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primed on an unconscious level and may indeed be answering on an unconscious level, does that not mean that they could still be aware of their attitudes nonetheless. "A second troublesome aspect of the implicit-explicit distinction is that it implies preexisting dual attitudes". They go on to say there is not a known test capable of measuring explicit attitudes solely without the influence of implicit attitudes as well. However, they do go on to say that context can have a significant effect on this particular line of research. People's explicitly stated and implicitly tested attitudes are more likely to be in sync for trivial matters such as preference in a presidential election than for highly charged issues such as predispositions towards a certain race. They exert that "The more sensitive the domain, the greater the likelihood that motivational factors will be evoked and exert some influence on overt responses to an explicit measure". In other words, it is easier to compare explicit and implicit attitudes on safe subjects than subjects where people are likely to mask their beliefs.
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of mainstream culture on one's implicit attitude towards their social group. Implicitly, one will follow the cultural attitudes towards their social group that they perceive from mainstream culture in their society whether that be positive or negative. With that said, a strong cultural disadvantage (e.g., negative attitude) can effectively eliminate in-group favoritism when tested at the implicit level. However it may be important to note that at the explicit attitude level, these individuals still showed positive attitudes towards their social group. Olson and Fazio et al. suggested in 2004 that at an implicit level one's personal attitude can be influenced by the social or cultural norms that one perceives. Furthermore, this may be due to a weak distinction between one's personal attitude and extrapersonal associations (e.g., one's cultural evaluations) towards an attitude object at the implicit level. Therefore, implicit attitudes are reflective of experiences but can also be shaped by the cultural context.
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particular attitude" (emphasis added). Content awareness is differentiated from source awareness by the lack of awareness about the attitude, rather than simply its origin. Finally, one may have awareness of both the attitude and its source but the attitude may still have influences on thought or behavior beyond ones awareness; this can be thought of as impact awareness. Conclusions have been made that both indirectly assessed and self-reported attitudes can be characterized by lack of source awareness, there is no evidence for lack of content awareness of indirectly assessed attitudes, and there is some evidence showing that indirectly assessed, but not self-reported, attitudes can be characterized by lack of impact awareness. The most compelling evidence for content awareness of implicit attitudes has showed that people are highly accurate in predicting their scores on the
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is believed to serve as a prime to their behaviors. Flexibility of implicit attitudes is best demonstrated through measures that include accessibility effects. For example, it has been demonstrated that the information given to an individual prior to completing an implicit measure directly affects their response based on the information they were given. Therefore, if an individual is primed with information regarding the positive, or negative, attributions of a different race and then asked to complete an implicit measures task, the participants will most likely use the information that was presented during the prime and not their own experienced information to assess the situation. This occurs because the information that was primed is most available for the participant to access without having to use conscious resources.
455:. A central assumption of the APE model is that people tend to rely on their implicit evaluations when making explicit evaluative judgments to the extent that the implicit evaluative response is consistent with other momentarily considered propositional information. However, people may reject implicit evaluations for making explicit evaluative judgments when the implicit evaluative response is inconsistent with other momentarily considered propositional information. In addition to explaining the relation between implicit and explicit evaluations, the APE model accounts for diverging patterns of attitude change, including:
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decline to respond ('no-go') during a short interval after each of the stimuli are presented. In test trials, participants are asked to respond to one of the concepts (white or black) and words with either positive or negative valence; these are then switched so that the concept is then paired with the opposite valence category. When paired with words with positive valence, faster and more accurate responding indicates greater association, and therefore positive attitude towards the target concept (either white or black race). A full demonstration of the GNAT procedure can be found in the external links below.
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Bassenoff and
Sherman et al. (2000) they found that automatic negative attitudes about overweight individuals directly predicted how far participants choose to sit from a fat woman, who they were expected to interact with. We see this phenomenon also with implicitly held racial attitudes as shown by McConnell and Leibold et al. (2001). These implicit attitudes affected how long they interacted for, how much participants smiled, how many speech errors they made and how many social comments were made. All automatic behavioral responses that measuring explicit attitudes could not predict.
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to reflect intentional processes. In 2003, Towles-Schwen and Fazio measured anticipated willingness and discomfort of participants to interact with a black person. Individuals who were motivated to avoid interracial conflicts and where not concerned about seeming biased expressed their discomfort; whereas individuals who were concerned about not appearing biased reported less anticipated discomfort, in an attempt to hide their prejudice. Motivation to control our responses can minimize the influence of implicit attitudes on behavioral responses as shown by that example.
