Race and crime in the United States

1150:, emphasizes the role of culturally accepted norms of conduct in the formation of cultural groups and the conflicts which arise through their interaction. Culture conflict theory argues that the group with the most power in any society ensures that their values, traditions and behaviors, which Sellin referred to as "conduct norms", are those to which all other members of society are forced to conform, and any actions which conflict with the interests of the dominant group are identified as deviant and/or criminal in nature. Sellin's original ideas continued to be developed throughout the 20th century, most notably by George Vold in the 1950s and Austin Turk in the 1960s, and continue to influence the contemporary debate. The recent work of Gregory J. Howard, Joshua D. Freilich and Graeme R. Newman applies culture conflict theory to the issue of immigrant and minority crime around the world. According to their research, while culturally homogeneous groups experience little to no cultural conflict, as all the members share the same set of "conduct norms", culturally heterogeneous groups, such as modern industrial nations with large immigrant populations, display heightened competition between sets of cultural norms which, in turn, leads to an increase in violence and crime. Societies which have high levels of cultural diversity in their population, it is claimed, are more likely to have higher rates of violent crime. 711:(CDC) keeps data on non-fatal injury emergency department visits and the race of victims. While non-Hispanic white victims account for approximately half of total non-fatal assault injuries, most of which did not involve any weapon, black and Hispanic victims account for the vast majority of non-fatal firearm injuries. There was a total of 17.3 million emergency department visits or hospitalizations for non-fatal assaults in the United States in the 10-year period between 2007–2016. For non-fatal assaults with recorded race, 6.5 million victims were white non-Hispanic, 4.3 million black, 2.3 million Hispanic and 0.4 million other (non-Hispanic) and for 3.8 million, the race was not recorded. There were a total of 603,000 emergency department visits in the US for non-fatal firearm assaults in the 10-year period between 2007–2016. For non-fatal firearm assaults with recorded race, 77,000 victims were white non-Hispanic, 261,000 were black and 94,000 were Hispanic, 8,500 were other non-Hispanic and for 162,000 the race was not recorded. Despite gun injuries only accounting for about 3.5% of serious assault injuries between 2007 and 2016, they accounted for nearly 70% of overall homicides. 874:

North Carolina showed that blacks were more than twice as likely as whites to be pulled over by police for traffic stops, and that blacks were more likely to be searched following the stop. There were no significant difference in the likelihood that Hispanics would be pulled over, but Hispanics were much more likely to be searched following a traffic stop than whites. When the study controlled for searches in high-crime areas, it still found that police disproportionately targeted black individuals. These racial disparities were particularly pronounced for young men. The study found that whites who were searched were more likely to carry contraband than blacks and Hispanics. In-group bias by voters has also been suggested as possibly causing disparities, as voters discount criminal acts done by their in-group and thus will vote for higher enforcement in areas where the minority population is higher due to the lack of in-group leniency, allowing for racial disparities in the justice system even if the authorities are unbiased.

928:

Children exposed to high levels of violence were more likely to be black and/or Latino.” Using ANOVA to observe differences in child outcomes, it was found that exposure to violence is associated with willingness to use physical aggression, diminished perception of risk, lowered expectations of the future, substance use, and low academic achievement. The Los Angeles Family and Neighborhood Study (LA FANS) studied a representative sample of all neighborhoods in Los Angeles and evaluated the conditions and circumstances in which each family was living under. Families were randomly selected within each neighborhood and interviews were conducted with adults, caregivers, and children. 21% of children reported having violent peers who were a part of gangs, 11% reported being robbed, and 8% reported witnessing a shooting within the past year.

826:, a positive correlation exists between the percentage of black males in a neighborhood and perceptions of neighborhood crime rates, even after controlling other correlating factors and neighborhood characteristics. The study was conducted amongst the perceptions of residents in neighborhoods in Chicago, Seattle, and Baltimore in comparison with census data and police department crime statistics. Survey respondents consistently rated African Americans as more prone to violence than the data and statistics stated leading to the conclusion that the stereotype of blacks as more likely criminals is deeply embedded in the collective consciousness and societal norms of Americans. Such data may reveal a possible connection, but is functionally inconclusive due to a variety of other correlating factors which overlap with race and ethnicity. 1316:(1969), social bonding theory pioneered the notion that criminologists can gain useful insight into the motives behind criminal behavior by examining what normally motivates individuals to refrain from crime. From this, it is argued that, in those segments of the population where such motivation is lacking, crime will be more prevalent. Hirschi was explicit in mentioning that he believed his theory held true across all racial boundaries, and subsequent research—both in the US and abroad—seems to confirm this belief. The core idea of social control theory is elaborated upon in several other theories of causation, particularly social disorganization theory. 1360:, who suggested that black Americans had inherited a subculture of violence from white Southern American honor culture (who themselves had developed that culture from the brutal and lawless border region of northern Britain) and that difference in crime rates could be partially explained by this contemporary manifestation of Southern honor culture. Latzer's argument was criticized by German Lopez for not adequately demonstrating the alleged causality between culture and crime, and for not accounting for the decrease in crime rates in the 20th century or clearly defining the limits of what would constitute "culture" for the purposes of Latzer's argument. 956:

communities" and that the increased prevalence of such families in turn results in family disruption that significantly increases black murder and robbery rates. Sampson et al. (2005) and Phillips (2002) have reported that at least half of the black-white homicide offending differential is attributable to structural factors such as parental marital status and social context. Other studies linked black crime and arrest rates to structural factors such as family instability, single parenting, pre-existing neighborhood crime rates, concentrated poverty, low educational attainment, low local collective efficacy, and local

839:

jails have since declined modestly in recent decades between both blacks and whites and Hispanics and whites. Between 2000 and 2019, the ratio of disparity amongst male state and federal prisoners per capita declined between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 7.7 to 5.7 and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites from 2.7 to 2.5. Declines in disparities were more pronounced when considering jail inmates of both sexes between 2005 and 2018 with the ratio of disparity per capita declining from 4.8 to 3.2 between blacks and non-Hispanic whites and 1.6 to 1.0 between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites.

779:, conducted annual surveys of law enforcement agencies between 1996–2012 to assess the extent of gang problems in the United States. The latest available data, from 2011, found that 46.2% of gang members are Hispanic/Latino, 35.3% are black, 11.5% are white, and 7% are of other races/ethnicities. Larger cities, suburban counties, and smaller cities are more likely to report Hispanic or Latino-Americans as the dominant racial/ethnic group among gang members. Rural counties are more likely to report Black or African-Americans as the dominant racial/ethnic group among gang members. 667: 1293:

model helps explain why black murderers almost always choose black victims. There are disparities in rates of reporting rape where victims of some races are statistically less likely or more likely to report their rape, especially depending on the race of the offender. Black women in America are more likely to report sexual assault that has been perpetrated by a stranger. Black women are more likely to under-report rapes overall as they are more likely to blame themselves, feel they will be blamed or feel they will not be believed.

675: 1161:. This line of argumentation is generally seen as part of a wider approach to race-related issues referred to as the Discrimination Thesis, which assumes that differences in the treatment received by people of minority racial background in a number of public institutions, including the criminal justice, education and health care systems, is the result of overt racial discrimination. Opposed to this view is the Non-Discrimination Thesis, which seeks to defend these institutions from such accusations. 1172:. Barbara D. Warner, associate professor of criminal justice and police studies at Eastern Kentucky University, notes that conflict theory has been the subject of increasing criticism in recent years. Recent studies claim that, while there may have been real sentencing differences related to non-legal characteristics such as race in the 1960s, sentencing discrimination as described by the conflict theorists at that time no longer exists. Criticism has also pointed to the lack of 1273:

uninterested in maintaining positive community relationships. This has been observed to increase the likelihood of crime in certain urban areas, which can lead to increased policing and a further breakdown of familial structures as a result of arrests, which, in turn, precipitates more crime. Social disorganization theory has been instrumental in establishing the notion that stable, culturally homogeneous communities have lower rates of delinquency and crime regardless of race.

4090: 1356:

the assumptions upon which the subculture of violence theory depends. More recently, scholars have criticized the theory as potentially racist in nature in its implication of one given ethnicity or culture supposedly being less fit for or less worthy of being qualified as "civilized", the built-in implication of which in turn would denote stereotypically "white" behavior as an objective norm for all societies to follow. The hypothesis was reconsidered recently by

601:

NCVS program is to gather information on crimes that were not reported to police, though information is also collected on reported crimes. The survey collects data on rape, assault, robbery, burglary, personal and household larceny and motor vehicle theft. The NCVS also includes supplemental questions which allow information to be gathered on tangentially relevant issues such as school violence, attitudes towards law enforcement or perceptions regarding crime.

1372: 1286:. She notes that this theory predicts that, if residential areas were more racially integrated, intraracial crime would decrease and interracial crime would increase correspondingly. However, she also notes that not all researchers on the topic of intraracial crime agree with this result, with some pointing to other macrostructural factors, such as income and education, which may negate the effect of race on inter- and intraracial crime. 1386: 1123:

behavior, conflict theory proposes that crime is an inevitable consequence of the conflict which arises between competing groups within society. Such groups can be defined through a number of factors, including class, economic status, religion, language, ethnicity, race or any combination thereof. Further, conflict theory proposes that crime could be largely eliminated if the structure of society were to be changed.

1134:, views crime as a natural response to the inequality arising from the competition inherent in capitalist society. Sociologists and criminologists emphasizing this aspect of social conflict argue that, in a competitive society in which there is an inequality in the distribution of goods, those groups with limited or restricted access to goods will be more likely to turn to crime. Dutch criminologist 1013:, arrests, prosecutions, convictions, and incarceration. Regardless of their views regarding causation, scholars acknowledge that some racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately represented in the arrest and victimization reports which are used to compile crime rate statistics. There is, however, a great deal of debate regarding the causes of that disproportionality. Sociologist 1027: 751:, both from 1974. He found that NCS data generally agreed with UCR data in regards to the percent of perpetrators of rape, robbery, and assault who were black. For instance, Hindelang's analysis found that both the NCS and UCR estimated that 62% of robbery offenders were black in the United States in 1974. A 2004 National Crime Victimization Survey report which analyzed 1078:

long sentences, while whites still continue to escape the penalty of many crimes even among themselves. And yet allowing for all this, there can be no reasonable doubt but that there has arisen in the South since the war a class of black criminals, loafers, and ne'er-do-wells who are a menace to their fellows, both black and white.

658:

over-represented in terms of arrests made in virtually all types of crime, with the exceptions of "driving under the influence," "liquor laws," and hate crime. Overall, black Americans are arrested at 2.6 times the per-capita rate of all other Americans, and this ratio is even higher for murder (6.3 times) and robbery (8.1 times).

1157:, the disproportionate representation of racial minorities in crime statistics and in the prison population is the result of race- and class-motivated disparities in arrests, prosecutions and sentencing rather than differences in actual participation in criminal activity, an approach which has also been taken by proponents of 788:

became a growing priority in response to undocumented immigration. By 2007, among Hispanic offenders sentenced in federal courts, 48% were immigration offenses, 37% drug offenses, and 15% for other offenses. One reason for the large increase in immigration offenses is that they exclusively fall under federal jurisdiction.

843:

between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 9.9 to 8.3. When considering non-firearm homicide victimization rates racial disparities the ratio of decline is very significant between 1990 and 2019, falling between blacks and non-Hispanic whites from 7.0 to 3.3 and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites from 3.4 to 1.3.

623:

Serious violent crime and aggravated assault against blacks (58% and 61%) and indigenous Americans (55% and 59%) was reported more often than against whites (51% and 54%) or Asians (50% and 51%). indigenous Americans were unusually unlikely to report a robbery (45%), as with Asians and a simple assault (31%).

801:

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders. Including offenders of unknown race, 52.5% were White, 23.9% were Black, 6.6% were groups of individuals of varying races, 1.1% were American Indian or Alaska Natives, 0.9% were Asian, 0.3% were Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders, and 14.6% were unknown.

1355:

The empirical basis for the subculture of violence theory, however, has been described as "extremely limited and unpersuasive". Very little has been done to attempt an adequate assessment of supposedly criminogenic subcultural values, and several studies conducted in the late 1970s claimed to falsify

1281:

Phillippia Simmons reports that many of the studies which have investigated intra- and interracial crime seek to explain this through a theory of macrostructural opportunity which states that interracial violence is primarily a function of opportunity and access. According to this theory, intraracial

1017:

has explained these controversies as disputes between liberal and conservative criminologists in which each camp focuses on mutually exclusive aspects of the causal net, with liberals focusing on factors external to the groups in question and conservatives focusing on internal cultural and behavioral

942:

evaluating arraignments in New York City, "Higher pretrial detention rates among minority defendants explain 40 percent of the black-white gap in rates of being sentenced to prison and 28 percent of the Hispanic-white gap." The majority of individuals held in pretrial detention are being held because

905:

found that tall young black men are especially likely to receive unjustified attention by law enforcement. The authors furthermore found a "causal link between perceptions of height and perceptions of threat for Black men, particularly for perceivers who endorse stereotypes that Black people are more

800:

statistics as part of the FBI Uniform Crime Report. According to the 2019 Uniform Crime Report, of hate crime offenders identifiable by race, 61.5% were White, 28% were Black, 7.8% were groups of individuals of varying races, 1.2% were American Indian or Alaska Natives, 1.1% were Asian, and 0.4% were

698:

offending rate for African-Americans was roughly eight times higher than that of whites, and their victim rate was similar. About half of homicides are known to be single-offender/single-victim, and most of those were intraracial; in those where the perpetrator's and victim's races were known, 81% of

690:

Among homicide victims in 2019 where the race was known, 54.7% were black or African-American, 42.3% were white, and 3.1% were of other races. Homicides with white victims and black offenders were more than 2.3 times more common than the opposite (566 vs 246). Including homicide victims in 2019 where

626:

Despite the differences in the amount of crime reported, comparisons of the UCR and NCVS data sets show there to be a high degree of correspondence between the two systems. This correspondence extends to the racial demography of both perpetrators and victims of violent crime reported in both systems.

