274:
the colonies, were specifically sought after and recruited at a much higher rate than men due to the high population of men already in the colonies. However, women had to prove their status as single and eligible to emigrate, as married women could not leave without their husbands. Many women seeking escape from abusive relationships were willing to take that chance. The Indian
Immigration Act of 1883 prevented women from exiting India as widowed or single in order to escape. Arrival in the colonies brought unexpected conditions of poverty, homelessness, and little to no food as the high numbers of emigrants overwhelmed the small villages and flooded the labor market. Many were forced into signing labor contracts that exposed them to the hard field labor on the plantation. Additionally, on arrival to the plantation, single women were 'assigned' a man as they were not allowed to live alone. The subtle difference between slavery and indenture-ship is best seen here as women were still subjected to the control of the plantation owners as well as their newly assigned 'partner'.
214:, a servant uprising against the government of Colonial Virginia. This was due to multiple factors, such as the treatment of servants, support of native tribes in the surrounding area, a refusal to expand the amount of land an indentured servant could work by the colonial government, and inequality between the upper and lower class in colonial society. Indentured servitude was the primary source of labor for early American colonists until the rebellion. Little changed in the immediate aftermath of Bacon's Rebellion; however, the rebellion did cause a general distrust of servant labor and fear of future rebellion. The fear of indentured servitude eventually cemented itself into the hearts of Americans, leading towards the reliance on enslaved Africans. This helped to ingrain the idea of racial segregation and unite white Americans under race rather than economic or social class. Doing so prevented the potential for future rebellion and changed the way that agriculture was approached.
114:. It was often a way for Europeans to migrate to the American colonies: they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. However, the system was also used to exploit many of them, as well as Asians (mostly from India and China) who wanted to migrate to the New World. These Asian people were used mainly to construct roads and railway systems. After their indenture expired, the immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer. At least one economist has suggested that "indentured servitude was an economic arrangement designed to iron out imperfections in the capital market". In some cases, the indenture was made with a ship's master, who sold the indenture to an employer in the colonies. Most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen.
137:. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured. About 75% of these were under the age of 25. The age of adulthood for men was 24 years (not 21); those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about three years. Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America."
91:, an indenture could be sold. Most masters had to depend on middlemen or ships' masters to recruit and transport the workers, so indentureships were commonly sold by such men to planters or others upon the ships' arrival. Like slaves, their price went up or down, depending on supply and demand. When the indenture (loan) was paid off, the worker was free but not always in good health or of sound body. Sometimes they might be given a plot of land or a small sum to buy it, but the land was usually poor.
286:
enslaved
Africans - and for a period, free Africans - were not allowed to use the court system in any manner, even to act as a witness, Barbados would allow "white servants" to go to court if they felt that they had received poor treatment. Additionally, children of African descent were offered no supplementary protection, while children of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh extraction who were sent to Barbados as indentured servants could not work without a parent's consent.
207:'s population shows that the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17% to 6.4% over the course of the war. William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating that "the Revolution...wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting". David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that the numbers of British indentured servants never recovered, and that Europeans of other nationalities replaced them.
195:
Cases of successful prosecution for these crimes were very uncommon, as indentured servants were unlikely to have access to a magistrate, and social pressure to avoid such brutality could vary by geography and cultural norm. The situation was particularly difficult for indentured women, because in both low social class and gender, they were believed to be particularly prone to vice, making legal redress unusual.
252:
292:
As well, during periods of mass indentured servitude of Irish peoples in the
Caribbean, certain Irish individuals would use enslaved labour to profit financially and climb the ladder of social class. Historians Kristen Block and Jenny Shaw write that: "the Irish - by virtue of their European heritage
273:
In 1838, with the abolition of slavery at its onset, the
British were in the process of transporting a million Indians out of India and into the Caribbean to take the place of the recently freed Africans (freed in 1833) in indentureship. Women, looking for what they believed would be a better life in
194:
without the permission of their master, were frequently subject to physical punishment and did not receive legal favor from the courts. Female indentured servants in particular might be raped and/or sexually abused by their masters. If children were produced the labour would be extended by two years.