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consciously accept or endorse their evaluation). Since implicit measures are not as vulnerable to control as explicit measures are, the correlation between implicit and explicit attitudes should decrease as self presentation concerns increase. For example, in 2005 Nosek found that there was more overlap in explicit and implicit measures when people rated Pepsi vs. Coca-Cola (low self presentation concern). However, when they rated thin vs. fat people (high self presentation concern), the correlation (or overlap) of implicit and explicit measure decreased.
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their perceived positive or negative valence. When the words are presented in color, participants are asked to categorize based on color alone and ignore word meaning. When colored words are presented, categorization accuracy and speed are facilitated when, for words which the respondent has a positive implicit attitude, the response was the same as was expected for white words with obvious positive valence. A full demonstration of the EAST procedure can be found in the external links below.
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these tests vary in administration, and content, the basis of each is to "allow investigators to capture attitudes that individuals are unwilling to report." Unwillingness and lack of ability are intertwined considering most individuals are unaware that these attitudes even exist. The following are brief descriptions about these measurements, which are most commonly used to assess implicit attitudes, and the empirical evidence that supports them.
242:, automatic attitudes determine spontaneous actions, whereas deliberative actions reflect a contribution of multiple processes, including more controlled processes (e.g., a person's motivation to overcome prejudiced responses). As demonstrated by Dasgupta an Rivera et al. (2006), individuals who endorsed traditional beliefs about gender and sexuality were friendlier towards gay confederates verbally but showed negative
374:' onto the neutral stimulus such that it is rated as more or less pleasing than would be expected from solitary presentation. Neutral stimuli which are rated as more visually pleasing indicate that the preceding concept presented in the prime stimuli are associated with positive valence. A full demonstration of the AMP procedure can be found in the external links below.
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individual expresses or acts on an attitude the stronger the attitude becomes and the more automated the attitude becomes. Attitude strength should increase the correspondence between implicit and explicit attitudes. Conscious thinking about the attitude should create more of an overlap between both implicit and explicit attitude.
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explicit evaluations are assumed to be the outcome of propositional processes. Associative processes are conceptualized as the activation of associations on the basis of feature similarity and spatio-temporal contiguity during learning. Propositional processes are defined as the validation of activated information on the basis of
51:: "Implicit attitudes are introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) traces of past experience that mediate favorable or unfavorable feeling, thought, or action toward social objects". These thoughts, feelings or actions have an influence on behavior that the individual may not be aware of.
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Newer research has called into question the distinction between implicit and explicit attitudes. Fazio & Olson ask whether a person who is being primed to detect implicit attitudes is necessarily blind to their implicit beliefs. In their paper they bring up the question; just because a person is
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Much of the literature within the field of social psychology has focused on explicit constructions of the attitude construct. Until more recently, examination of attitudes beyond reported awareness has lagged far behind that of explicit attitudes. This point is driven home in a review of research in
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The AMP has been used to study attitudes towards political candidates and has proven useful in predicting voting behavior. Also, the procedure is frequently used in the study of substance use; for example, attitudes towards cigarettes among smokers and non-smokers and attitudes towards alcohol among
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The Affect
Misattribution Procedure relies on participant ratings of neutral stimuli as an indirect measure of implicit attitudes rather than latency or accuracy measures. In the procedure, participants are first presented with a stimulus (usually an image or word), for either a brief visible period
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Research using the evaluative priming task has been frequently used in research on eating and attitudes towards food. In clinical studies, the procedure was used to study attitudes of those diagnosed with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa. Along with many of the other methods presented here,
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Although, research has shown that motivation and an opportunity to react carefully can affect how much implicit attitudes influence behavioral response. When individuals are highly motivated to control their responses and processing abilities are not lacking or preoccupied, behavioral responses tend
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of implicit attitudes based on situational context. That is, implicit attitudes are not believed to be stable representations of memory, rather they are constructed based on the type of available information in a given situation. Available information can vary in context to the individual, though it
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Individuals will alter a response when questioned for personal or social purposes. This typically happens in situations where individuals are not willing to report or express their "affective response toward an object" because they don't want others to know how they feel about something (they don't
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have an effect on implicit attitude in the same way experiences and socialization have an effect on implicit attitude. However, culture has a very noticeable effect on implicit attitude in the way implicit attitude differs from one's explicit attitude. In 2002, Livingston et al. examined the effect
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In the
Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST), participants categorized stimuli which consisted of words that either had positive or negative valence that were presented in either the color white or two different colors. When the words are presented in white, participants categorize based words on
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There is an assortment of different experimental tests that assess for the presence of implicit attitudes, including the implicit association test, evaluative and semantic priming tasks, the
Extrinsic Affective Simon Task, Go/No-Go Association Task, and the Affect Misattribution Procedure. Though