608:

Reliability: NCVS statistics do not represent verified or evidenced instances of victimization. As it depends upon the recollection of the individuals surveyed, the NCVS cannot distinguish between true and fabricated claims of victimization, nor can it verify the truth of the severity of the reported

468:

The Uniform Crime Reports represent the primary source of data used in the calculation of official statistics regarding serious crimes such as murder and homicide, which is supplemented by the information provided through the NCVS and self-report studies, the latter being the best indicator of actual

374:

Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system. A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found at higher rates in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the

927:

examines the disadvantages children face when they are exposed to frequent neighborhood violence. In a survey of 2,248 sixth, eighth, and tenth graders in an urban public school system, “Schwab-Stone et al (1995) found that 40% of youth reported exposure to a shooting or a stabbing in the past year.

787:

According to a 2009 report by the Pew Hispanic Center, in 2007 Latinos "accounted for 40% of all sentenced federal offenders ‒ more than triple their share (13%) of the total U.S. adult population". This was an increase from 24% in 1991. Between 1991 and 2007, enforcement of federal immigration laws

1292:

criticizes the attempt to use the macrostructural opportunity model to explain interracial rape as has been done in studies conducted in the past few decades, pointing out that such a defense is directly contradicted by the data related to homicide. Walsh argues that the macrostructural opportunity

1206:

in the 1930s and 1940s, argues that social structures within society which lead to inequality and deprivation in segments of its population indirectly encourage those segments to commit crime. According to strain theory, differences in crime rates between races are the result of real differences in

1142:

to the issue of crime, argued that such inequality as found in capitalism was ultimately responsible for the manifestation of crime at all levels of society, particularly among the poor. Though this line of thinking has been criticized for requiring the establishment of a utopian socialist society,

1077:

There are no reliable statistics to which one can safely appeal to measure exactly the growth of crime among the emancipated slaves. About seventy percent of all prisoners in the South are black; this, however, is in part explained by the fact that accused Negroes are still easily convicted and get

914:

Research shows that childhood exposure to violence significantly increases the likelihood to engage in violent behavior. When studies control for childhood exposure to violence, black and white males are equally likely to engage in violent behavior. White and black families have no major difference

887:

A 2019 study, which made use of a dataset of the racial makeup of every U.S. sheriff over a 25-year period, found that "ratio of Black‐to‐White arrests is significantly higher under White sheriffs" and that the effects appear to be "driven by arrests for less‐serious offenses and by targeting Black

834:

Some studies have argued for smaller racial disparities in violent crime in recent times. However, a study of government data from 1980–2008 found that the reduction in black violent crime relative to white violent crime may have been an artifact of those previous studies, which was due to Hispanic

821:

Studies examining the relationship between percentages of different races in an area and crime rates have generally either found similar relationships as for nationwide crime rates or no significant relationships. Most often studied are correlations between black and Hispanic populations in a given

804:

In the same 2019 report, when ethnicity of offenders was known, 73.5% were not Hispanic or Latino, 22.3% were Hispanic or Latino, and 4.2% were groups of individuals of varying ethnicities. However, the majority of offenders' ethnic backgrounds are unknown. Including offenders of unknown ethnicity,

718:

According to the FBI Uniform Crime Reports, in 2008, black youths, who make up 16% of the youth population, accounted for 52% of juvenile violent crime arrests, including 58.5% of youth arrests for homicide and 67% for robbery. Black youths were overrepresented in all offense categories except DUI,

600:

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) program, established in 1972, is a national survey of a representative sample of households in the United States which covers the frequency of crime victimization and the characteristics and consequences of victimization. The primary purpose behind the

577:

Race and ethnicity: The UCR tracks crime for the racial category of "White" to include both Hispanic and non-Hispanic ethnicities. According to the ACLU, with over 50 million Latinos residing in the United States, this hides the incarceration rates for Latinos vis-à-vis marijuana-related offenses,

551:

Bias in sampling: UCR statistics do not represent the actual amount of criminal activity occurring in the United States. As it relies upon local law enforcement agency crime reports, the UCR program can only measure crime known to police and cannot provide an accurate representation of actual crime

1008:

Historically, crime statistics have played a central role in the discussion of the relationship between race and crime in the United States. As they have been designed to record information not only on the kinds of crimes committed, but also on the individuals involved in crime, criminologists and

972:

in homeownership, median income, college graduation, and employment better explain racial homicide rate differences than do black disadvantages. Wright and Younts (2009) found that some social variables, such as higher religiosity, stronger family ties, and lower alcohol consumption, reduced black

873:

found that black drivers were stopped more often than white drivers, and that the threshold by which police decided to search black and Hispanic drivers was lower than that for whites (judging by the rate at which contraband was found in searches). Analysis of more than 20 million traffic stops in

838:

Other data suggests a genuine decline in racial disparities in recent years. In the 1980s and early 1990s black/white (including Hispanics) imprisonment disparities increased peaking in the early 1990s when a slim majority of new admissions were blacks. Relative to 2000, disparities in prisons and

808:

The report also states that 55.8% of all hate crime offenders were motivated by race, ethnicity, or ancestry. By comparison, the next highest categories are religion (19.3%) and sexual orientation (16.3%). Among hate crime offenses motivated by race, ethnicity, and ancestry, 48.4% were composed of

714:

While African Americans are highly overrepresented in murders and gun assaults, the disparity in arrests is smaller for the most common form of assault not involving any weapon or serious injury; blacks are arrested for non-aggravated assault at 2.7 times the white rate. Hispanics and non-Hispanic

686:

2019 Uniform Crime Report, African-Americans accounted for 55.9% of all homicide offenders in 2019, with whites 41.1%, and "Other" 3% in cases where the race was known. Including homicide offenders where the race was unknown, African-Americans accounted for 39.6% of all homicide offenders in 2019,

1351:

heritage. As noted in several studies conducted throughout the 1960s and 1970s, there is a traditional north–south discrepancy in the distribution of homicide in the US, regardless of race, and this, it was argued, indicates that lower-class Southern blacks and Whites share the same subculture of

1330:

As a theory of criminal behavior, subculture of violence theory claims that certain groups or subcultures exist in society in which violence is viewed as an appropriate response to what, in the context of that subculture, are perceived as threatening situations. Building upon the work of cultural

1235:

argue that strain theory "misconstrue(s) the nature of the criminal act, supplying it with virtues it does not possess." They further point out that, while strain theory suggests that criminals should tend to target people in a more advantageous economic situation than themselves, they more often

1122:

Conflict theory is considered "one of the most popular theoretical frameworks among race and crime scholars". Rather than one monolithic theory, conflict theory represents a group of closely related theories which operate on a common set of fundamental assumptions. As a general theory of criminal

638:

According to a report by the National Council of La Raza, research obstacles undermine the census of Latinos in prison, and "Latinos in the criminal justice system are seriously undercounted. The true extent of the overrepresentation of Latinos in the system probably is significantly greater than

1223:

weakens the effectiveness of informal social control mechanisms and support processes, which encourages economic gain by any means, legal or illegal. In those segments of the population which experience the greatest relative deprivation, therefore, there is readiness to turn to crime to overcome

955:

has reported that most of the reason violent crime rates are so high among blacks originates mainly from unemployment, economic deprivation, and family disorganization. Specifically, he found that "the scarcity of employed black men increases the prevalence of families headed by females in black

919:

in the United States). A study in Australia showed a direct correlation to poverty in later life from childhood abuse. While poverty in the United States and Australia are not the same, a general understanding of the negative effects of childhood abuse later in life has been found, many of these

842:

Similarly, declines in the racial disparity of homicide victimization can be seen although to a much greater extent between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites. Using CDC data between 1990 and 2019, the ratio of the murder rate between Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites declined from 4.5 to 2.0 and

491:

Established in 1927, the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) program is a summary-based reporting system that collects data on crime reported to local and state law enforcement agencies across the US. The UCR system indexes crimes under two headings: Part I and Part II offenses. Part I offenses include:

1272:

as a major contributing factor to the breakdown of healthy urban communities which would normally curb the spread of many forms of criminal behavior. The diversity of minority cultures present in poverty-stricken neighborhoods prevents the formation of strong social bonds and leaves inhabitants

981:

A 1996 study found a strong association between black-white spatial isolation and rates of black violence, consistent with the hypothesis that segregation is responsible for higher rates of black crime. Multiple other studies have reached similar conclusions. However, correlation does not equal

1343:

and Franco Ferracuti proposed that the disproportionally high rate of crime among African Americans could be explained by their possessing a unique racial subculture in which violence is experienced and perceived in a manner different from that commonly observed in mainstream American culture.

622:

According to the NCVS for 1992–2000, 43% of violent criminal acts, and 53% of serious violent crime (not verbal threats, or cuts and bruises) were reported to the police. Overall, black (49%) and indigenous Americans (48%) victims reported most often, higher than whites (42%) and Asians (40%).

1061:, who argued that other circumstances, such as social and economic conditions, were the central factors which led to criminal behavior, regardless of race. Du Bois traced the causes of the disproportional representation of blacks in the criminal justice system back to the improperly handled 967:

alone to exert little influence on adult criminality. Finding that social class was related to criminal involvement for people who are not white, they suggest that class may interact with race in relation to crime. Vélez et al. (2003) concluded that, within residentially segregated cities,

419:

Researchers note that there are socioeconomic factors underlying these crime statistics, and that crime is often higher in low-income neighborhoods. Media coverage of "Black on Black" violence has been criticized for perpetuating racial stereotypes of violent Black people. Researchers have

329:

has been a topic of public controversy and scholarly debate for more than a century. Crime rates vary significantly between racial groups; however, academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can in part be explained by

657:

Scholars have found that some racial and ethnic minorities, particularly African-Americans, are disproportionately represented in the arrest and victimization reports which are used to compile crime rate statistics in the United States. The data from 2008 reveals that black Americans are

1049:, argued that criminal behavior was the product of biological factors, including race. He was among the first criminologists to claim a direct link between race and crime. This biological perspective, sometimes seen as racist, was criticized by early 20th century scholars, including 2544:

For a detailed discussion of the limitations and weaknesses of the UCR program, see Mosher, Miethe & Phillips (2002). Regardless of the limitations, one must consider that these are facts reported by law enforcement agencies and are typically more accurate than independent

3455:

Steffensmeier, D.; Feldmeyer, B.; Harris, C. T.; Ulmer, J. T. (2011). "Reassessing Trends in Black Violent Crime, 1980-2008: Sorting Out the "Hispanic Effect" in Uniform Crime Reports Arrests, National Crime Victimization Survey Offender Estimates, and U.s. Prisoner Counts*".

817:

Studies have examined that ethnic/racially heterogeneous areas, most often neighborhoods in large cities, have higher crime rates than more homogeneous areas. Most studies find that the more ethnically/racially heterogeneous an area is, the higher its crime rates tend to be.

715:

whites are arrested for non-aggravated assault in a similar ratio to their share of the US population. Of the 9,468 murder arrests in the US in 2017, 53.5% were black and 20.8% Hispanic. Of the 822,671 arrests for non-aggravated assault, 31.4% were black and 18.4% Hispanic.

985:

Additionally, "Hagan and Peterson (1995) further propose that the segregation of racial minorities in sections of concentrated poverty contributes to inferior educational and employment opportunities, which, in turn, enhance the likelihood of crime and delinquency."

642:

The FBI did not include a "Latino" or "Hispanic" category until the Uniform Crime Report for 2013, and 93% of Hispanics are classified as "white" by law enforcement officers (irrespective of their ancestry), often inflating the amount of crimes attributed to whites.

477:. These crime data collection programs provide most of the statistical information utilized by criminologists and sociologists in their analysis of crime and the extent of its relationship to race. Another form of data is that regarding the prison population. 895:

found that facial-recognition systems were substantially more likely to misidentify the faces of racial minorities. Some ethnic groups, such as Asian-Americans and African-American, were up to 100 times more likely to be misidentified than white men.

379:

of racial discrimination. Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including

1143:

the notion that the disproportionality observed in minority representation in crime rate statistics could be understood as the result of systematic economic disadvantage found its way into many of the theories developed in subsequent generations.

375:

same bail decision as blacks commit more pre-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid

1082:

The debate that ensued remained largely academic until the late 20th century, when the relationship between race and crime became a recognized field of specialized study in criminology. Helen T. Greene, professor of justice administration at

2266: 883:

found that law enforcement officers in Texas who could charge shoplifters with two types of crimes (one more serious, one less so) due to a vaguely worded statute were more likely to charge blacks and Hispanics with the more serious crime.

863:

In-group bias has been observed when it comes to traffic citations following accidents, as black and white police in one state were found to be more lenient to suspects of their own race, resulting in a 3% discrepancy. A 2013 report by the

901: 612:

Misrepresentation: The NCVS program is focused upon metropolitan and urban areas, and does not adequately cover suburban and rural regions. This can lead to misrepresentations regarding the nature and extent of victimization in the United

586:(NIBRS) is an incident-based reporting system that will collect more comprehensive and detailed data on crime from local, state and federal law enforcement agencies. As it is still under development, NIBRS coverage is not yet nationwide. 571:. Further, law enforcement agencies can provide inadvertently misleading data as a result of local policing practices. These factors can lead to misrepresentations regarding the nature and extent of criminal activity in the United States. 639:

researchers have been able to document. The lack of empirical data on Latinos is partially due to prisons' failures to document ethnic details at intake, or recording practices that historically have classified Latinos as white.

943:

they cannot afford to post bail. The individuals in pretrial detention face higher incentives to plead guilty (even if they are innocent) for a number of reasons, which leads to a higher sentencing rates for these individuals.

1307:

Social control theory, which is among the most popular theories in criminology, proposes that crime is most commonly perpetrated by individuals who lack strong bonds or connections with their social environment. Based upon

1218:

in the 1990s. In their version of the theory, which they refer to as institutional anomie theory, Messner and Rosenfeld argue that the dominance of materialistic concerns and measurements of success manifested in the

342:

has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as black Americans have historically and to the present been prevented from moving into prosperous low-crime areas through actions of the government (such as

868:

found that blacks were "3.73 times more likely than whites to be arrested for marijuana possession," even though "blacks and whites use drugs, including marijuana, at similar rates." A 2020 study in the journal

2206:

Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020).

574:

Manipulation: UCR data are capable of being manipulated by local law enforcement agencies. Information is supplied voluntarily to the UCR program, and manipulation of data can occur at the local level.

2274: 835:

offenders being counted as White in the comparison. The Hispanic population has been increasing rapidly and Hispanics have violence rates higher than that of whites but lower than that of blacks.

635:

The UCR classifies most Hispanics into the "white" category. The NCVS classifies some Hispanic criminals as "white" and some as "other race". The victim categories for the NCVS are more distinct.