152:
pointed out that "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in the eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the
European colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to
594:
It remains unknown how many
Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped. Whether the system legally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship to Queensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from the period
277:
Indentured servitude of Irish and other
European peoples occurred in seventeenth-century Barbados, and was fundamentally different from enslavement: an enslaved African's body was owned, as were the bodies of their children, while the labour of indentured servants was under contractual ownership of
285:
The
British ruling class anxieties over Irish loyalties would lead to harsh policing of Irish servants' movements, for instance, needing "reason" to leave the plantations from which they were employed. Similarly, the laws regarding slavery would prevent enslaved Africans from doing the same. While
242:
Most labor contracts made were in increments of five years, with the opportunity to extend another five years. Many contracts also provided free passage home after the dictated labor was completed. However, there were generally no policies regulating employers once the labor hours were completed,
221:
regulated travel conditions aboard ships to make transportation more expensive, so as to hinder landlords' tenants seeking a better life. An
American law passed in 1833 abolished the imprisonment of debtors, which made prosecuting runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture
132:
were indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired, and thus free wage labor was the more prevalent for
Europeans in the colonies. Indentured people were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia
238:
Through its introduction, the details regarding indentured labor varied across import and export regions and most overseas contracts were made before the voyage with the understanding that prospective migrants were competent enough to make overseas contracts on their own account and that they
644:
are descendants of Indian indentured labourers brought in between 1834 and 1921. Initially brought to work the sugar estates following the abolition of slavery in the British Empire an estimated half a million indentured laborers were present on the island during this period.
463:
The Indian indenture system was finally banned in 1917. Although the system was officially suspended, those who were serving indentures at that time were required to complete their terms of service, thereby extending the system into the early 1920s. According to
84:(this was often for a fixed length of time, usually seven years or less). Apprenticeship was not the same as indentureship, although many apprentices were tricked into falling into debt and thus having to indenture themselves for years more to pay off such sums.
31:
427:. All these efforts failed to satisfy the labour needs of the colonies due to high mortality of the new arrivals and their reluctance to continue working at the end of their indenture. On 16 November 1844, the British Indian Government legalised emigration to
202:
severely limited immigration to the United States, but economic historians dispute its long-term impact. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long-term labor contracts unattractive. Her analysis of
293:- gained greater social and economic mobility." An example is a former indentured servant in Barbados, Cornelius Bryan, would go on to own land and enslaved people himself, demonstrating the tiers between servant and slave classes.
1074:
681:
in 1948) declares in Article 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms". More specifically, it is dealt with by article 1(a) of the United Nations 1956
529:, in need of laborers, encouraged a trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.
281:
Barbados is an example of a colony in which the separation between enslaved Africans and "servants" was codified into law. Distinct legal "acts" were created in 1661 treating each party as a separate group.
2523:
Torabully, Khal, Voices from the Aapravasi Ghat – Indentured imaginaries, poetry collection on the coolie route and the fakir's aesthetics, Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund, AGTF, Mauritius, November 2, 2013.
629:, as farm labor, and as miners. They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not without engendering resentment from others.
153:
deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits ." One "spirit" named William Thiene was known to have spirited away 840 people from Britain to the colonies in a single year. Historian
160:
Also, during the 18th and early 19th centuries, children from the UK were often kidnapped and sold into indentured labor in the American and Caribbean colonies (often without any indentures).
690:
1727:
assuming the Government, it was ordered, that all persons should, for every 100 acres of land granted to them, take and keep one convict until the expiration or remission of his sentence.
2563:
Donoghue, John (October 2013). "Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic: A Brief Survey of the Literature: Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic".
886:
Donoghue, John (October 2013). "Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic: A Brief Survey of the Literature: Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic".
223:
1771:
was the simultaneous employment of various forms of labour. The original nucleus of the workforce consisted of indentured servants brought out from Europe on seven-year contracts.
460:
This system of labour was coined by contemporaries at the time as a "new system of slavery", a term later used by historian Hugh Tinker in his influential book of the same name.
278:
another person. Laws and racial hierarchy would allow for the "indentured" and "slaves" to be treated differently, as well as their identities to be defined differently.
683:
2626:
625:, required vast quantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Indentured Indians from India were imported, for such projects as the
377:
and declare that he was going voluntarily. The contract was for five years with pay of ₹8 (12¢ US) per month and rations provided labourers had been transported from
348:
2213:
Grubb, Farley (Spring 1994). "The Disappearance of Organized Markets for European Immigrant Servants in the United States: Five Popular Explanations Reexamined".