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et al. in 2001 and 2002 suggested that these implicit attitudes are a result of repeated pairings of positive or negative stimuli with an object; more pairings of positive stimuli would result in a more positive implicit attitude and vice versa. This finding supports the fundamental principles of
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Based on many empirical findings, Greenwald and Banaji et al. (1995) generated the fundamental idea of implicit attitude definitively for the first time, disambiguating attitude into explicit and implicit types. Halo effects are an example of the empirical research used by
Greenwald and Banaji in
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In practice, the GNAT appears similar to the
Implicit Association Test in that participants are asked to categorize targets representing either a concept (such as race; ex. white or black names) or words which have obvious positive or negative valence. Participants are asked to respond ('go') or
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database found that science-gender stereotypes are predictive of differences in gender related math and science performance across countries in an international sample. Research has also successfully used the IAT in consumer research. Implicit attitude also directly drives the use of information
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and
Bodenhausen's associative-propositional evaluation (APE) model. A central assumption of the APE model is that implicit and explicit evaluations are the product of two functionally distinct mental processes. Whereas implicit evaluations are assumed to be the outcome of associative processes,
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and reflections of past experiences may be responsible for the development or manifestation of longer lasting implicit attitudes. As an example, a 2004 study found that individuals who were primarily raised by their mothers showed a more positive implicit attitude towards women rather than men.
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in 1920, the halo effect is the judgement of attribute "A" being influenced by a known but irrelevant attribute "B". For example, subsequent replications commonly use physical attractiveness as attribute "B" and attribute "A" being a judgement of the subject. More specifically a study Landy and
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The EAST has been used in research of attitudes of those who have specific phobias and/or anxiety. Additionally, the test has been recently used to measure implicit attitudes towards alcohol in populations who have substance abuse problems; and the test has been cited as having relatively high
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to identify if target stimuli are words or a non-words. The target stimuli consist of words with known positive or negative valence. When words with positive valence are categorized more quickly in the presence of one group of word primes (such as black sounding names), this indicates positive
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into two categories (usually indicated by right or left location on a computer screen). Each category of concept words or images is paired with both positive and negative stimuli. The faster the categorization occurs, the stronger the association is between words and/or images that are grouped
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is the heightened attractiveness and identification to a self-related group and negative or neutral attitudes towards non-self-related groups. Greenwald, Pickrell, and
Farnham et al. demonstrated this effect in 2002, even when the groups were cooperative and when the members of the groups were
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that elicited positive attitudes produced immediate positive behavior whilst stimuli that elicited negative attitudes triggered immediate avoidance behavior. The individuals are completely unaware of the operations that their behavioral responses because they are automatic and unconscious. In
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Current research supports the idea that there are three different aspects of attitudes captured by current indirect measures that could be outside of conscious awareness: the source, the content, and the impact of an attitude. Source awareness is described as the "awareness of the origin of a
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The strength of an attitude has an influence on explicit attitudes the stronger an implicit attitude the more likely it is that it will show up in an explicit attitude. Strong attitudes are stable and not easily changed due to persuasion and can therefore help predict behaviors. The more an
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Greenwald and Banaji et al. (1995) have suggested that attribute "B" is in fact an implicit attitude when the judge or subject cannot identify attribute "B" as the source of the judgement for attribute "A". Moreover, when attribute "B" is associated with a positive or negative attitude and
146:. Further replications of this same effect with varying independent variables (e.g., attractiveness to people with the same letters contained in their names) suggest that people have an implicit preference towards themselves. This manifestation of implicit attitude has come to be known as
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Implicit attitudes aren't always better at predicting behavior than explicit measurements, they both play a systematic role in predicting behavior. Implicit attitudes are typically better than explicit attitudes at predicting behavior that is automatic and spontaneous. In line with
212:; behaviors that can't be predicted by knowledge of explicitly held attitudes. Numerous studies, such as research conducted by Chen and Bargh in 1999, show that automatic evaluations triggered by various attitudes towards objects directly affected
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together (ex. faster categorization of dogs when paired with positive rather than negative words), which would indicate an implicit attitude towards that object. A full demonstration of the IAT procedure can be found at the
370:) which they are asked to rate as either more or less, in this case visually, pleasing than an average stimulus. During these trials, the positive or negative affect in response to the priming image is misattributed or '
284:-based measure of the relative associations between two concepts. In a series of tasks, participants sort words or images representing a target concept such as race (white/black) and stimuli with known positive/negative
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in that it functions as a broad favorable or unfavorable characteristic towards a social object, whereas a stereotype is a set of favorable and/or unfavorable characteristics which are applied to an individual based on
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their chapter on implicit social cognition. Understanding halo effects set the foundation for understanding other theories regarding implicit attitudes. For example, it is possible to explain implicit partisanship or
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De Jong, P.J.; Wiers, W.; de Braak, M.; Huijding, J. (2007). "Using the
Extrinsic Affective Simon Test as a measure of implicit attitudes towards alcohol: Relationship with drinking behavior and alcohol problems".