609:

incidents. Further, the NCVS cannot detect cases of victimization where the victim is too traumatized to report. These factors can contribute to deficits in the reliability of NCVS statistics.

1268:

Social disorganization theory proposes that high rates of crime are largely the result of a heterogeneous and impoverished social ecology. Proponents of the theory point to the process of

3948: 2582: 3332: 6858: 4529:

McNulty, Thomas L.; Bellair, Paul E. (March 2003). "Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital".

5406:

by Wolfgang & Ferracuti (1967). See also Hawkins (1983:247-248), Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:75-78). For a general review, see Gabbidon (2007:91–100), Clevenger (2009:780-783).

982:

causation, and the disproportionately higher crime rates seen in black communities—as well as the reason for their segregation—can be attributed to a number of underlying symptoms.

768: 420:

highlighted media language drawing connections between intracommunity violence in Black neighborhoods and supposed "moral bankruptcy" in Black family structures and communities.

4632:

Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth".

4405:

Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth".

3784: 1419: 1184:. Thus, conflict theory encounters difficulties in attempting to account for the high levels of violent crime such as murder, homicide and rape, in minority populations. 6825: 6810: 4140: 1454: 6815: 3640: 1180:, typically of less serious criminal behavior such as theft or larceny, research has shown there to be no significant correlation between race, income level and crime 159: 2495: 544:, simple assault, sex offenses, offenses against the family, drug and liquor offenses, weapons offenses and other non-violent offenses excluding traffic violations. 7030: 5315:"Rape and Sexual Assault Statistics. Extracted from Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Report Summarized by Betty Caponera, Ph.D. Director, NMCSAAS" 6874: 6790: 892: 652: 3759: 1095:, note that many criminology and criminal justice programs now either require or offer elective courses on the topic of the relationship between race and crime. 4597:

Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*".

4440:

Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*".

5341: 4754:

Peterson, Ruth D.; Krivo, Lauren J. (September 1, 1999). "Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization".

7015: 6969: 4106:

Frederick, John; Goddard, Chris (2007). "Exploring the relationship between poverty, childhood adversity and child abuse from the perspective of adulthood".

1283: 5905:

Hawkins, Darnell F. (2005). "Black and White Homicide Differentials: Alternatives to an Inadequate Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

3654:

Warren, Patricia Y.; Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald (May 1, 2009). "Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?".

1009:

sociologists have and continue to use crime rate statistics to make general statements regarding the racial demographics of crime-related phenomena such as

994:

Among American teens, black-white differences in violence are accounted for by differences in family income and socialization with deviant peers in school.

960:. Krivo and Peterson (1996) and McNulty and Bellair (2003a, 2003b) found neighborhood disadvantage to explain black and white differences in violent crime. 860:, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects. 805:

33.1% were not Hispanic or Latino, 10% were Hispanic or Latino, 1.9% were groups of individuals of varying ethnicities, and 55% were of unknown ethnicity.

428:. Researchers have noted these arguments but say that the term Black-on-Black crime is "inaccurate and vague" and "generally offensive to Black Americans". 3859:

Braun, Michael; Rosenthal, Jeremy; Therrian, Kyle (2018). "Police Discretion and Racial Disparity in Organized Retail Theft Arrests: Evidence from Texas".

3515: 708: 452: 6428:

Sampson, Robert J.; Wilson, William J. (2005b). "Towards a Theory of Race, Crime and Urban Inequality". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

2621:

For a detailed discussion of the limitations and weaknesses of the NCVS program, see Mosher, Miethe & Phillips (2002). See also Mann (1993:30–32).

6387:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 225619. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Archived from 5161:

Jang, Sung Joon; Johnson, Byron R. (2003). "Strain, Negative Emotions, and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory".

6848: 6767: 2469: 1439: 583: 339: 1607:

Brown, Elizabeth; Males, Mike A. (2011). "Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation".

1207:

behavior, but to be understood as an attempt to alleviate either absolute or relative deprivation and adapt to the existing opportunity structure.

582:

As a response to these and other limitations, a new system of crime data collection was established in 1988 as an outgrowth of the UCR system. The

2782: 2760: 322: 221: 334:

factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public and early education, and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as

5231:

Piquero, Nicole Leeper; Sealock, Miriam D. (August 22, 2006). "Generalizing general strain theory: An examination of an offending population".

4667:

Shihadeh, E. S.; Flynn, N. (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence".

3603:"Neighborhood-level differences in police discrimination and subcultural violence: A multilevel examination of adopting the code of the street" 2952: 105: 1164:

At the time it was first proposed, conflict theory was considered outside the mainstream of more established criminological theories, such as

6671: 6655: 6551: 6517: 6493: 6474: 6437: 6373: 6340: 6319: 6155: 6139: 6121: 6083: 6041: 5948: 5932: 5914: 5865: 5847: 5796: 5769: 5742: 5723: 5704: 5683: 5667: 5645: 5629: 5596: 5569: 5520: 5497: 2926: 2900: 2856: 2403: 1464: 6979: 6974: 6800: 797: 404:

The term "Black-on-Black" violence has been criticized for being misleading and racially charged. One columnist writing in the wake of the

278: 144: 125: 5636:

Du Bois, W. E. B. (2005). "The Spawn of Slavery: The Convict-Lease System in the South". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

5037:

Gabbidon (2007:171). For an overview of conflict theory in race and crime studies, see Gabbidon (2007:141–177), Henderson (2009:174–175).

5007: 755:

over 10 years found that carjacking victims identified 56% of offenders as black, 21% as white, and 16% as indigenous American or Asian.

7025: 6223: 1788:

Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016).

744: 728: 595: 456: 216: 4502:

McNULTY, THOMAS L.; BELLAIR, PAUL E. (August 2003). "Explaining Racial and Ethnic Differences in Serious Adolescent Violent Behavior".

2735: 1347:

As to the origins of this subculture of violence among African Americans, sociologists promoting the theory have pointed towards their

691:

the race was unknown, 53.7% were black or African-American, 41.6% were white, 3% were of other races, and 1.7% were of unknown races.

6688:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 144525. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 6269:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 176354. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 6236:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 227777. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 5879:. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin: Special Report NCJ 195710. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 3244: 3213: 3047: 1424: 879: 7020: 6843: 6640: 6592: 6573: 6535: 6455: 6358: 6303: 6177: 6105: 6063: 6025: 6006: 5992: 5981: 5966: 5823: 5614: 5553: 5538: 5443: 5351: 3826: 2670:

SpearIt (April 2, 2015). "How Mass Incarceration Underdevelops Latino Communities". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network.

2444: 2362: 2057: 2024: 1062: 2531:

Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:35-36). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:35–38). For more information on the UCR program, see: "

6381: 2804: 1743:"Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality" 6853: 6310:

Russell, Katheryn K. (2002). "The Racial Hoax as Crime: The Law as Affirmation". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

2882: 273: 4849: 5455: 3362: 2714: 683: 441: 385: 3483: 2532: 809:

anti-Black bias, 15.8% were of anti-White bias, 14.1% were of anti-Hispanic or Latino bias, and 4.3% were of anti-Asian bias.

6964: 865: 699:

white victims were killed by whites and 91% of black or African-American victims were killed by blacks or African-Americans.

393: 304: 211: 201: 5304:

Furtado, C., Perceptions of Rape: Cultural, Gender, and Ethnic Differences. Sex Crimes and Paraphilia. Hickey, E.W., 385–395

3529: 6218:

Petit, Becky; Western, Bruce. "Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration" in

2739: 1289: 1092: 1046: 719:

liquor laws, and drunkenness. Racial disparities in arrest have consistently been far less among older population groups.

381: 54: 2122: 6760: 3120: 2660:

Walsh (2004:29). For a survey of data from 1973–1992, see Zawitz et al. (1993:23); for 1993–1998, see Rennison (2001:10)

1459: 1066: 938: 776: 206: 5471: 951:

Evidence supporting the role of structural factors in high black crime rates comes from multiple studies. For example,

6994: 6989: 1038: 35: 6662:

Wright, John P. (2009). "Inconvenient Truths: Science, Race and Crime". In Beaver, Kevin M.; Walsh, Anthony (eds.).

5314: 3020: 2554:

Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Myrdal (1988:88-89), Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:39), Free (2009:164).

2297: 1399: 1263: 772: 326: 70: 3849:

Bose, Amartya. "Racial disparities in law enforcement: The role of in-group bias and electoral pressures." (2020).

2927:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 6: Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Victim by Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Offender, 2019" 335: 6820: 4475:

Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (December 1, 1996). "Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime".

1449: 1444: 1193: 1165: 1084: 731:

in 2002, robberies with white victims and black offenders were more than 12 times more common than the opposite.

389: 356: 242: 2710: 6927: 6795: 6721: 5814: 2040:

Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric (June 22, 2018), "Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects",

1169: 666: 49: 4797:

Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide".

4694:

Eitle, David (January 2009). "Dimensions of racial segregation, hypersegregation, and Black homicide rates".

1843:

Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide".

1552:"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*" 6753: 6032:

LaFree, Gary (1995). "Race and Crime Trends in the United States, 1946–1990". In Hawkins, Darnell F. (ed.).

4902:

Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013).

2783:"Estimates and Projections by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity - The 2012 Statistical Abstract - U.S. Census Bureau" 1469: 1126:

The form of conflict theory which emphasizes the role of economics, being heavily influenced by the work of

1037:

The relationship between race and crime has been an area of study for criminologists since the emergence of

5830:

Guerrero, Georgen (2009). "Social Disorganization Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

5579:

Clevenger, Shelly (2009). "Subculture of Violence Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

3949:"Federal study confirms racial bias of many facial-recognition systems, casts doubt on their expanding use" 6948: 6500:

Tubman-Carbone, Heather R. (2009). "Biological Theories". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

5987:

Jensen, Arthur R.; Rushton, J. P. "Thirty Years of Research on Race Differences in Cognitive Ability" in:

5805: 4045: 3715: 2995: 1404: 1348: 1228: 674: 424:

has noted that African-Americans are disproportionately murdered, accounting for 80% of murder victims in

405: 6683:"Highlights from 20 Years of Surveying Crime Victims: The National Crime Victimization Survey, 1973-1992" 3706:

Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests".

6879: 6693: 6407: 6274: 6241: 5884: 4185:"The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments" 3634: 3072: 2683: 1620: 1434: 1336: 1302: 1251: 1245: 748: 486: 445: 364: 360: 257: 165: 155: 6185: 1227:

Critics of strain theory point to its weaknesses when compared with actual criminal behavior patterns.

3414: 1789: 6906: 3982: 3685: 3376: 2267:"Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds" 1895: 1801: 1377: 1158: 1139: 1113: 764: 185: 150: 4050: 3720: 3415:"Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime" 5839: 5761: 3602: 2436: 2354: 1176:

of the general theory. While much research has been done to correlate race, income level and crime

1135: 1131: 1117: 521: 17: 6509: 4329:

Phillips, Julie A. (August 2002). "White, Black, and Latino Homicide Rates: Why the Difference?".

3298: 1935:"Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence" 6984: 6901: 6616: 5248: 5213: 5178: 4884: 4830: 4779: 4649: 4546: 4422: 4262: 4254: 4215: 4071: 3927: 3884: 3832: 3741: 3733: 3622: 3437: 3186: 3178: 3137: 2450: 2409: 2368: 2220: 2185: 2150: 2063: 1876: 1770: 1723: 1676: 1668: 1608: 1532: 1325: 409: 368: 297: 170: 6146:

Myrdal, Gunnar (1988). "Inequality of Justice". In Myers, Samuel L.; Simms, Margaret C. (eds.).

5788: 5588: 5196:

Leeper Piquero, N.; Sealock, M. D. (April 22, 2010). "Race, Crime, and General Strain Theory".

3099:

United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics.

6667: 6651: 6636: 6588: 6569: 6547: 6531: 6513: 6489: 6470: 6451: 6433: 6369: 6354: 6336: 6315: 6299: 6200: 6173: 6151: 6135: 6117: 6101: 6079: 6059: 6037: 6021: 6002: 5977: 5962: 5944: 5928: 5910: 5861: 5843: 5819: 5792: 5765: 5738: 5719: 5700: 5679: 5663: 5641: 5625: 5610: 5592: 5565: 5549: 5534: 5516: 5493: 5439: 5347: 4941: 4923: 4822: 4814: 4771: 4614: 4457: 4387: 4311: 4207: 4123: 4063: 4018: 4000: 3919: 3876: 3822: 3509: 3240: 3236: 3230: 3209: 3161: 3043: 2953:"Black-on-Black Homicide - A Psychological-Political Perspective | Office of Justice Programs" 2831: 2675: 2671: 2440: 2399: 2358: 2327: 2248: 2240: 2142: 2103: 2053: 2020: 1995: 1954: 1915: 1868: 1860: 1825: 1817: 1762: 1715: 1589: 1571: 1524: 1215: 1211: 1154: 1088: 1014: 957: 952: 916: 740: 462: 135: 89: 5560:

Covington, Jeanette (2002). "Racial Classification in Criminology". In Hare, Bruce R. (ed.).

4566:"The Myth of Social Class and Crime Revisited: An Examination of Class and Adult Criminality" 4564:

Dunaway, R. Gregory; Cullen, Francis T.; Burton, Velmer S.; Evans, T. David (March 7, 2006).

3118:

Hindelang, Michael J. (February 1978). "Race and Involvement in Common Law Personal Crimes".

2395: 6932: 6608: 6501: 5831: 5780: 5753: 5580: 5240: 5205: 5170: 4931: 4915: 4876: 4806: 4763: 4734: 4703: 4676: 4641: 4606: 4577: 4538: 4511: 4484: 4449: 4414: 4377: 4369: 4338: 4301: 4293: 4246: 4199: 4115: 4055: 4008: 3990: 3911: 3868: 3814: 3725: 3663: 3614: 3465: 3429: 3170: 3129: 2432: 2391: 2350: 2230: 2177: 2134: 2093: 2045: 1985: 1946: 1907: 1852: 1809: 1754: 1707: 1660: 1579: 1563: 1516: 1332: 1203: 1058: 1030: 857: 413: 376: 252: 175: 6018:

Evolutionary Psychology and Violence: A Primer for Policymakers and Public Policy Advocates

2098: 2081: 1990: 1973: 6706: 6420: 6287: 6254: 5897: 4865:"Growing Up Poor: Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency" 4092:

Race, Class, Network Embeddedness and Family Violence: A Search for Potent Support Systems

3785:"Analysis | What data on 20 million traffic stops can tell us about 'driving while black'" 3085: 3064: 2696: 1633: 1340: 1147: 1109: 1054: 1042: 969: 564: 560: 421: 352: 262: 180: 140: 100: 95: 6502: 5832: 5754: 3354: 3100: 2857:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 3: Murder Offenders by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019" 1339:, which focused on the social mechanisms behind delinquency in adolescents, sociologists 6388: 3986: 3902:

Bulman, George (2019). "Law Enforcement Leaders and the Racial Composition of Arrests".