1652:
289:
Such differences in social classes would ensure that alliances between the two groups would not lead to revolts towards plantation owners and managers.
2631:
2184:
Grubb, Farley (Dec 1985). "The Market for Indentured Immigrants: Evidence on the Efficiency of Forward-Labor Contracting in Philadelphia, 1745–1773".
1616:
1908:
2481:
No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions – Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630–1769
862:... vast majority accept the view that indentured servitude was an economic arrangement designed to iron out imperfections in the capital market.
100:
117:
The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out and returned to their employer.
2242:
Grubb, Farley (Dec 1994). "The End of European Immigrant Servitude in the United States: An Economic Analysis of Market Collapse, 1772–1835".
2344:
2052:
1997:
674:
270:
A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean) before 1840.
689:
However, only national legislation can establish the unlawfulness of indentured labor in a specific jurisdiction. In the United States, the
743:
1158:
Salinger, Sharon V. (1981). "Colonial Labor in Transition: The Decline of Indentured Servitude in Late Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia".
599:
passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to the first 10–15 years of the trade.
2460:
1313:
2362:
Tomlins, Christopher (2001). "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775".
913:
Tomlins, Christopher (2001). "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775".
2542:
2518:
1750:
1442:
1417:
1240:
1120:
990:
606:
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as workers. But the locals refused, and as a result, the British introduced the Indian indenture system, resulting in a permanent
2273:"Contesting 'White Slavery' in the Caribbean: Enslaved Africans and European Indentured Servants in Seventeenth-Century Barbados"
393:, transportation of Indian labour to the island gained pace. By 1838, 25,000 Indian labourers had been transported to Mauritius.
1768:
1764:
818:
678:
634:
145:
2399:
1912:
1848:
581:
504:
2596:
816:(March 1995). "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions".
217:
The American and British governments passed several laws that helped foster the decline of indentures. The UK Parliament's
2611:
2484:
500:
471:
457:
stopped in 1848 due to problems in the sugar industry and resumed in Demerara and Trinidad in 1851 and Jamaica in 1860.
2314:
Hogan, Liam; McAtackney, Laura; Reilly, Matthew (March 2016). "The Irish in the Anglo-Caribbean: Servants or Slaves?".
1473:
Hogan, Liam; McAtackney, Laura; Reilly, Matthew (March 2016). "The Irish in the Anglo-Caribbean: Servants or Slaves?".
1371:
Main Currents in Caribbean Thought: The Historical Evolution of Caribbean Society in Its Ideological Aspects, 1492–1900
495:
before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of indentured labor. Indentured servants also emigrated to
753:
2590:
2134:
Galenson, David W. (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis".
1531:"Barbados Side-by-Side Transcription - Slavery Law & Power in Early America and the British Empire". 2022-02-08.
605:
deported many of these Islanders back to their places of origin in the period 1906–1908 under the provisions of the
1144:
532:
Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar-cane fields of
324:
260:
218:
35:
783:
373:
laid down terms for the introduction of Indian labourers to the colony. Each man was required to appear before a
172:
2440:
White Servitude In The Colony Of Virginia: A Study Of The System Of Indentured Labor In The American Colonies
2621:
1739:
Perkins, John (1987), "Convict Labour and the Australian Agricultural Company", in Nicholas, Stephen (ed.),
788:
302:
1328:
827:
34:
An indenture signed by Henry Mayer, with an "X", in 1738. This contract bound Mayer to Abraham Hestant of
1916:
2616:
2014:
Block, Kristen; Shaw, Jenny (2011). "Subjects without Empire: The Irish in the Early Modern Caribbean".
748:
492:
191:
46:
1059:
763:
378:
359:
264:
211:
157:
notes that "Masters given to flogging often did not care whether their victims were black or white."
832:
618:
537:
475:
453:
for British Guiana on 13 January 1838, and arrived in Berbice on 5 May 1838. Transportation to the
199:
180:
176:
1712:
2427:
2419:
2379:
2337:
Everyday Life in the Early English Caribbean: Irish, Africans, and the Construction of Difference
2302:
2294:
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2086:
2031:
1890:
1830:
1198:
1138:
1094:
1006:
930:
853:
845:
773:
227:
184:
154:
149:
2163:
Grubb, Farley (July 1985). "The Incidence of Servitude in Trans-Atlantic Migration, 1771–1804".