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Roefs, A.; Stapert, D.; Isabella, L.A.; Wolters, G.; Wojciechowski, F.; Jansen, A. (2005). "Early associations with food in anorexia nervosa patients and obese people assessed in the affective priming paradigm".
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Sigall et al. (1974) found that essays written by female essayists were found to be of higher quality when a photo showed the essayist as being attractive (rather than unattractive) when rated by male judges.
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Research using the IAT measure of implicit attitudes has demonstrated consistent experimental and population-based attitudes with respect to concepts such as gender, race, and age. An analysis from the
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Gawronski, B.; Deutsch, R.; Mbirkou, S.; Seibt, B.; Strack, F. (2008). "When "just say no" is not enough: Affirmation versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation".
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against
African Americans could be shaped through diversity training intervention using variables at an emotional level rather than increased awareness of bias which helped explicit attitude more.
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or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable and come about from various influences in the individual experience. The commonly used definition of implicit
327:). The word prime consists of two groups of words representing the concept in question (such as black sounding names or white sounding names). Participants were then asked to complete a
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Like the EAST, the GNAT has been used in populations who have been diagnosed with acute phobias to measure fear associations in addition to research on stereotypes and discrimination.
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In the semantic priming task paradigm described by Wittenbrink et al. (1997), participants are shown a word prime at intervals which are too brief for reported awareness (see
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Ellwart, T.; Becker, E.S.; Rinck, M. (2006). "Activation and measurement of threat associations in fear of spiders: An application of the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task".
1834:"Understanding the role of injury/illness sensitivity and anxiety sensitivity in (automatic) pain processing: An examination using the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task"
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or subliminally, which is suspected to elicit a positive or negative attitude. Directly afterwards, participants are presented with a neutral stimulus (most often a
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Gawronski, B.; Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). "Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change".
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Implicit attitudes are also developed by more recent experiences as well. For example, Rudmore, Ashmore, & Gary et al. in 2001 found that implicit attitude of
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non-human. Much of the research on implicit partisanship suggests that this is an uncontrollable process, or an implicit attitude towards self-related groups.
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Greenwald, A.G.; Smith, C.T.; Sriram, N.; Bar-Anan, Y.; Nosek, B.A. (2009). "Implicit race attitudes predicted vote in the 2008 U.S. presidential election".
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Roefs, A.; Herman, C.P.; MacLeod, C.M.; Smulders, F.T.; Jansen, A. (2005). "At first sight: How do restrained eaters evaluate high-fat palatable foods?".
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researchers have used the procedure to measure the effects of stereotypes, including measurement of the effectiveness of stereotype reduction treatments.
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Wittenbrink, B.; Judd, C.M.; Park, B. (1997). "Evidence for radical prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures".
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The following are some examples of how implicit attitude and explicit attitude are moderated by each other and how they interact with each other.
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additionally is unknowingly and automatically transferred onto attribute "A", that attitude of attribute "B" is known to be an implicit attitude.
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Early research by Nuttin et al. in 1985 suggested that people generally have an implicit preference for letters in their own name, known as the
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of attitude (necessary for determining contributions of implicit attitudes) while all of the reviewed studies employed direct measures such as
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Greenwald, A.G.; McGhee, D.E.; Schwartz, M. (1998). "Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test".