3322:

A Rising Share: Hispanics and Federal Crime. Pew Hispanic Center. 2009. Mark Hugo Lopez

1934: 1805: 6776: 6330: 6072: 5809: 5511:

Bowling, Ben (2006). "Disproportionality". In McLaughlin, Eugene; Muncie, John (eds.).

4936: 4903: 4610: 4582: 4565: 4515: 4453: 4382: 4357: 4306: 4281: 4013: 3970: 2901:"Expanded Homicide Data Table 2: Murder Victims by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019" 2209:"A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States" 2168:

Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. (2018). "Racial Bias in Bail Decisions".

1584: 1551: 1474: 1429: 1309: 1232: 1220: 1050: 318: 121: 75: 4184: 7009: 6620: 5781: 5752:

Goodison, Sean (2009). "r/K Theory". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

5694: 5581: 5472:

Confronting the myth that "black culture" is responsible for violent crime in America

5438:

Latzer, Barry, The Rise and Fall of Violent Crime in America, Encounter Books, 2016,

5252: 5217: 4888: 4864: 4810: 4783: 4739: 4722: 4653: 4550: 4426: 4266: 4234: 4219: 3888: 3836: 3667: 3626: 3583: 3469: 3277: 3190: 3156: 2977: 2454: 2413: 2372: 2067: 1856: 1727: 1680: 1648: 1567: 1414: 1409: 1070: 1010: 568: 331: 290: 80: 5182: 4834: 4075: 3441: 2612:

Holmes, Maahs & Vito (2007:39–43). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:38–39).

2189: 1880: 1774: 1612: 4967:

See Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:31-33); Walsh (2004:19–36); Wright (2009:143–144).

4707: 3931: 3745: 3490: 2603:

Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37–39). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:37–38).

2154: 1357: 964: 556: 541: 247: 6739: 6263: 5873: 3157:"Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States" 1505:"The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process" 915:

in child abuse except in the $ 6,000-$ 11,999 income range (which falls under the

6682: 6230: 5402: 3618: 2014: 1813: 6889: 6884: 1385: 1269: 1173: 1003: 537: 348: 237: 5858:

The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America

4919: 4280:

Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen (February 2005).

3571: 2563:

Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Mann (1993:27;34), Free (2009:164).

1911: 6896: 5343:

Race, culture, psychology, and law By Kimberly Barrett, William George pg. 396

5244: 5174: 4880: 4767: 4542: 4059: 4036:

Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city".

3737: 3560: 3549: 3260: 2235: 2208: 2049: 1711: 1391: 1367: 1026: 924: 752: 695: 470: 412:

movement of using "Blacks killing Blacks" rhetoric to avoid discussions about

6727: 6612: 6204: 5779:

Gasper, Philip (2009). "IQ". In Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (eds.).

5209: 4927: 4818: 4775: 4645: 4618: 4461: 4418: 4342: 4297: 4211: 4127: 4067: 4004: 3923: 3880: 2244: 2146: 2107: 1999: 1958: 1919: 1864: 1821: 1766: 1758: 1719: 1575: 1528: 6911: 4235:"Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption" 3995: 2331: 1695: 1649:"Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption" 1153:

According to conflict theorists such as Marvin Wolfgang, Hubert Blalock and

1127: 425: 344: 4945: 4826: 4680: 4391: 4315: 4022: 2252: 1950: 1872: 1829: 1742: 1593: 5490:

Class, Race, Gender, and Crime: The Social Realities of Justice in America

4850:"GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: SEGREGATION AND VIOLENT CRIME IN URBAN AMERICA" 4723:"Institutional Access, Residential Segregation, and Urban Black Homicide*" 4488: 4373: 3971:"For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops" 3818: 5622:

The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America (4th Edition)

4904:"Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens" 4157: 2470:"Stop using 'Black-on-Black' crime to deflect away from police brutality" 2347:

Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power

2181: 1146:

Culture conflict theory, derived from the pioneering work of sociologist

1033:, one of the pioneers in the study of race and crime in the United States 513: 497: 436:

In the United States, crime data are collected from three major sources:

6599:

Welch, Kelly (2007). "Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling".

6014:

Psychopathy as an Adaptation: Implications for Society and Social Policy

5318: 559:, and does not record information on many other types of crime, such as 6629:

Crime and Racial Profiling by U.S. Police: Is There an Empirical Basis?

5403:

The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory in Criminology

4258: 3915: 3872: 3182: 3141: 1672: 1536: 1504: 533: 517: 509: 501: 4358:"The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest" 3809:

Baumgartner, Frank R.; Epp, Derek A.; Shoub, Kelsey (July 10, 2018).

1493:

Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:ix-x); Gabbidon & Greene (2005b:37).

1197: 493: 363:, social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory, 85: 6166:

The Structural-Cultural Perspective: A Theory of Black Male Violence

6112:

Mosher, Clayton J.; Miethe, Terance D.; Phillips, Dretha M. (2002).

4119: 3133: 2082:"The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview" 1974:"The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview" 1550:

Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012).

1520: 1254:

explains much of the difference in crime between blacks and whites.

351:

have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including

4250: 4203: 3729: 3433: 3174: 2225: 2138: 1664: 1236:

victimize individuals who live in the same economic circumstances.

747:(then known as the National Crime Survey, or NCS) to data from the 5546:

The Lineaments of Wrath: Race, Violent Crime, and American Culture

2629: 2627: 1025: 673: 665: 604:

There are fundamental limitations to the NCVS program, including:

529: 525: 474: 6745: 5133:

Oliver (2000:283). See also Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990:152).

3760:"Gary Johnson's bungled claims about racial disparities in crime" 2429:

Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD

547:

There are fundamental limitations of the UCR system, including:

505: 6749: 3403:; Lee Ellis, Kevin M. Beaver, John Wright; 2009; Academic Press 3040:

A Theory of African American Offending: Race, Racism, and Crime

1696:"Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?" 440:

Law enforcement agency crime reports, collected monthly by the

6034:

Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place

5939:

Holms, Ronald M.; Maahs, Jeffery R.; Vito, Gennaro F. (2007).

5925:

Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Place

5106:

For a brief overview, see Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:83–84).

2572:

Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:37). See also Mann (1993:28–29).

2496:"The Police and Public Discourse on "Black-on-Black" Violence" 6312:

African American Classics in Criminology and Criminal Justice

4282:"Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence" 2736:"Demographics cloud optimism on black violent crime decrease" 1790:"The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime" 6664:

Biosocial Criminology: New Directions in Theory and Research

6566:

Biosocial Criminology: New Directions in Theory and Research

4958:

See Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:31-53), Gabbidon (2007:4).

3101:"National Crime Victimization Survey: Unbounded Data, 2002" 3206:

Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, Volume 1

6581:

The Reporting of Crime: A Missing Link in Conflict Theory

5856:

Hagan, John; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2006).

5503:

Bonger, Willem Adriaan; Hordyk, Margaret Mathews (1943).

5456:

Subcultures of violence and African American crime rates.

5084: 5082: 1202:

Strain theory, which is largely derived from the work of

6508:(Citations). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 2016:

The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration

1282:

crime rates remain relatively high due to the fact that

1210:

A more recent approach to strain theory was proposed by

6733: 2324:

Police brutality : case study of Philadelphia/Move

1138:, one of the first scholars to apply the principles of 578:

as they are considered "White" with respect to the UCR.

6366:

Protecting Our Own: Race, Crime, and African Americans

6332:

Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Approach

6314:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 351–376. 6100:. pp. 632–637. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. 5620:

DeLone, Miriam; Spohn, Cassia; Walker, Samuel (2007).

5488:

Barak, Gregg; Flavin, Jeanne; Leighton, Paul (2007).

1894:

O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007).

1741:

Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016).

687:

with whites 29.1%, "Other" 2.1%, and "Unknown" 29.3%

6382:"Prison Inmates at Midyear 2008 – Statistical Tables" 5072: 5070: 3063:

Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (December 23, 2004).

769:

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

6170:

Violent Crime: Assessing Race and Ethnic Differences

5714:

Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T., eds. (2005b).

5416: 5414: 5412: 5282: 5280: 3601:

J Intravia, KT Wolff, EA Stewart, RL Simons (2014).

6957: 6941: 6920: 6867: 6836: 6783: 5733:Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T., eds. (2009). 4721:Lee, Matthew R.; Ousey, Graham C. (February 2005). 3299:"National Youth Gang Survey Analysis: Demographics" 2042:

