynasty
199:
190:
184:
173:
170:Music Bureau
167:
164:Music Bureau
158:Music Bureau
152:
139:Yu the Great
119:filial piety
92:
90:
77:
60:
37:
1218:Shenyi Jing
1032:Four Perils
931:White Tiger
880:Yan Emperor
539:Wu, 65-105.
319:Yanluo Wang
107:Great Flood
99:Emperor Yao
1369:Categories
1135:Weak River
1027:Fox spirit
636:0374105367
587:0600006379
504:References
250:nine tails
246:fox spirit
228:Jiang Yuan
1293:Huainanzi
1190:Shi Yi Ji
1130:Red River
980:Huli jing
958:Fenghuang
799:Astrology
685:Wu, K. C.
595:(2003 ),
549:Shang shu
509:Citations
358:Symbology
307:Zhong Kui
302:Zhong Kui
291:Confucian
258:jade pipa
219:Confucius
181:Confucius
131:Confucian
94:Shang shu
32:Zhong Kui
963:Yinglong
870:Shennong
721:(2005).
687:(1982).
670:(1998).
626:(2008).
605:(1992),
521:Wu, 413.
483:Kui Xing
439:See also
419:) and a
376:Mandarin
215:K. C. Wu
1197:Bowuzhi
1125:Penglai
1115:Longmen
1063:more...
1017:Wuzhiqi
993:(Bixie)
890:Chang'e
865:Youchao
804:Dragons
571:Sources
563:Wu, 99.
413:dà guān
409:dòu gān
340:Li He's
234:or the
185:Shijing
175:Shijing
68:degrees
1285:Chu Ci
1166:Xirang
1100:Fusang
1080:Buzhou
1073:Places
1052:Tianma
1012:Xiezhi
1007:Hundun
1002:Horses
895:Hou Yi
885:Chiyou
829:Ghosts
729:
719:et al.
695:
678:
660:
642:
634:
617:
585:
427:), or
421:monkey
352:jinshi
348:jinshi
317:. The
296:Heaven
270:Biyong
64:jinshi
42:was a
1149:Items
1140:Youdu
1022:Yeren
991:Pixiu
953:Qilin
900:Kuafu
824:Pangu
346:, in
323:Deity
315:ghost
248:with
232:Houji
135:merit
1085:Diyu
997:Nian
975:Bixi
819:Tian
727:ISBN
693:ISBN
676:ISBN
658:ISBN
640:ISBN
632:ISBN
615:ISBN
583:ISBN
431:(馬,
423:(猴,
417:fēng
405:tofu
401:guān
397:guān
266:wang
256:, a
244:, a
242:Nüwa
115:Shun
38:The
706:).
425:hóu
344:jin
49:in
1371::
1156:Gu
638:/
613:.
433:mǎ
58:.
1287:)
1283:(
1038:)
1034:(
767:e
760:t
753:v
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20:)
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