1306:
Language Contact in Africa and the African Diaspora in the Americas: In honor of John V. Singler
536:, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000
2538:
2514:
2350:
2340:
2048:
1993:
1784:
Colonia Servitude: Indentured and Assigned Servants of the Van Diemen's Land Company 1825–1841
1746:
1438:
1413:
1309:
1236:
1126:
1116:
1042:
1026:
986:
727:
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428:
420:
382:
129:
121:
2450:
Goodwives, Nasty Wenches & Anxious Patriachs: gender, race and power in Colonial Virginia
1010:
980:
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2143:
2114:
2078:
2023:
1882:
1822:
1482:
1167:
1086:
1075:"'Horrid' and 'infamous' practices: the kidnapping and stripping of children, c.1730–c.1840"
922:
895:
837:
588:
259:
In 1643, the European population of Barbados was 37,200 (86% of the population). During the
1745:, Studies in Australian History, Cambridge University Press (published 1988), p. 168,
661:
to serve as a major reception centre for indentured Indians from India who came to work on
503:
used skilled indentured labor for periods of seven years or less. A similar scheme for the
389:, in 1829, ended in failure, but by 1834, with abolition of slavery throughout most of the
2099:
2063:
1983:
1724:
707:
565:
545:
496:
444:
355:
328:
168:
164:
111:
1706:
1681:
813:
758:
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646:
626:
596:
573:
390:
344:
73:
62:
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2176:
2155:
2090:
2007:
1657:
1383:
1098:
934:
857:
732:
519:
466:
2431:
2400:"Migration and Human Capital: Self-Selection of Indentured Servants to the Americas"
2205:
2126:
1959:
958:
The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution
30:
1987:
1938:
768:
717:
487:
366:
204:
17:
2533:
Whitehead, John Frederick, Johann Carl Buttner, Susan E. Klepp, and Farley Grubb.
1852:
1186:
2443:
1740:
2501:
Freedom Bound: Law, Labor, and Civic Identity in English Colonization, 1580–1865
1113:
Race, gender, and power in America : the legacy of the Hill-Thomas hearings
793:
622:
401:
397:
1115:. Hill, Anita., Jordan, Emma Coleman. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995.
2415:
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2272:
2255:
2197:
2147:
2082:
1171:
841:
662:
650:
557:
533:
374:
370:
332:
327:
in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large
141:
134:
2354:
323:
powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from
2528:
Indentured Migration and the Servant Trade from London to America, 1618–1718
1130:
737:
641:
602:
553:
541:
511:
454:
386:
336:
316:
125:
77:
54:
2491:
To serve well and faithfully: Labor and Indentured Servants in Pennsylvania
2375:
2027:
926:
307:
The Indian indenture system was a system of indenture by which two million
2100:"The Market Evaluation of Human Capital: The Case of Indentured Servitude"
251:
163:
Indentured servitude was also used by governments in Britain for captured
1873:
Patel, Hasu H. (1972). "General Amin and the Indian Exodus from Uganda".
1682:"Indian Indentured Labor and the History of International Rights Regimes"
630:
569:
436:
432:
171:
sent into indentured service thousands of prisoners captured in the 1648
2298:
2035:
1233:
The Divided Dominion:Social Conflict and Indian Hatred in Early Virginia
1202:
1090:
2576:
2423:
2327:
2234:
1894:
1834:
1810:
1708:
An account of the state of agriculture & grazing in New South Wales
1636:
A New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas 1830–1920
1486:
899:
849:
778:
694:
549:
450:
424:
412:
408:
66:
2550:
Labor of Innocents: Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715–1919
2535:
Souls for Sale: Two German Redemptioners Come to Revolutionary America
2045:
General History of the Caribbean: The slave societies of the Caribbean
969:"trepan | trapan, n.2". OED Online. June 2017. Oxford University Press
478:
and declining profitability, rather than from humanitarian concerns."
230:, made involuntary indentured servitude illegal in the United States.
2064:"White Servitude and the Growth of Black Slavery in Colonial America"
1617:"Indentured labour from South Asia (1834-1917) | Striking Women"
712:
654:
577:
526:
440:
363:
320:
312:
57:", may be entered voluntarily for purported eventual compensation or
50:
2474:
American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia.