The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice

1933:Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996). 1694:Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004). 796:The federal government publishes an annual list of 555:Misrepresentation: The UCR program is focused upon 451:victimization surveys, collected biannually by the 6193:African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies 6186:"Ethnicity and Crime: Criminal Behavior Redefined" 6071: 5562:2001 Race Odyssey: African Americans and Sociology 5515:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 5400:Covington (1995:182-183). The work referred to is 2651:Holmes, Maahs & Vito (2007:39), Rand (2009:1). 1420:Illegal immigration to the United States and crime 1250:Multiple studies have found evidence that Agnew's 347:) and private actors. Various explanations within 6631:in: Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2005). 6484:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009). 6465:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009). 6351:Underground Codes: Race, Crime, and Related Fires 6224:American Sociological Association: Page Not Found 5658:in: Gabiddon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2009). 3530:"Racial disparities in US prisons decline: study" 3413:Quillian, Lillian; Pager, Devah (November 2001). 3355:"Known Offender's Race, Ethnicity, and Age, 2019" 2711:"About the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program" 2080:Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (June 29, 2020). 1455:Race in the United States criminal justice system 856:Research suggests that police practices, such as 4183:Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017). 3155:Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997). 2805:"Data Finder - Health, United States - Products" 2583:"The War on Marijuana Has a Latino Data Problem" 2296:Hanna, Jason; Park, Madison (January 13, 2017). 2123:"Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences" 2013:Engel, Robin S. (2014). Bucerius, Sandra (ed.). 5959:Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics 3975:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2585:. American Civil Liberties Union. June 14, 2013 2298:"Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds" 2044:, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 17–38, 1900:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 1284:much of the US remains residentially segregated 1224:inequality and eliminate relative deprivation. 920:effects being contributing factors to poverty. 902:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6875:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour 6016:in: Bloom, Richard W.; Dess, Nancy K. (2003). 5693:Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (2005a). 5340:Barrett, Kimberly; George, William H. (2005). 4989:See Gabbidon & Greene (2009:xxvii-xxviii). 3969:Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). 893:National Institute of Standards and Technology 653:Statistical correlations of criminal behaviour 6761: 6564:in: Beaver, Kevin M.; Walsh, Anthony (2009). 6184:Otu, Noel; Horton, Nancy A. (November 2005). 6130:Myers, Samuel L.; Simms, Margaret C. (1988). 5838:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 5787:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 5760:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 5676:Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime 5587:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 5529:Bowling, Benjamin; Phillips, Coretta (2002). 5046:For an overview, see Gabbidon (2007:141–177). 4089:Cazenave, Noel A.; Straus, Murray A. (2019). 298: 27:Relationship between race and crime in the US 8: 6970:British Columbia Civil Liberties Association 6530:. Westport: Praeger Publishers (Greenwood). 6380:Sabol, William J.; West, Heather C. (2009). 6098:Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Vol. I 6054:in: Jewkes, Yvonne; Letherby, Gayle (2002). 6020:. Westport: Praeger Publishers (Greenwood). 5943:. Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 5382:For an overview, see Higgins (2009:759–762). 4634:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 4407:Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 3639:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3572:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji18.pdf 3396: 3394: 2832:"Crosstabulations of Known Murder Offenders" 2437:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831.001.0001 2355:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597.001.0001 1503:Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000). 822:area and crime. According to a study in the 6730:(Bureau of Justice Statistics Publications) 6264:"Violent Victimization and Race, 1993–1998" 6001:. New York: Pantheon Books (Random House). 5991:, Vol. 11, No. 2 (2005), pp. 235–294. 5957:Jacobs, James B.; Potter, Kimberly (1998). 5872:Hart, Timothy C.; Rennison, Callie (2003). 3561:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p09.pdf 3550:https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p19.pdf 6768: 6754: 6746: 5874:"Reporting Crime to the Police, 1992-2000" 5605:Delgado, Richard; Stafancic, Jean (2001). 4095:. EBSCO Industries, Inc. pp. 281–300. 2121:Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). 1073:program in particular. In 1901, he wrote: 709:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 590:National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 305: 291: 31: 6728:National Archive of Criminal Justice Data 6560:Walsh, Anthony; Beaver, Kevin M. (2009). 6335:. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. 6172:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5941:Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy 5008:and Race - Conceptions and Misconceptions 4935: 4738: 4581: 4381: 4305: 4049: 4012: 3994: 3719: 2996:"Supplementary Homicide Report 1976-2018" 2234: 2224: 2097: 1989: 1583: 6849:Criminal stereotype of African Americans 6601:Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 6036:. Albany: State University of New York. 5373:Higgins (2009:761), Gabbidon (2007:187). 4980:(1998:ix) as quoted in Walsh (2004:vii). 4165:The National Bureau of Economic Research 4151: 4149: 3545: 3543: 2019:. Oxford University Press. p. 147. 1972:Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (2021). 1440:Race and inequality in the United States 678:US homicide offenders by race, 1980–2017 584:National Incident-Based Reporting System 6627:Whitney, Glayde; Taylor, Jared (1999). 6353:. New York: New York University Press. 5860:. New York: New York University Press. 5818:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 5609:. New York: New York University Press. 5564:. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 5507:. New York: Columbia University Press. 5492:. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 5097:Delgado & Stafancic (2001:113–114). 4158:"Neighborhood Violence and Urban Youth" 3377:"Offense Type by Bias Motivation, 2019" 2830:Justice, National Center for Juvenile. 1486: 500:; non-lethal violent crimes comprising 469:crime rates for minor offenses such as 229: 193: 113: 62: 41: 34: 7031:Politics and race in the United States 6844:Black male incarceration and mortality 6724:(John Jay College of Criminal Justice) 6702: 6691: 6546:. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers. 6416: 6405: 6368:. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. 6283: 6272: 6250: 6239: 6150:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. 6134:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. 5893: 5882: 5548:. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. 3964: 3962: 3943: 3941: 3686:"Racial Bias in Police Investigations" 3679: 3677: 3632: 3514:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3507: 3081: 3070: 2692: 2681: 2431:. University of North Carolina Press. 2396:10.7208/chicago/9780226650128.001.0001 2349:. University of North Carolina Press. 2099:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306 1991:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306 1629: 1618: 813:Racial composition of geographic areas 670:US homicide victims by race, 1980–2017 6722:The Center on Race, Crime and Justice 6562:Introduction to Biosocial Criminology 6450:. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education. 5961:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5607:Critical Race Theory: An Introduction 5533:. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. 5151:Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990:152). 4233:Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). 4178: 4176: 4174: 2201: 2199: 1984:(1): annurev–criminol–060520-033306. 1647:Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). 1465:Racial profiling in the United States 847:Explanations for racial discrepancies 7: 6980:National Council for Civil Liberties 6975:Canadian Civil Liberties Association 6650:, Broomall: Mason Crest Publishers. 6544:Race and Crime: A Biosocial Analysis 6116:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 6074:Unequal Justice: A Question of Color 6058:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. 5737:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 5699:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 5662:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. 5624:. Belmont: Thomson & Wadsworth. 1168:, social disorganization theory and 998:Criminological theories of causation 7016:Race and crime in the United States 6078:. Bloomington: Indiana University. 5198:Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 5163:Journal of Quantitative Criminology 5028:Gabbidon & Greene (2009:xxvii). 4869:Journal of Quantitative Criminology 1091:, professor of criminal justice at 745:National Crime Victimization Survey 729:National Crime Victimization Survey 596:National Crime Victimization Survey 457:National Crime Victimization Survey 18:Incarceration, Race, and Inequality 6528:Biosociology: An Emerging Paradigm 5513:The SAGE Dictionary of Criminology 4611:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x 4583:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00900.x 4516:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01002.x 4454:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x 3861:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 3708:The Journal of Law & Economics 2633:Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:43). 2170:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 1425:Incarceration in the United States 1277:Macrostructural opportunity theory 880:Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 25: 6736:(Federal Bureau of Investigation) 6633:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader 6430:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader 5989:Psychology, Public Policy and Law 5907:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader 5716:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader 5638:Race, Crime and Justice: A Reader 4998:Bowling & Phillips (2002:57). 4286:American Journal of Public Health 2978:"WISQARS Nonfatal Injury Reports" 2522:Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:42). 936:According to a 2017 study in the 852:Discrimination by law enforcement 512:; and property crimes comprising 6585:Social Threat and Social Control 6364:Russell-Brown, Katheryn (2006). 6349:Russell-Brown, Katheryn (2004). 6222:, 2004, Vol. 69 (April:151–169). 6168:in: Hawkins, Darnell F. (2003). 4811:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x 4740:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2005.00111.x 4192:The Journal of Law and Economics 3668:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x 3470:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00222.x 3065:"Racial Stereotypes and Robbery" 1857:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x 1568:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x 1384: 1370: 906:threatening than White people." 444:(FBI) and processed annually as 6298:. Portland: Willan Publishing. 6148:The Economics of Race and Crime 6132:The Economics of Race and Crime 6050:Lea, John; Young, Jock (1993). 3656:Criminology & Public Policy 2715:Federal Bureau of Investigation 2390:. University of Chicago Press. 1170:differential association theory 618:Comparison of UCR and NCVS data 442:Federal Bureau of Investigation 6965:American Civil Liberties Union 6504:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 6486:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 6467:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 6231:"Criminal Victimization, 2008" 5834:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 5783:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 5756:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 5735:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 5660:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 5656:Crime Statistics and Reporting 5583:Encyclopedia of Race and Crime 4708:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.12.005 3813:. Cambridge University Press. 3684:West, Jeremy (February 2018). 3584:"WISQARS Fatal Injury Reports" 910:Childhood exposure to violence 866:American Civil Liberties Union 455:and processed annually in the 202:Race and ethnicity in censuses 1: 6488:. London: SAGE Publications. 6469:. London: SAGE Publications. 6329:Rushton, J. Philippe (1995). 4863:Jarjoura, Roger (June 2002). 4239:American Journal of Sociology 4156:Aizer, Anna (February 2008). 3422:American Journal of Sociology 3000:Murder Accountability Project 2883:"Expanded Homicide Data 2019" 2763:. Fbi.gov. September 19, 2011 1653:American Journal of Sociology 1320:Subculture of violence theory 1264:Social disorganization theory 1258:Social disorganization theory 1130:and sometimes referred to as 1093:Pennsylvania State University 1047:Italian school of criminology 824:American Journal of Sociology 792:Racially motivated hate crime 408:has accused opponents of the 55:Biblical terminology for race 6826:Racial bias in criminal news 6740:Bureau of Justice Statistics 6681:Zawitz, Marianna W. (1993). 6583:in: Liska, Allen E. (1992). 6220:American Sociological Review 6096:in: Levinson, David (2002). 5923:Hawkins, Darnell F. (1995). 5317:. Nmcsap.org. Archived from 5055:See Gabbidon (2007:155;171). 3619:10.1080/0735648X.2013.832480 3607:Journal of Crime and Justice 3401:Handbook of Crime Correlates 3235:. Cengage Learning. p. 3121:American Sociological Review 2642:Hart & Rennison (2003:3) 2127:Journal of Political Economy 2086:Annual Review of Criminology 1978:Annual Review of Criminology 1814:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023 1747:American Sociological Review 1509:American Sociological Review 1460:Racial bias in criminal news 1099:Modern theories of causation 963:Dunaway et al. (2000) found 939:Journal of Law and Economics 899:A 2018 study in the journal 777:Bureau of Justice Assistance 453:Bureau of Justice Statistics 6995:Southern Poverty Law Center 6990:Coalition for Public Safety 6816:Race and capital punishment 6579:Warner, Barbara D. (1989). 6461:Simmons, Phllippia (2009). 6092:Marshall, Ineke H. (2002). 5674:Gabbidon, Shaun L. (2007). 5459:Journal of Criminal Justice 4696:Journal of Criminal Justice 3067:. Columbia University: 2–3. 2533:UCR Data Quality Guidelines 2427:Felker-Kantor, Max (2018). 1039:anthropological criminology 923:A meta-analysis written by 631:Classification of Hispanics 528:. Part II offenses include 481:Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) 7047: 7026:Crime in the United States 6742:(US Department of Justice) 6448:Criminology (10th Edition) 5972:Jensen, Arthur R. (1998). 