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Payne, B.K.; Cheng, C.M.; Govorun, O.; Stewart, B.D. (2005). "An inkblot for attitudes: Affective misattribution as implicit measurement".
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the mid-1990s which found that among attitudinal research published in 1989, approximately only 1 in 9 experimental paradigms utilized an
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A number of different theories have been proposed relating to the formation, development, and influence of implicit attitudes.
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Self-related objects are anything that pertains to the self; including in-groups and self-esteem (attitude towards the self).
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Payne, B.K.; Govorun, O.; Arbuckle, N.L. (2008). "Automatic attitudes and alcohol: Does implicit liking predict drinking?".
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Fazio, R. H.; Towles-Schwen, T. (1999). "The MODE model of attitude-behavior processes". In Chaiken, S.; Trope, Y. (eds.).
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Fazio, Russell; Olson, Michael (6 August 2002). "Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meaning and Use".
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1427:"National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement"
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Greenwald, A.G.; Banaji, M.R. (1995). "Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes".
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Teachman, B.A. (2007). "Evaluating implicit spider fear associations using the go/no-go association task".
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Payne, B.K.; McClernon, F.J.; Dobbins, I.G. (2007). "Automatic affective responses to smoking cues".
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in terms of a halo effect, however these concepts will be discussed more in subsequent sections.
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1512:"Measuring implicit attitude in information systems research with the Implicit Association Test"
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Nosek, B.A.; Smyth, F.L.; Sriram, N.; Lindner, N.M.; Devos, T.; Ayala, A.; et al. (2009).
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Devine, P. G (1989). "Stereotype and Prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components".
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Gawronski, B.; Hofmann, W.; Wilbur, C. (2006). "Are "implicit" attitudes unconscious?".
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The fundamental goal of measuring implicit attitudes is to use it to predict
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Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory and Application
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1478:"Countering negative country of origin effects using imagery processing"
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leaked out through automatic responses like blinking and eye contact.
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2143:"Understanding the Role of Racism in Contemporary US Public Opinion"
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Vancleef, L.M.; Peters, M.L.; Gilissen, S.M.; De Jong, P.J. (2007).
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specifying the relation between implicit and explicit attitudes is
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150:. Implicit egotism additionally manifests itself in in-groups.
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De Houwer, J (2003). "The extrinsic affective Simon task".
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Implicit attitudes 101: Theoretical and empirical Insights
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corresponding changes in implicit and explicit evaluations
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of attitudes which were explicitly aware to participants.
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Earlier research findings on implicit attitudes show that
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Communications of the Association for Information Systems
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Implicit Attitudes 101: Theoretical and empirical insight
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Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry
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Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry
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opposite changes in implicit and explicit evaluations.
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Greenwald AG, Pickrell, Farnham, et al. (2002).
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An attitude is differentiated from the concept of a
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614:Devos, T. (2008). "Attitudes and attitude change".
434:New ideas about implicit versus explicit attitudes
1156:Hahn, A.; Judd, C.M.; Hirsh, H.K.; Blair (2013).
378:heavy drinkers. It has also been used to measure
195:Recent research indicates the possibility of the
462:changes in explicit but not implicit evaluations
459:changes in implicit but not explicit evaluations
225:Types of behavior affected by implicit attitudes
47:'s template for definitions of terms related to
1476:Martin, B.A.S.; Lee, M.S.W.; Lacey, C. (2011).
1431:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1361:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 62–63.
618:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 61–84.
391:Interaction of implicit and explicit attitude
302:systems and serves as a basis upon which use
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2062:Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
1989:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1706:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1374:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
708:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
345:predictive value for problem substance use.
2034:Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy
1162:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
884:Rudmore, Ashmore, Gary, et al. (2001).
1251:Dual process theories in social psychology
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1253:. New York: Guilford. pp. 97–116.
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293:link and the IAT Inquisit link below.
135:Implicit attitudes related to the self
2160:10.1146/annurev-polisci-060418-042842
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361:Affect Misattribution Procedure (AMP)
336:Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST)
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19:are evaluations that occur without
2147:Annual Review of Political Science
1910:Nosek, B.A.; Banaji, M.R. (2001).
691:Gawronski, B; Payne, B.K. (2010).