5010:Retrieved 14 October 2023 4920:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145 4143:Retrieved 11 October 2023 1912:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005 1845:The Sociological Quarterly 1400:Crime in the United States 1323: 1300: 1261: 1243: 1191: 1107: 1041:in the late 19th century. 1001: 773:Office of Justice Programs 650: 593: 484: 6821:Race and the war on drugs 6446:Siegel, Larry J. (2009). 6296:Policing, Race and Racism 6262:Rennison, Callie (2001). 6229:Rand, Michael R. (2009). 6070:Mann, Coramae R. (1993). 6052:The Race and Crime Debate 5997:Kennedy, Randall (1998). 5815:A General Theory of Crime 5544:Clarke, James W. (2001). 5531:Racism, Crime and Justice 5245:10.1080/07418820000094631 4543:10.1080/07418820300095441 4060:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y 2236:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1 2050:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1 1712:10.1080/02732170490459502 1450:Race in the United States 1445:Race and the War on Drugs 1194:Strain theory (sociology) 1085:Texas Southern University 243:Nakedness and colonialism 7021:African-American society 6928:Innocence Protection Act 6791:Homicide rate by country 6646:Wright, John D. (2002). 6613:10.1177/1043986207306870 6164:Oliver, William (2000). 5999:Race, Crime, and the Law 5927:. New York: SUNY Press. 5654:Free, Marvin D. (2009). 5474:, Vox, September 1, 2016 5210:10.1177/1541204009361174 5088:Gabbidon (2007:148-151). 4646:10.1177/0022427809335170 4419:10.1177/0022427809335170 4343:10.1525/sp.2002.49.3.349 4298:10.2105/AJPH.2004.037705 3042:. Routledge. p. 2. 2386:Ralph, Laurence (2020). 1759:10.1177/0003122416635667 1556:Social Science Quarterly 338:) and pollution. Racial 6666:. New York: Routledge. 6635:. New York: Routledge. 6568:. New York: Routledge. 6542:Walsh, Anthony (2004). 6526:Walsh, Anthony (1995). 6432:. New York: Routledge. 6114:The Mismeasure of Crime 6012:Kinner, Stuart (2003). 5909:. New York: Routledge. 5806:Gottfredson, Michael R. 5718:. New York: Routledge. 5678:. New York: Routledge. 5640:. New York: Routledge. 5429:See Gabbidon (2007:99). 5391:Gabbidon 2007:187–192). 5175:10.1023/A:1022570729068 4881:10.1023/A:1015206715838 4768:10.1023/A:1021451703612 4356:Kirk, David S. (2008). 3996:10.1073/pnas.1714454115 3333:"Hate Crime Statistics" 3261:"Carjacking, 1993-2002" 3229:Bennett, Wayne (2006). 3204:Fisher, Bonnie (2010). 3038:Unnever, James (2011). 2322:Williams, Suzanne Ife. 1896:"Crime and segregation" 1470:Racial formation theory 743:compared data from the 471:illegal substance abuse 6949:Katheryn Russell-Brown 6854:Indigenous Australians 6701:Cite journal requires 6587:. Albany: SUNY Press. 6480:Sims, Barbara (2009). 6415:Cite journal requires 6294:Rowe, Michael (2004). 6282:Cite journal requires 6249:Cite journal requires 5892:Cite journal requires 4799:Sociological Quarterly 3278:"National Gang Center" 3232:Criminal Investigation 3080:Cite journal requires 2691:Cite journal requires 2503:Harvard Kennedy School 2213:Nature Human Behaviour 1794:Environmental Research 1628:Cite journal requires 1405:Dog whistle (politics) 1229:Michael R. Gottfredson 1188:Strain (anomie) theory 1080: 1034: 932:Inability to post bail 679: 671: 406:murder of George Floyd 317:In the United States, 6880:Immigration and crime 6734:Uniform Crime Reports 6056:Criminology: A Reader 4374:10.1353/dem.2008.0011 3819:10.1017/9781108553599 2345:Balto, Simon (2019). 1700:Sociological Spectrum 1435:Race and intelligence 1337:focal concerns theory 1324:Further information: 1314:Causes of Delinquency 1303:Social control theory 1301:Further information: 1297:Social control theory 1262:Further information: 1252:general strain theory 1246:General strain theory 1240:General strain theory 1192:Further information: 1136:Willem Adriaan Bonger 1108:Further information: 1075: 1055:Johan Thorsten Sellin 1029: 1002:Further information: 990:Sociocultural factors 947:Socioeconomic factors 749:Uniform Crime Reports 677: 669: 594:Further information: 487:Uniform Crime Reports 485:Further information: 446:Uniform Crime Reports 365:social control theory 361:general strain theory 258:Social stratification 6907:Institutional racism 6394:on February 24, 2013 5274:Guerrero (2009:763). 5265:Guerrero (2009:762). 5124:Warner (1989:71–72). 5076:Gabbidon (2007:171). 5064:Gabbidon (2007:141). 4908:Violence and Victims 4727:Sociological Inquiry 4681:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325 2277:on November 16, 2017 1951:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325 1378:United States portal 1159:critical race theory 1140:economic determinism 1114:Conflict criminology 891:A 2019 study by the 877:A 2018 study in the 765:National Gang Center 5976:. London: Preager. 5420:Hawkins (1983:248). 5321:on October 11, 2014 5295:Walsh (2004:24–25). 4489:10.1093/sf/75.2.619 4141:Exposed to Violence 4038:Empirical Economics 3987:2018PNAS..115.2711H 3953:The Washington Post 3590:. December 2, 2021. 2984:. December 2, 2021. 2388:The Torture Letters 1806:2016ER....148...79B 1132:Marxist criminology 1118:Marxist criminology 1069:in general and the 977:Housing segregation 767:, a project of the 522:motor vehicle theft 463:self-report surveys 340:housing segregation 50:Historical concepts 6985:Sentencing Project 6902:Crime of Apartheid 6094:Ethnicity and Race 5286:Simmons (2009:398) 5142:Oliver (2000:283). 4756:Sociological Forum 4108:Child Abuse Review 3916:10.1111/ecin.12800 3873:10.1111/jels.12201 2271:washingtonpost.com 2182:10.1093/qje/qjy012 1326:Subcultural theory 1035: 680: 672: 510:aggravated assault 496:and non-negligent 432:Crime data sources 410:Black Lives Matter 369:subcultural theory 7003: 7002: 6673:978-0-415-98943-5 6656:978-1-59084-378-9 6553:978-1-59033-970-1 6519:978-1-4129-5085-5 6494:978-1-4129-5085-5 6475:978-1-4129-5085-5 6463:Intraracial Crime 6439:978-0-415-94707-7 6374:978-0-7425-4571-7 6342:978-1-56000-146-1 6321:978-0-7619-2432-6 6157:978-0-88738-755-5 6140:978-0-88738-755-5 6123:978-0-7619-8711-6 6085:978-0-253-33676-7 6043:978-0-7914-2195-6 5950:978-0-7637-3001-7 5933:978-0-7914-2195-6 5916:978-0-415-94707-7 5866:978-0-8147-6719-1 5849:978-1-4129-5085-5 5798:978-1-4129-5085-5 5771:978-1-4129-5085-5 5744:978-1-4129-5085-5 5725:978-0-415-94707-7 5706:978-0-7619-2948-2 5685:978-0-415-95314-6 5668:978-1-4129-5085-5 5647:978-0-415-94707-7 5630:978-0-534-62446-0 5598:978-1-4129-5085-5 5571:978-0-8156-2938-2 5522:978-1-4129-1086-6 5498:978-0-7425-4688-2 5461:54 (2018): 41–49. 5233:Justice Quarterly 5019:Du Bois (2005:5). 4848:Massey, Douglas. 4531:Justice Quarterly 3981:(11): 2711–2715. 3162:Crime and Justice 2761:"FBI — Table 43a" 2535:" at www.fbi.gov. 2405:978-0-226-65012-8 1216:Richard Rosenfeld 1212:Steven F. Messner 1155:William Chambliss 1089:Shaun L. Gabbidon 1045:, founder of the 1015:Orlando Patterson 958:social inequality 953:Robert J. Sampson 917:Poverty Threshold 741:Michael Hindelang 727:According to the 682:According to the 377:causal inferences 315: 314: 106:Sociology of race 90:scientific racism 71:Color terminology 16:(Redirected from 7038: 6933:Racial profiling 6859:Native Americans 6811:Criminal justice 6770: 6763: 6756: 6747: 6710: 6704: 6699: 6697: 6689: 6687: 6677: 6624: 6557: 6523: 6507: 6443: 6424: 6418: 6413: 6411: 6403: 6401: 6399: 6393: 6386: 6346: 6325: 6291: 6285: 6280: 6278: 6270: 6268: 6258: 6252: 6247: 6245: 6237: 6235: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6190: 6161: 6127: 6089: 6077: 6047: 5954: 5920: 5901: 5895: 5890: 5888: 5880: 5878: 5853: 5837: 5802: 5786: 5775: 5759: 5748: 5729: 5710: 5689: 5651: 5602: 5586: 5575: 5526: 5475: 5468: 5462: 5452: 5446: 5436: 5430: 5427: 5421: 5418: 5407: 5398: 5392: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5374: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5311: 5305: 5302: 5296: 5293: 5287: 5284: 5275: 5272: 5266: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5193: 5187: 5186: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5143: 5140: 5134: 5131: 5125: 5122: 5116: 5115:Sims (2009:142). 5113: 5107: 5104: 5098: 5095: 5089: 5086: 5077: 5074: 5065: 5062: 5056: 5053: 5047: 5044: 5038: 5035: 5029: 5026: 5020: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4981: 4978:Rituals of Blood 4974: 4968: 4965: 4959: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4939: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4845: 4839: 4838: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4742: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4675:(4): 1325–1352. 4664: 4658: 4657: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4499: 4493: 4492: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4385: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4309: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4230: 4224: 4223: 4189: 4180: 4169: 4168: 4162: 4153: 4144: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4053: 4044:(3): 1125–1169. 4033: 4027: 4026: 4016: 3998: 3966: 3957: 3956: 3945: 3936: 3935: 3910:(4): 1842–1858. 3904:Economic Inquiry 3899: 3893: 3892: 3856: 3850: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3811:Suspect Citizens 3806: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3723: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3690: 3681: 3672: 3671: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3638: 3630: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3580: 3574: 3569: 3563: 3558: 3552: 3547: 3538: 3537: 3526: 3520: 3519: 3513: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3496:on June 10, 2021 3495: 3489:. Archived from 3488: 3480: 3474: 3473: 3452: 3446: 3445: 3419: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3373: 3367: 3366: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3329: 3323: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3265: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3201: 3195: 3194: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3083: 3078: 3076: 3068: 3060: 3054: 3053: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2914: 2912: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2879: 2873: 2872: 2870: 2868: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2811:. March 31, 2020 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2694: 2689: 2687: 2679: 2667: 2661: 2658: 2652: 2649: 2643: 2640: 2634: 2631: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2579: 2573: 2570: 2564: 2561: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2542: 2536: 2529: 2523: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2500: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2465: 2459: 2458: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2319: 2313: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2273:. Archived from 2263: 2257: 2256: 2238: 2228: 2203: 2194: 2193: 2176:(4): 1885–1932. 2165: 2159: 2158: 2133:(6): 1320–1354. 2118: 2112: 2111: 2101: 2077: 2071: 2070: 2037: 2031: 2030: 2010: 2004: 2003: 1993: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1945:(4): 1325–1352. 1930: 1924: 1923: 1891: 1885: 1884: 1840: 1834: 1833: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1738: 1732: 1731: 1691: 1685: 1684: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1616: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1587: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1500: 1494: 1491: 1394: 1389: 1388: 1380: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1333:Walter B. Miller 1204:Robert K. Merton 1031:W. E. B. Du Bois 970:white advantages 858:racial profiling 647:Crime statistics 414:police brutality 319:the relationship 307: 300: 293: 253:Human skin color 32: 21: 7046: 7045: 7041: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7035: 7006: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6953: 6937: 6916: 6863: 6832: 6779: 6774: 6718: 6713: 6700: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6674: 6661: 6598: 6554: 6541: 6520: 6499: 6482:Conflict Theory 6440: 6427: 6414: 6404: 6397: 6395: 6391: 6384: 6379: 6343: 6328: 6322: 6309: 6281: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6248: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6209: 6207: 6188: 6183: 6158: 6145: 6124: 6111: 6086: 6069: 6044: 6031: 5993:Wayback Machine 5951: 5938: 5917: 5904: 5891: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5850: 5829: 5810:Hirschi, Travis 5799: 5778: 5772: 5751: 5745: 5732: 5726: 5713: 5707: 5692: 5686: 5673: 5648: 5635: 5599: 5578: 5572: 5559: 5523: 5510: 5484: 5479: 5478: 5469: 5465: 5454:Latzer, Barry. 5453: 5449: 5437: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5410: 5399: 5395: 5390: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5372: 5368: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5278: 5273: 5269: 5264: 5260: 5230: 5229: 5225: 5195: 5194: 5190: 5160: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5092: 5087: 5080: 5075: 5068: 5063: 5059: 5054: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4901: 4900: 4896: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4847: 4846: 4842: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4753: 4752: 4748: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4666: 4665: 4661: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4596: 4595: 4591: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4501: 4500: 4496: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4355: 4354: 4350: 4331:Social Problems 4328: 4327: 4323: 4279: 4278: 4274: 4232: 4231: 4227: 4187: 4182: 4181: 4172: 4160: 4155: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4120:10.1002/car.971 4105: 4104: 4100: 4088: 4087: 4083: 4051:10.1.1.309.2417 4035: 4034: 4030: 3968: 3967: 3960: 3947: 3946: 3939: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3858: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3829: 3808: 3807: 3803: 3793: 3791: 3789:Washington Post 3783: 3782: 3778: 3768: 3766: 3764:Washington Post 3758: 3757: 3753: 3721:10.1.1.381.8047 3705: 3704: 3700: 3688: 3683: 3682: 3675: 3653: 3652: 3648: 3631: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3588:webappa.cdc.gov 3582: 3581: 3577: 3570: 3566: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3528: 3527: 3523: 3506: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3484:"Archived copy" 3482: 3481: 3477: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3417: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3399: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3375: 3374: 3370: 3353: 3352: 3348: 3338: 3336: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3307: 3305: 3297: 3296: 3292: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3259: 3258: 3254: 3247: 3228: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3203: 3202: 3198: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3134:10.2307/2094764 3117: 3116: 3112: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3079: 3069: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3050: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3019: 3018: 3014: 3004: 3002: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2982:webappa.cdc.gov 2976: 2975: 2971: 2961: 2959: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2934: 2925: 2924: 2920: 2910: 2908: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2881: 2880: 2876: 2866: 2864: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2840: 2838: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2812: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2788: 2786: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2766: 2764: 2759: 2758: 2754: 2744: 2742: 2740:Penn State News 2734: 2733: 2729: 2719: 2717: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2690: 2680: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2598: 2588: 2586: 2581: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2543: 2539: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2517: 2507: 2505: 2498: 2494:Smith, Troy L. 2493: 2492: 2488: 2478: 2476: 2468:Smith, Troy L. 2467: 2466: 2462: 2447: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2406: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2365: 2344: 2343: 2339: 2321: 2320: 2316: 2306: 2304: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2280: 2278: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2205: 2204: 2197: 2167: 2166: 2162: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2079: 2078: 2074: 2060: 2039: 2038: 2034: 2027: 2012: 2011: 2007: 1971: 1970: 1966: 1932: 1931: 1927: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1842: 1841: 1837: 1787: 1786: 1782: 1740: 1739: 1735: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1646: 1645: 1641: 1627: 1617: 1606: 1605: 1601: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1521:10.2307/2657382 1502: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1390: 1383: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1341:Marvin Wolfgang 1331:anthropologist 1328: 1322: 1305: 1299: 1279: 1266: 1260: 1248: 1242: 1200: 1190: 1148:Thorsten Sellin 1120: 1110:Conflict theory 1106: 1104:Conflict theory 1101: 1071:convict leasing 1059:William Du Bois 1043:Cesare Lombroso 1024: 1006: 1000: 992: 979: 949: 934: 912: 854: 849: 832: 815: 794: 785: 761: 759:Gang membership 737: 725: 705: 664: 655: 649: 633: 620: 598: 592: 565:corporate crime 561:organized crime 489: 483: 434: 422:Edward A. Flynn 402: 353:conflict theory 311: 263:White supremacy 101:Racial politics 96:Racial equality 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7044: 7042: 7034: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7008: 7007: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6961: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6952: 6951: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6893: 6892: 6882: 6877: 6871: 6869: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6840: 6838: 6834: 6833: 6831: 6830: 6829: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6803: 6801:United Kingdom 6798: 6793: 6787: 6785: 6781: 6780: 6777:Race and crime 6775: 6773: 6772: 6765: 6758: 6750: 6744: 6743: 6737: 6731: 6725: 6717: 6716:External links 6714: 6712: 6711: 6703:|journal= 6678: 6672: 6659: 6648:Race and Crime 6644: 6625: 6607:(3): 276–288. 