386:Comparison with explicit attitudes
14:
1308:Towles-Schwen T, Fazio RH (2003).
1158:"Awareness of implicit attitudes"
417:Early focus on explicit attitudes
2046:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2009.01195.x
349:Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT)
1912:"The go/no-go association task"
1546:Serenko, A.; Turel, O. (2019).
1510:Serenko, A.; Turel, O. (2020).
1016:Livingston, et al. (2002).
744:, Goodwin, et al. (2004).
1:
1485:Journal of Consumer Behaviour
332:attitudes towards the group.
106:Experiences and socialization
1889:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.06.017
1656:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.10.001
1555:Information & Management
1127:10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007
2293:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692
2225:Annual Review of Psychology
1963:10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.006
1928:10.1521/soco.19.6.625.20886
1853:10.1016/j.jpain.2007.02.431
1801:10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.08.008
1612:10.1016/j.appet.2004.08.001
1396:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
1115:Consciousness and Cognition
928:Nuttin, et al. (1985).
572:for usage of this template.
329:lexical decision task (LDT)
2355:
2141:Cramer, Katherine (2020).
2085:10.1037/1064-1297.15.4.400
2011:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
1766:10.1026//1618-3169.50.2.77
1728:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.262
1691:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.004
214:behavioral predispositions
78:
2120:10.1080/02699930701357394
662:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4
520:Implicit-association test
382:against minority groups.
278:Implicit Association Test
272:Implicit Association Test
185:Implicit Association Test
67:Causes and manifestations
1567:10.1016/j.im.2018.10.009
720:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
530:List of cognitive biases
161:Culture and social norms
2108:Cognition & Emotion
1754:Experimental Psychology
1452:10.1073/pnas.0809921106
310:Evaluative priming task
115:Furthermore, Olson and
2329:Psychological attitude
2271:Psychological Bulletin
2187:Cite journal requires
1321:Cite journal requires
1277:Cite journal requires
1218:Cite journal requires
1073:Cite journal requires
1029:Cite journal requires
985:Cite journal requires
941:Cite journal requires
897:Cite journal requires
853:Cite journal requires
805:Cite journal requires
757:Cite journal requires
154:Implicit partisanship
122:classical conditioning
840:, et al. (2002).
792:, et al. (2001).
525:Lexical decision task
485:Attitude (psychology)
453:cognitive consistency
319:Semantic priming task
254:Effects of motivation
232:Dual process theories
216:towards that object.
23:awareness towards an
1532:10.17705/1CAIS.04719
640:Psychological Review
570:implicit self-esteem
545:Valence (psychology)
540:Priming (psychology)
535:Mere-exposure effect
515:Implicit stereotypes
510:Implicit self-esteem
480:Alief (mental state)
165:Generally speaking,
2334:Conceptions of self
1877:Addictive Behaviors
1841:The Journal of Pain
1443:2009PNAS..10610593N
1205:Chen, Bargh (1999).
566:implicit stereotype
500:Implicit assumption
444:dual process theory
244:non-verbal behavior
204:Effects on behavior
178:Degree of awareness
1357:Devos, T. (2008).
505:Implicit cognition
368:Chinese pictograph
325:subliminal stimuli
144:Name letter effect
49:implicit cognition
17:Implicit attitudes
2199:Missing or empty
1333:Missing or empty
1289:Missing or empty
1230:Missing or empty
1085:Missing or empty
1041:Missing or empty
997:Missing or empty
953:Missing or empty
909:Missing or empty
865:Missing or empty
817:Missing or empty
769:Missing or empty
490:Emotional baggage
408:Attitude strength
399:Self presentation
41:Anthony Greenwald
37:social psychology
2346:
2313:
2312:
2286:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2220:
2209:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2185:
2183:
2175:
2174:Nosek BA (2005).
2171:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2078:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2004:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1916:Social Cognition
1907:
1901:
1900:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1838:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1749:
1740:
1739:
1721:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1644:Eating Behaviors
1638:
1632:
1631:
1605:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1552:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1516:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1482:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1454:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1389:
1380:(6): 1464–1480.
1369:
1363:
1362:
1354:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1275:
1273:
1265:
1264:Fazio RH (2001).
1261:
1255:
1254:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1185:
1174:10.1037/a0035028
1168:(3): 1369–1392.