6596: 6577: 6558: 6552: 6539: 6524: 6518: 6497: 6478: 6459: 6444: 6438: 6425: 6417:|journal= 6377: 6362: 6347: 6341: 6326: 6320: 6307: 6292: 6284:|journal= 6259: 6251:|journal= 6226: 6216: 6181: 6162: 6156: 6143: 6128: 6122: 6109: 6090: 6084: 6067: 6048: 6042: 6029: 6010: 5995: 5985: 5970: 5955: 5949: 5936: 5921: 5915: 5902: 5894:|journal= 5869: 5854: 5848: 5827: 5803: 5797: 5776: 5770: 5749: 5743: 5730: 5724: 5711: 5705: 5696:Race and Crime 5690: 5684: 5671: 5652: 5646: 5633: 5618: 5603: 5597: 5576: 5570: 5557: 5542: 5527: 5521: 5508: 5505:Race and Crime 5501: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5470:Lopez, German 5463: 5447: 5431: 5422: 5408: 5393: 5384: 5375: 5366: 5352: 5332: 5306: 5297: 5288: 5276: 5267: 5258: 5239:(3): 449–484. 5223: 5204:(3): 170–186. 5188: 5153: 5144: 5135: 5126: 5117: 5108: 5099: 5090: 5078: 5066: 5057: 5048: 5039: 5030: 5021: 5012: 5000: 4991: 4982: 4976:O. Patterson, 4969: 4960: 4951: 4914:(1): 145–160. 4894: 4875:(2): 159–187. 4855: 4840: 4805:(4): 600–623. 4789: 4762:(3): 465–493. 4746: 4713: 4686: 4659: 4640:(3): 327–352. 4624: 4605:(3): 645–672. 4589: 4576:(2): 589–632. 4556: 4521: 4510:(3): 709–747. 4494: 4483:(2): 619–648. 4467: 4448:(3): 645–672. 4432: 4413:(3): 327–352. 4397: 4348: 4337:(3): 349–373. 4321: 4292:(2): 224–232. 4272: 4251:10.1086/228748 4245:(2): 348–382. 4225: 4204:10.1086/695285 4198:(3): 529–557. 4170: 4145: 4133: 4114:(5): 323–341. 4098: 4081: 4028: 3958: 3937: 3894: 3867:(4): 916–950. 3851: 3842: 3827: 3801: 3776: 3751: 3738:10.1086/322810 3730:10.1086/322810 3714:(2): 367–394. 3698: 3673: 3662:(2): 343–369. 3646: 3593: 3575: 3564: 3553: 3539: 3521: 3475: 3447: 3434:10.1086/338938 3405: 3390: 3368: 3346: 3324: 3315: 3290: 3269: 3252: 3246:978-0495093404 3245: 3221: 3215:978-1412960472 3214: 3208:. p. 67. 3196: 3175:10.1086/449253 3147: 3110: 3091: 3082:|journal= 3055: 3049:978-1136809217 3048: 3030: 3012: 2987: 2969: 2944: 2918: 2892: 2874: 2848: 2822: 2796: 2774: 2752: 2727: 2702: 2693:|journal= 2662: 2653: 2644: 2635: 2623: 2614: 2605: 2596: 2574: 2565: 2556: 2547: 2537: 2524: 2515: 2486: 2460: 2445: 2419: 2404: 2378: 2363: 2337: 2314: 2288: 2258: 2219:(7): 736–745. 2195: 2160: 2139:10.1086/677255 2113: 2072: 2058: 2032: 2025: 2005: 1964: 1925: 1906:(3): 391–405. 1886: 1851:(4): 600–623. 1835: 1780: 1753:(2): 290–315. 1733: 1706:(4): 507–533. 1686: 1665:10.1086/228748 1659:(2): 348–382. 1639: 1630:|journal= 1599: 1562:(3): 799–819. 1542: 1515:(4): 547–559. 1495: 1485: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1478: 1477: 1475:Sensationalism 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1430:Race and crime 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1396: 1395: 1381: 1365: 1362: 1321: 1318: 1310:Travis Hirschi 1298: 1295: 1278: 1275: 1259: 1256: 1244:Main article: 1241: 1238: 1233:Travis Hirschi 1221:American Dream 1189: 1186: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1051:Frances Kellor 1023: 1020: 999: 996: 991: 988: 978: 975: 948: 945: 933: 930: 911: 908: 888:crime types." 853: 850: 848: 845: 831: 828: 814: 811: 793: 790: 784: 781: 760: 757: 736: 735:Victim surveys 733: 724: 721: 704: 701: 663: 660: 648: 645: 632: 629: 619: 616: 615: 614: 610: 591: 588: 580: 579: 575: 572: 553: 538:counterfeiting 482: 479: 466: 465: 460: 449: 433: 430: 401: 398: 313: 312: 310: 309: 302: 295: 287: 284: 283: 282: 281: 276: 268: 267: 266: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 232: 231: 230:Related topics 227: 226: 225: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 196: 195: 191: 190: 189: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 153: 148: 138: 133: 126:United Kingdom 116: 115: 111: 110: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 83: 78: 76:Race relations 73: 65: 64: 60: 59: 58: 57: 52: 44: 43: 39: 38: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7043: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7011: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6958:Organizations 6956: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6940: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6919: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6891: 6888: 6887: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6866: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6835: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6806:United States 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6788: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6771: 6766: 6764: 6759: 6757: 6752: 6751: 6748: 6741: 6738: 6735: 6732: 6729: 6726: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6715: 6708: 6695: 6684: 6679: 6675: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6642: 6641:0-415-94707-3 6638: 6634: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6597: 6594: 6593:0-7914-0903-1 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6575: 6574:0-415-98943-4 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6549: 6545: 6540: 6537: 6536:0-275-95328-9 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6505: 6498: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6456:0-495-39102-6 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6422: 6409: 6390: 6383: 6378: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6360: 6359:0-8147-7540-3 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6338: 6334: 6333: 6327: 6323: 6317: 6313: 6308: 6305: 6304:1-84392-044-1 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6276: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6243: 6232: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6187: 6182: 6179: 6178:0-521-62297-2 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6115: 6110: 6107: 6106:0-7619-2258-X 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6081: 6076: 6075: 6068: 6065: 6064:0-7619-4711-6 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6030: 6027: 6026:0-275-97467-7 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6008: 6007:0-679-43881-5 6004: 6000: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5983: 5982:0-275-96103-6 5979: 5975: 5971: 5968: 5967:0-19-511448-5 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5942: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5886: 5875: 5870: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5845: 5841: 5836: 5835: 5828: 5825: 5824:0-8047-1774-5 5821: 5817: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5804: 5800: 5794: 5790: 5785: 5784: 5777: 5773: 5767: 5763: 5758: 5757: 5750: 5746: 5740: 5736: 5731: 5727: 5721: 5717: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5698: 5697: 5691: 5687: 5681: 5677: 5672: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5643: 5639: 5634: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5616: 5615:0-8147-1931-7 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5584: 5577: 5573: 5567: 5563: 5558: 5555: 5554:1-56000-358-8 5551: 5547: 5543: 5540: 5539:0-582-29966-7 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5486: 5481: 5473: 5467: 5464: 5460: 5457: 5451: 5448: 5445: 5444:9781594039294 5441: 5435: 5432: 5426: 5423: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5397: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5379: 5376: 5370: 5367: 5355: 5353:9780761926627 5349: 5345: 5344: 5336: 5333: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5277: 5271: 5268: 5262: 5259: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5224: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5169:(1): 79–105. 5168: 5164: 5157: 5154: 5148: 5145: 5139: 5136: 5130: 5127: 5121: 5118: 5112: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5094: 5091: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5058: 5052: 5049: 5043: 5040: 5034: 5031: 5025: 5022: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5004: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4986: 4983: 4979: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4961: 4955: 4952: 4947: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4898: 4895: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4859: 4856: 4851: 4844: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4790: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4747: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4717: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4690: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4669:Social Forces 4663: 4660: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4593: 4590: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4557: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4522: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4498: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4477:Social Forces 4471: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4436: 4433: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4352: 4349: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4325: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4273: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4229: 4226: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4159: 4152: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4137: 4134: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4099: 4094: 4093: 4085: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3855: 3852: 3846: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3828:9781108553599 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3805: 3802: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3777: 3765: 3761: 3755: 3752: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3699: 3694: 3693:Working Paper 3687: 3680: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3650: 3647: 3642: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3594: 3589: 3585: 3579: 3576: 3573: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3534:www.aa.com.tr 3531: 3525: 3522: 3517: 3511: 3492: 3485: 3479: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3451: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3416: 3409: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3395: 3391: 3378: 3372: 3369: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3347: 3334: 3328: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3279: 3273: 3270: 3262: 3256: 3253: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3233: 3225: 3222: 3217: 3211: 3207: 3200: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3163: 3158: 3151: 3148: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3128:(1): 93–109. 3127: 3123: 3122: 3114: 3111: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3087: 3074: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3051: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3016: 3013: 3001: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2970: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2945: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2919: 2906: 2902: 2896: 2893: 2888: 2884: 2878: 2875: 2867:September 11, 2862: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2841:September 27, 2837: 2836:www.ojjdp.gov 2833: 2826: 2823: 2815:September 27, 2810: 2806: 2800: 2797: 2784: 2778: 2775: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2741: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2716: 2712: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2666: 2663: 2657: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2639: 2636: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2609: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2534: 2528: 2525: 2519: 2516: 2504: 2497: 2490: 2487: 2475: 2474:cleveland.com 2471: 2464: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2446:9781469646831 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2364:9781469649597 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2318: 2315: 2303: 2299: 2292: 2289: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2262: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2059:9781119113799 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2036: 2033: 2028: 2026:9780199859016 2022: 2018: 2017: 2009: 2006: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1939:Social Forces 1936: 1929: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1781: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1690: 1687: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1643: 1640: 1635: 1622: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1546: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1499: 1496: 1490: 1487: 1480: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1415:Fearmongering 1413: 1411: 1410:Fear of crime 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1368: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1353: 1350: 1345: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1327: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1304: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1290:Anthony Walsh 1287: 1285: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1265: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1247: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1199: 1195: 1187: 1185: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1166:strain theory 1162: 1160: 1156: 1151: 1149: 1144: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1028: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1011:victimization 1005: 997: 995: 989: 987: 983: 976: 974: 973:crime rates. 971: 966: 961: 959: 954: 946: 944: 941: 940: 931: 929: 926: 921: 918: 909: 907: 904: 903: 897: 894: 889: 885: 882: 881: 875: 872: 867: 861: 859: 851: 846: 844: 840: 836: 829: 827: 825: 819: 812: 810: 806: 802: 799: 791: 789: 782: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 758: 756: 754: 750: 746: 742: 734: 732: 730: 722: 720: 716: 712: 710: 702: 700: 697: 692: 688: 685: 676: 668: 661: 659: 654: 646: 644: 640: 636: 630: 628: 624: 617: 611: 607: 606: 605: 602: 597: 589: 587: 585: 576: 573: 570: 569:federal crime 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 549: 548: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 518:larceny/theft 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 488: 480: 478: 476: 472: 464: 461: 458: 454: 450: 447: 443: 439: 438: 437: 431: 429: 427: 423: 417: 415: 411: 407: 399: 397: 395: 391: 387: 383: 378: 372: 370: 366: 362: 358: 357:strain theory 354: 350: 346: 341: 337: 333: 332:socioeconomic 328: 324: 320: 308: 303: 301: 296: 294: 289: 288: 286: 285: 280: 277: 275: 272: 271: 270: 269: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 234: 233: 228: 223: 222:United States 220: 218: 217:Latin America 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 198: 197: 192: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 161: 157: 154: 152: 149: 146: 145:United States 142: 139: 137: 134: 131: 130:United States 127: 123: 120: 119: 118: 117: 112: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 91: 87: 84: 82: 81:Racialization 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 68: 67: 66: 61: 56: 53: 51: 48: 47: 46: 45: 40: 37: 33: 30: 19: 6805: 6694:cite journal 6663: 6647: 6632: 6628: 6604: 6600: 6584: 6580: 6565: 6561: 6543: 6527: 6503: 6485: 6481: 6466: 6462: 6447: 6429: 6408:cite journal 6398:February 24, 6396:. Retrieved 6389:the original 6365: 6350: 6331: 6311: 6295: 6275:cite journal 6242:cite journal 6219: 6208:. Retrieved 6196: 6192: 6169: 6165: 6147: 6131: 6113: 6097: 6093: 6073: 6055: 6051: 6033: 6017: 6013: 5998: 5988: 5974:The g Factor 5973: 5958: 5940: 5924: 5906: 5885:cite journal 5857: 5833: 5813: 5782: 5755: 5734: 5715: 5695: 5675: 5659: 5655: 5637: 5621: 5606: 5582: 5561: 5545: 5530: 5512: 5504: 5489: 5482:Bibliography 5466: 5458: 5450: 5434: 5425: 5401: 5396: 5387: 5378: 5369: 5357:. Retrieved 5342: 5335: 5323:. Retrieved 5319:the original 5309: 5300: 5291: 5270: 5261: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5201: 5197: 5191: 5166: 5162: 5156: 5147: 5138: 5129: 5120: 5111: 5102: 5093: 5060: 5051: 5042: 5033: 5024: 5015: 5003: 4994: 4985: 4977: 4972: 4963: 4954: 4911: 4907: 4897: 4872: 4868: 4858: 4843: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4759: 4755: 4749: 4733:(1): 31–54. 4730: 4726: 4716: 4702:(1): 28–36. 4699: 4695: 4689: 4672: 4668: 4662: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4534: 4530: 4524: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4480: 4476: 4470: 4445: 4441: 4435: 4410: 4406: 4400: 4368:(1): 55–77. 4365: 4361: 4351: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4289: 4285: 4275: 4242: 4238: 4228: 4195: 4191: 4164: 4136: 4111: 4107: 4101: 4091: 4084: 4041: 4037: 4031: 3978: 3974: 3952: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3864: 3860: 3854: 3845: 3810: 3804: 3792:. Retrieved 3788: 3779: 3767:. Retrieved 3763: 3754: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3692: 3659: 3655: 3649: 3635:cite journal 3613:(1): 42–60. 3610: 3606: 3596: 3587: 3578: 3567: 3556: 3533: 3524: 3498:. Retrieved 3491:the original 3478: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3425: 3421: 3408: 3400: 3381:. Retrieved 3371: 3358: 3349: 3337:. Retrieved 3327: 3318: 3306:. Retrieved 3302: 3293: 3281:. Retrieved 3272: 3266:. p. 2. 3255: 3231: 3224: 3205: 3199: 3166: 3160: 3150: 3125: 3119: 3113: 3104: 3094: 3073:cite journal 3058: 3039: 3033: 3024: 3015: 3003:. Retrieved 2999: 2990: 2981: 2972: 2960:. Retrieved 2956: 2947: 2935:. Retrieved 2930: 2921: 2909:. Retrieved 2904: 2895: 2886: 2877: 2865:. Retrieved 2860: 2851: 2839:. Retrieved 2835: 2825: 2813:. Retrieved 2808: 2799: 2787:. Retrieved 2785:. Census.gov 2777: 2765:. Retrieved 2755: 2743:. Retrieved 2730: 2718:. Retrieved 2705: 2684:cite journal 2665: 2656: 2647: 2638: 2617: 2608: 2599: 2587:. Retrieved 2577: 2568: 2559: 2550: 2540: 2527: 2518: 2506:. Retrieved 2502: 2489: 2477:. Retrieved 2473: 2463: 2428: 2422: 2387: 2381: 2346: 2340: 2323: 2317: 2305:. Retrieved 2301: 2291: 2281:November 23, 2279:. Retrieved 2275:the original 2270: 2261: 2216: 2212: 2173: 2169: 2163: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2089: 2085: 2075: 2041: 2035: 2015: 2008: 1981: 1977: 1967: 1942: 1938: 1928: 1903: 1899: 1889: 1848: 1844: 1838: 1797: 1793: 1783: 1750: 1746: 1736: 1703: 1699: 1689: 1656: 1652: 1642: 1621:cite journal 1602: 1559: 1555: 1545: 1512: 1508: 1498: 1489: 1358:Barry Latzer 1354: 1346: 1329: 1313: 1306: 1288: 1280: 1267: 1249: 1226: 1209: 1201: 1181: 1177: 1163: 1152: 1145: 1125: 1121: 1081: 1076: 1067:black slaves 1063:emancipation 1036: 1007: 993: 984: 980: 965:social class 962: 950: 937: 935: 922: 913: 900: 898: 890: 886: 878: 876: 870: 862: 855: 841: 837: 833: 823: 820: 816: 807: 803: 795: 786: 762: 738: 726: 717: 713: 706: 693: 689: 681: 656: 641: 637: 634: 625: 621: 603: 599: 581: 557:street crime 546: 542:embezzlement 490: 467: 435: 418: 403: 394:Philadelphia 373: 316: 248:Ethnic group 166:Neuroscience 156:Intelligence 151:Horror films 129: 29: 6890:Blood libel 6885:Racial hoax 4599:Criminology 4570:Criminology 4537:(1): 1–31. 4504:Criminology 4442:Criminology 3769:January 21, 3500:February 8, 3464:: 197–251. 3458:Criminology 3383:October 14, 3339:October 14, 3308:October 14, 3283:October 14, 3169:: 311–374. 2957:www.ojp.gov 2809:www.cdc.gov 2720:October 14, 2589:December 6, 2307:January 13, 2092:: 261–286. 1270:urban decay 1182:seriousness 1174:testability 1004:Criminology 504:, forcible 400:Terminology 382:Los Angeles 349:criminology 238:Colonialism 194:By location 186:Video games 114:Race and... 7010:Categories 6897:Hate crime 6784:By country 5359:October 8, 5325:October 8, 4362:Demography 3428:(3): 717. 3335:. .fbi.gov 3021:"Table 43" 2789:August 15, 2767:August 15, 2545:reporting. 2226:1706.05678 1481:References 1392:Law portal 1352:violence. 925:Anna Aizer 798:hate crime 775:, and the 753:carjacking 696:per-capita 651:See also: 473:and petty 6912:Death row 6621:146764775 6205:1554-3897 5253:144477992 5218:144621182 4928:0886-6708 4889:140734860 4819:1533-8525 4784:142664553 4776:0884-8971 4654:145402735 4619:1745-9125 4551:146377723 4462:1745-9125 4427:145402735 4267:144729803 4220:158123897 4212:0022-2186 4128:1099-0852 4068:0377-7332 4046:CiteSeerX 4005:0027-8424 3924:1465-7295 3889:158361514 3881:1740-1461 3837:158379135 3716:CiteSeerX 3627:144926935 3379:. fbi.gov 3191:215513875 3105:umich.edu 2937:March 21, 2911:August 4, 2745:March 28, 2455:239813851 2414:166340526 2373:242994510 2245:2397-3374 2147:0022-3808 2108:2572-4568 2068:158214425 2000:2572-4568 1959:0037-7732 1920:0167-2681 1865:0038-0253 1822:0013-9351 1800:: 79–85. 1767:0003-1224 1728:145654909 1720:0273-2173 1681:144729803 1576:1540-6237 1529:0003-1224 1178:frequency 1128:Karl Marx 1018:factors. 783:Hispanics 739:In 1978, 426:Milwaukee 345:redlining 171:Sexuality 6868:Concepts 6210:June 26, 5812:(1990). 5183:73553646 4946:23520837 4835:19551967 4827:20939127 4392:18390291 4316:15671454 4076:17532623 4023:29483263 3794:July 17, 3510:cite web 3442:19532049 2962:April 8, 2508:June 16, 2479:June 16, 2332:84480572 2253:32367028 2190:13703268 1881:19551967 1873:20939127 1830:27035924 1775:53346960 1613:14751824 1594:25035523 1364:See also 1349:Southern 662:Homicide 514:burglary 498:homicide 386:New York 321:between 279:Category 212:Colombia 136:Genetics 6837:By race 4937:3767568 4383:2831379 4307:1449156 4259:2779588 4014:5856523 3983:Bibcode 3955:. 2019. 3932:3616622 3746:1547854 3359:FBI.gov 3303:ojp.gov 3183:1147634 3142:2094764 3005:May 31, 2931:FBI.gov 2905:FBI.gov 2861:FBI.gov 2676:2589112 2155:3348344 1802:Bibcode 1673:2779588 1585:4097310 1537:2657382 1022:History 723:Robbery 703:Assault 613:States. 534:forgery 502:robbery 390:Chicago 176:Society 160:history 63:Society 42:History 6942:People 6796:Brazil 6670: 6654: 6639: 6619: 6591: 6572: 6550: 6534: 6516: 6492: 6473: 6454: 6436: 6372: 6357: 6339: 6318: 6302: 6203: 6176: 6154: 6138: 6120: 6104: 6082: 6062: 6040: 6024: 6005: 5980: 5965: 5947: 5931: 5913: 5864: 5846: 5842:–763. 5822: 5795: 5791:–402. 5768: 5764:–716. 5741: 5722: 5703: 5682: 5666: 5644: 5628: 5613: 5595: 5591:–783. 5568: 5552: 5537: 5519: 5496: 5442: 5350: 5251: 5216: 5181: 4944: 4934: 4926: 4887: 4833: 4825: 4817: 4782: 4774: 4652: 4617: 4549: 4460: 4425: 4390: 4380: 4314: 4304: 4265: 4257: 4218: 4210: 4126: 4074: 4066: 4048: 4021: 4011: 4003: 3930: 3922: 3887: 3879: 3835: 3825: 3744: 3736: 3718: 3625: 3440: 3243: 3212: 3189: 3181: 3140: 3046: 2933:. 2020 2907:. 2020 2863:. 2020 2674: 2453: 2443: 2412: 2402: 2371: 2361: 2330: 2251: 2243: 2188: 2153: 2145: 2106: 2066: 2056: 2023: 1998: 1957: 1918: 1879: 1871: 1863: 1828: 1820: 1773: 1765: 1726: 1718: 1679: 1671: 1611: 1592: 1582: 1574: 1535: 1527: 1198:Anomie 1116:, and 1087:, and 871:Nature 830:Trends 552:rates. 494:murder 459:(NCVS) 392:, and 367:, and 207:Brazil 181:Sports 141:Health 86:Racism 6921:Legal 6686:(PDF) 6617:S2CID 6512:–54. 6392:(PDF) 6385:(PDF) 6267:(PDF) 6234:(PDF) 6199:(2). 6189:(PDF) 5877:(PDF) 5249:S2CID 5214:S2CID 5179:S2CID 4885:S2CID 4831:S2CID 4780:S2CID 4650:S2CID 4547:S2CID 4423:S2CID 4263:S2CID 4255:JSTOR 4216:S2CID 4188:(PDF) 4161:(PDF) 4072:S2CID 3928:S2CID 3885:S2CID 3833:S2CID 3742:S2CID 3734:JSTOR 3689:(PDF) 3623:S2CID 3494:(PDF) 3487:(PDF) 3438:S2CID 3418:(PDF) 3264:(PDF) 3187:S2CID 3179:JSTOR 3138:JSTOR 2499:(PDF) 2451:S2CID 2410:S2CID 2369:S2CID 2221:arXiv 2186:S2CID 2151:S2CID 2064:S2CID 1877:S2CID 1771:S2CID 1724:S2CID 1677:S2CID 1669:JSTOR 1609:S2CID 1533:JSTOR 530:fraud 526:arson 475:theft 448:(UCR) 327:crime 274:Index 122:Crime 6707:help 6668:ISBN 6652:ISBN 6637:ISBN 6589:ISBN 6570:ISBN 6548:ISBN 6532:ISBN 6514:ISBN 6490:ISBN 6471:ISBN 6452:ISBN 6434:ISBN 6421:help 6400:2010 6370:ISBN 6355:ISBN 6337:ISBN 6316:ISBN 6300:ISBN 6288:help 6255:help 6212:2011 6201:ISSN 6174:ISBN 6152:ISBN 6136:ISBN 6118:ISBN 6102:ISBN 6080:ISBN 6060:ISBN 6038:ISBN 6022:ISBN 6003:ISBN 5978:ISBN 5963:ISBN 5945:ISBN 5929:ISBN 5911:ISBN 5898:help 5862:ISBN 5844:ISBN 5820:ISBN 5793:ISBN 5766:ISBN 5739:ISBN 5720:ISBN 5701:ISBN 5680:ISBN 5664:ISBN 5642:ISBN 5626:ISBN 5611:ISBN 5593:ISBN 5566:ISBN 5550:ISBN 5535:ISBN 5517:ISBN 5494:ISBN 5440:ISBN 5361:2014 5348:ISBN 5327:2014 4942:PMID 4924:ISSN 4823:PMID 4815:ISSN 4772:ISSN 4615:ISSN 4458:ISSN 4388:PMID 4312:PMID 4208:ISSN 4124:ISSN 4064:ISSN 4019:PMID 4001:ISSN 3920:ISSN 3877:ISSN 3823:ISBN 3796:2018 3771:2017 3641:link 3516:link 3502:2021 3385:2022 3341:2022 3310:2022 3285:2022 3241:ISBN 3210:ISBN 3086:help 3044:ISBN 3007:2020 2964:2024 2939:2021 2913:2021 2869:2022 2843:2020 2817:2020 2791:2013 2769:2013 2747:2011 2722:2022 2697:help 2672:SSRN 2591:2015 2510:2020 2481:2020 2441:ISBN 2400:ISBN 2359:ISBN 2328:OCLC 2309:2017 2283:2017 2249:PMID 2241:ISSN 2143:ISSN 2104:ISSN 2054:ISBN 2021:ISBN 1996:ISSN 1955:ISSN 1916:ISSN 1869:PMID 1861:ISSN 1826:PMID 1818:ISSN 1763:ISSN 1716:ISSN 1634:help 1590:PMID 1572:ISSN 1525:ISSN 1231:and 1214:and 1196:and 1057:and 763:The 707:The 694:The 524:and 508:and 506:rape 336:lead 325:and 323:race 36:Race 6609:doi 5840:762 5789:399 5762:713 5589:780 5241:doi 5206:doi 5171:doi 4932:PMC 4916:doi 4877:doi 4807:doi 4764:doi 4735:doi 4704:doi 4677:doi 4642:doi 4607:doi 4578:doi 4539:doi 4512:doi 4485:doi 4450:doi 4415:doi 4378:PMC 4370:doi 4339:doi 4302:PMC 4294:doi 4247:doi 4200:doi 4116:doi 4056:doi 4009:PMC 3991:doi 3979:115 3912:doi 3869:doi 3815:doi 3726:doi 3664:doi 3615:doi 3466:doi 3430:doi 3426:107 3363:FBI 3237:358 3171:doi 3130:doi 3025:FBI 2887:FBI 2433:doi 2392:doi 2351:doi 2302:CNN 2231:doi 2178:doi 2174:133 2135:doi 2131:122 2094:doi 2046:doi 1986:doi 1947:doi 1908:doi 1853:doi 1810:doi 1798:148 1755:doi 1708:doi 1661:doi 1580:PMC 1564:doi 1517:doi 1335:'s 1312:'s 1065:of 684:FBI 567:or 7012:: 6698:: 6696:}} 6692:{{ 6615:. 6605:23 6603:. 6510:50 6412:: 6410:}} 6406:{{ 6279:: 6277:}} 6273:{{ 6246:: 6244:}} 6240:{{ 6195:. 6191:. 5889:: 5887:}} 5883:{{ 5808:; 5411:^ 5346:. 5279:^ 5247:. 5237:17 5235:. 5212:. 5200:. 5177:. 5167:19 5165:. 5081:^ 5069:^ 4940:. 4930:. 4922:. 4912:28 4910:. 4906:. 4883:. 4873:18 4871:. 4867:. 4829:. 4821:. 4813:. 4803:51 4801:. 4778:. 4770:. 4760:14 4758:. 4731:75 4729:. 4725:. 4700:37 4698:. 4673:74 4671:. 4648:. 4638:46 4636:. 4613:. 4603:41 4601:. 4574:38 4572:. 4568:. 4545:. 4535:20 4533:. 4508:41 4506:. 4481:75 4479:. 4456:. 4446:41 4444:. 4421:. 4411:46 4409:. 4386:. 4376:. 4366:45 4364:. 4360:. 4335:49 4333:. 4310:. 4300:. 4290:95 4288:. 4284:. 4261:. 4253:. 4243:93 4241:. 4237:. 4214:. 4206:. 4196:60 4194:. 4190:. 4173:^ 4163:. 4148:^ 4122:. 4112:16 4110:. 4070:. 4062:. 4054:. 4042:53 4040:. 4017:. 4007:. 3999:. 3989:. 3977:. 3973:. 3961:^ 3951:. 3940:^ 3926:. 3918:. 3908:57 3906:. 3883:. 3875:. 3865:15 3863:. 3831:. 3821:. 3787:. 3762:. 3740:. 3732:. 3724:. 3712:44 3710:. 3691:. 3676:^ 3658:. 3637:}} 3633:{{ 3621:. 3611:37 3609:. 3605:. 3586:. 3542:^ 3532:. 3512:}} 3508:{{ 3462:49 3460:. 3436:. 3424:. 3420:. 3393:^ 3361:. 3357:. 3301:. 3239:. 3185:. 3177:. 3167:21 3165:. 3159:. 3136:. 3126:43 3124:. 3103:. 3077:: 3075:}} 3071:{{ 3023:. 2998:. 2980:. 2955:. 2929:. 2903:. 2885:. 2859:. 2834:. 2807:. 2738:. 2713:. 2688:: 2686:}} 2682:{{ 2626:^ 2501:. 2472:. 2449:. 2439:. 2408:. 2398:. 2367:. 2357:. 2326:. 2300:. 2269:. 2247:. 2239:. 2229:. 2215:. 2211:. 2198:^ 2184:. 2172:. 2149:. 2141:. 2129:. 2125:. 2102:. 2088:. 2084:. 2062:, 2052:, 1994:. 1980:. 1976:. 1953:. 1943:74 1941:. 1937:. 1914:. 1904:64 1902:. 1898:. 1875:. 1867:. 1859:. 1849:51 1847:. 1824:. 1816:. 1808:. 1796:. 1792:. 1769:. 1761:. 1751:81 1749:. 1745:. 1722:. 1714:. 1704:24 1702:. 1698:. 1675:. 1667:. 1657:93 1655:. 1651:. 1625:: 1623:}} 1619:{{ 1588:. 1578:. 1570:. 1560:93 1558:. 1554:. 1531:. 1523:. 1513:65 1511:. 1507:. 1112:, 1053:, 771:, 563:, 540:, 532:, 520:, 516:, 416:. 396:. 388:, 384:, 371:. 359:, 355:, 128:, 6769:e 6762:t 6755:v 6709:) 6705:( 6676:. 6658:. 6643:. 6623:. 6611:: 6595:. 6576:. 6556:. 6538:. 6522:. 6496:. 6477:. 6458:. 6442:. 6423:) 6419:( 6402:. 6376:. 6361:. 6345:. 6324:. 6306:. 6290:) 6286:( 6257:) 6253:( 6214:. 6197:1 6180:. 6160:. 6142:. 6126:. 6108:. 6088:. 6066:. 6046:. 6028:. 6009:. 5984:. 5969:. 5953:. 5935:. 5919:. 5900:) 5896:( 5868:. 5852:. 5826:. 5801:. 5774:. 5747:. 5728:. 5709:. 5688:. 5670:. 5650:. 5632:. 5617:. 5601:. 5574:. 5556:. 5541:. 5525:. 5500:. 5363:. 5329:. 5255:. 5243:: 5220:. 5208:: 5202:8 5185:. 5173:: 4948:. 4918:: 4891:. 4879:: 4852:. 4837:. 4809:: 4786:. 4766:: 4743:. 4737:: 4710:. 4706:: 4683:. 4679:: 4656:. 4644:: 4621:. 4609:: 4586:. 4580:: 4553:. 4541:: 4518:. 4514:: 4491:. 4487:: 4464:. 4452:: 4429:. 4417:: 4394:. 4372:: 4345:. 4341:: 4318:. 4296:: 4269:. 4249:: 4222:. 4202:: 4167:. 4130:. 4118:: 4078:. 4058:: 4025:. 3993:: 3985:: 3934:. 3914:: 3891:. 3871:: 3839:. 3817:: 3798:. 3773:. 3748:. 3728:: 3695:. 3670:. 3666:: 3660:8 3643:) 3629:. 3617:: 3536:. 3518:) 3504:. 3472:. 3468:: 3444:. 3432:: 3387:. 3365:. 3343:. 3312:. 3287:. 3249:. 3218:. 3193:. 3173:: 3144:. 3132:: 3107:. 3088:) 3084:( 3052:. 3027:. 3009:. 2966:. 2941:. 2915:. 2889:. 2871:. 2845:. 2819:. 2793:. 2771:. 2749:. 2724:. 2699:) 2695:( 2678:. 2593:. 2512:. 2483:. 2457:. 2435:: 2416:. 2394:: 2375:. 2353:: 2334:. 2311:. 2285:. 2255:. 2233:: 2223:: 2217:4 2192:. 2180:: 2157:. 2137:: 2110:. 2096:: 2090:4 2048:: 2029:. 2002:. 1988:: 1982:4 1961:. 1949:: 1922:. 1910:: 1883:. 1855:: 1832:. 1812:: 1804:: 1777:. 1757:: 1730:. 1710:: 1683:. 1663:: 1636:) 1632:( 1615:. 1596:. 1566:: 1539:. 1519:: 536:/ 306:e 299:t 292:v 162:) 158:( 147:) 143:( 132:) 124:( 92:) 88:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.