1153:
1147:
1146:
1110:
1095:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1044:
1038:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
983:
981:
973:
969:
963:
962:
956:
950:
944:
939:
937:
929:
925:
919:
918:
912:
906:
900:
895:
893:
885:
881:
875:
874:
868:
862:
856:
851:
849:
841:
833:
827:
826:
820:
814:
808:
803:
801:
793:
785:
779:
778:
772:
766:
760:
755:
753:
745:
738:
732:
731:
703:
697:
696:
688:
682:
681:
655:
635:
620:
619:
611:
573:
562:
424:indirect measure
299:Project Implicit
291:Project Implicit
148:Implicit egotism
95:Edward Thorndike
88:implicit egotism
2354:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2284:10.1.1.334.2130
2268:
2267:
2260:
2222:
2221:
2212:
2198:
2186:
2176:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2076:10.1.1.392.1704
2058:
2057:
2053:
2031:
2030:
2026:
2002:10.1.1.392.4775
1986:
1985:
1978:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1836:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1786:
1785:
1781:
1751:
1750:
1743:
1719:10.1.1.462.7827
1703:
1702:
1698:
1676:
1675:
1671:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1603:10.1.1.383.7839
1587:
1586:
1582:
1550:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1387:10.1.1.489.4611
1371:
1370:
1366:
1356:
1355:
1346:
1332:
1320:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1288:
1276:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1258:
1248:
1247:
1243:
1229:
1217:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1112:
1111:
1098:
1084:
1072:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1040:
1028:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1010:
996:
984:
974:
971:
970:
966:
952:
940:
930:
927:
926:
922:
908:
896:
886:
883:
882:
878:
864:
852:
842:
835:
834:
830:
816:
804:
794:
787:
786:
782:
768:
756:
746:
740:
739:
735:
705:
704:
700:
690:
689:
685:
653:10.1.1.411.2919
637:
636:
623:
613:
612:
587:
582:
577:
576:
563:
559:
554:
549:
475:
436:
419:
410:
401:
393:
388:
363:
351:
338:
321:
312:
274:
265:
256:
227:
206:
193:
180:
163:
137:
108:
83:
77:
69:
45:Mahzarin Banaji
25:attitude object
12:
11:
5:
2352:
2350:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2314:
2277:(5): 692–731.
2258:
2210:
2189:|journal=
2166:
2133:
2114:(2): 238–271.
2098:
2069:(4): 400–409.
2051:
2040:(1): 241–253.
2024:
1995:(3): 277–293.
1976:
1957:(2): 156–167.
1941:
1922:(6): 625–666.
1902:
1883:(4): 881–887.
1866:
1847:(7): 563–572.
1824:
1795:(4): 281–299.
1779:
1741:
1712:(2): 262–274.
1696:
1685:(2): 370–377.
1669:
1650:(2): 151–163.
1633:
1596:(1): 103–114.
1580:
1561:(5): 657–668.
1538:
1502:
1497:10.1002/cb.351
1468:
1417:
1364:
1344:
1323:|journal=
1300:
1279:|journal=
1256:
1241:
1220:|journal=
1197:
1148:
1121:(3): 485–499.
1096:
1075:|journal=
1052:
1031:|journal=
1008:
987:|journal=
964:
943:|journal=
920:
899:|journal=
876:
855:|journal=
828:
807:|journal=
780:
759:|journal=
733:
698:
683:
621:
584:
583:
581:
578:
575:
574:
556:
555:
553:
550:
548:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
476:
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469:
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463:
460:
435:
432:
418:
415:
409:
406:
400:
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392:
389:
387:
384:
362:
359:
350:
347:
337:
334:
320:
317:
311:
308:
273:
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264:
261:
255:
252:
226:
223:
205:
202:
192:
189:
179:
176:
162:
159:
136:
133:
107:
104:
79:Main article:
76:
73:
68:
65:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2351:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
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2327:
2326:
2324:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2194:
2181:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2063:
2055:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1673:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1637:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1542:
1539:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:(26): 10593.
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1360:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1328:
1315:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1284:
1271:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1225:
1212:
1201:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1080:
1067:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1036:
1023:
1012:
1009:
1004:
992:
979:
968:
965:
960:
948:
935:
924:
921:
916:
904:
891:
880:
877:
872:
860:
847:
839:
832:
829:
824:
812:
799:
791:
784:
781:
776:
764:
751:
743:
737:
734:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
702:
699:
694:
687:
684:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
654:
649:
645:
641:
634:
632:
630:
628:
626:
622:
617:
610:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
590:
586:
579:
571:
567:
561:
558:
551:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
477:
472:
467:
464:
461:
458:
457:
456:
454:
449:
445:
440:
433:
431:
429:
425:
416:
414:
407:
405:
398:
396:
390:
385:
383:
381:
380:implicit bias
375:
373:
369:
360:
358:
355:
348:
346:
342:
335:
333:
330:
326:
318:
316:
309:
307:
305:
300:
294:
292:
287:
283:
279:
271:
269:
262:
260:
253:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
224:
222:
219:
215:
211:
203:
201:
198:
190:
188:
186:
177:
175:
172:
168:
160:
158:
155:
151:
149:
145:
140:
134:
132:
130:
125:
123:
118:
113:
112:socialization
105:
103:
99:
96:
93:Pioneered by
91:
89:
82:
74:
72:
66:
64:
62:
57:
52:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
2274:
2270:
2228:
2224:
2201:|title=
2180:cite journal
2169:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2111:
2107:
2101:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2037:
2033:
2027:
1992:
1988:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1919:
1915:
1905:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1844:
1840:
1827:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1760:(2): 77–85.
1757:
1753:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1558:
1554:
1541:
1522:
1518:
1505:
1491:(2): 80–92.
1488:
1484:
1471:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1358:
1335:|title=
1314:cite journal
1303:
1291:|title=
1270:cite journal
1259:
1250:
1244:
1232:|title=
1211:cite journal
1200:
1165:
1161:
1151:
1118:
1114:
1087:|title=
1066:cite journal
1055:
1043:|title=
1022:cite journal
1011:
999:|title=
978:cite journal
967:
955:|title=
934:cite journal
923:
911:|title=
890:cite journal
879:
867:|title=
846:cite journal
831:
819:|title=
798:cite journal
783:
771:|title=
750:cite journal
736:
711:
707:
701:
692:
686:
643:
639:
615:
560:
442:A prominent
441:
437:
420:
411:
402:
394:
376:
364:
356:
352:
343:
339:
322:
313:
295:
275:
266:
257:
228:
207:
197:malleability
194:
181:
164:
153:
152:
141:
138:
126:
109:
100:
92:
84:
70:
63:membership.
61:social group
53:
16:
15:
2231:: 297–327.
2153:: 153–169.
646:(1): 4–27.
495:Halo Effect
428:self report
306:is formed.
263:Measurement
191:Flexibility
169:and social
81:Halo effect
75:Halo effect
39:comes from
2323:Categories
1810:2066/55983
1525:: 397–43.
836:Olson MA,
788:Olson MA,
580:References
240:MODE model
56:stereotype
2339:Ignorance
2279:CiteSeerX
2128:145625335
2071:CiteSeerX
1997:CiteSeerX
1714:CiteSeerX
1598:CiteSeerX
1575:115156846
1382:CiteSeerX
742:Rudman LA
648:CiteSeerX
564:See also
448:Gawronski
372:projected
248:prejudice
129:prejudice
33:cognitive
21:conscious
2301:16910748
2245:12172003
2093:17696687
2019:16248714
1971:17101115
1897:16870351
1861:17481956
1819:16153389
1774:12693192
1664:15598602
1628:14993807
1620:15604037
1590:Appetite
1192:24294868
1143:34209662
1135:16403654
838:Fazio RH
790:Fazio RH
728:33975027
714:: 5–18.
473:See also
234:such as
210:behavior
29:attitude
2309:9932633
2253:8797951
1936:6873625
1736:9107001
1462:2705538
1439:Bibcode
1412:7840819
1404:9654756
1183:4038711
678:8194189
670:7878162
286:valence
282:latency
218:Stimuli
167:culture
31:within
2307:
2299:
2281:
2251:
2243:
2126:
2091:
2073:
2017:
1999:
1969:
1934:
1895:
1859:
1817:
1772:
1734:
1716:
1662:
1626:
1618:
1600:
1573:
1459:
1410:
1402:
1384:
1190:
1180:
1141:
1133:
726:
676:
668:
650:
2305:S2CID
2249:S2CID
2124:S2CID
1932:S2CID
1837:(PDF)
1624:S2CID
1571:S2CID
1551:(PDF)
1515:(PDF)
1481:(PDF)
1408:S2CID
1139:S2CID
724:S2CID
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