2226:
1886:
1826:
2118:
2010:". Slavery Law & Power in Early America and the British Empire.
187:
in 1685, and use of such measures continued into the 18th century.
561:
523:
416:
404:
308:
250:
81:
29:
144:
for transportation to the Americas are recorded, such as that of
1187:"The Effects of the American Revolution on Indentured Servitude"
515:
340:
110:
Until the late 18th century, indentured servitude was common in
88:
58:
65:. The practice has been compared to the similar institution of
1356:
Michael D. Bordo, Alan M. Taylor, Jeffrey G. Williamson, eds.
120:
Between one-half and two-thirds of European immigrants to the
2467:
Laboring and Dependent Classes in Colonial America, 1607–1783
474:
finally ended indenture...it did so because of pressure from
128:. However, while almost half the European immigrants to the
2047:. Vol. 3 (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 108.
1437:. United States: University of Chicago Press. p. 123.
263:, at least 10,000 Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were
1575:
1573:
1031:. Great Britain. Public Record Office. 1893. p. 521.
507:
area of Western Australia existed between 1829 and 1832.
124:
between the 1630s and the American Revolution came under
53:
for a specific number of years. The contract, called an "
1047:. Great Britain. Public Record Office. 1893. p. 36.
2537:, Max Kade German-American Research Institute Series,
224:
Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
2511:
Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora
1653:"The legacy of Indian migration to European colonies"
1515:
1513:
1500:
1498:
1496:
684:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
385:. The first attempt at importing Indian labour into
362:
presence. On 18 January 1826, the Government of the
1742:
The Convict Workers: Reinterpeting Australia's Past
1384:"12 Feb 1883 – THE INDIAN IMMIGRATION ACT. – Trove"
354:The British wanted local black Africans to work in
1308:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 178.
1235:. University Press of Colorado. pp. 149–176.
691:Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act
2043:Higman, B. W. (1997). Knight, Franklin W. (ed.).
617:A significant number of construction projects in
2595:Voices from the Aapravasi Ghat, Khal TOrabully,
239:preferred to have a contract before the voyage.
76:, an apprentice worked with no pay for a master
49:in which a person is contracted to work without
2530:. Oxford Oxford University Press, February 2017
2271:Handler, Jerome S.; Reilly, Matthew C. (2017).
493:Convicts transported to the Australian colonies
38:, who had paid for Mayer to travel from Europe.
2591:GUIANA 1838 – a film about indentured laborers
1552:
1540:
1457:
210:Indentured servitude began its decline after
8:
1989:Coolie Woman : The Odyssey of Indenture
1412:. United States: Chicago Press. p. 22.
693:(VTVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover
1960:"US Peonage and involuntary servitude laws"
637:in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo-Africans.
331:, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e.
2597:Potomitan - Voices from the Aapravasi Ghat
2503:(2010); influential recent interpretation
2627:Colonization history of the United States
2398:Abramitzky, Ran; Braggion, Fabio (2006).
2288:
1797:Eager for Labour:The Swan River Indenture
1579:
1044:Calendar of State Papers: Colonial series
1028:Calendar of State Papers: Colonial series
831:
61:repayment, or imposed involuntarily as a
1369:Gordon K. Lewis and Anthony P. Maingot,
1215:
873:
267:as indentured laborers to the colonies.
1939:"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
1358:Globalization in historical perspective
1101:– via Cambridge University Press.
805:
101:Indentured servitude in British America
1647:
1645:
1435:Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture
1410:Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture
1344:
1267:Riggs, Thomas (2015) Bacon's Rebellion
1226:
1224:
1136:
1058:Russell, Judy G. (February 21, 2014).
580:). They became collectively known as "
2509:Torabully, Khal, and Marina Carter,
2483:(LIT, 2013): 515–535, 577f., 635–689.
1851:. Foundingdocs.gov.au. Archived from
1468:
1466:
1284:
1282:
1263:
1261:
675:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
635:expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda
243:which led to frequent ill-treatment.
7:
1603:
1591:
1564:
1519:
1504:
1390:. Trove.nla.gov.au. 12 February 1883
744:Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania
665:following the abolition of slavery.
2452:, U. of North Carolina Press, 1996.
2008:Barbados Side-by-Side Transcription
1786:Monach Publications in History 1989
1680:Sturman, Rachel (1 December 2014).
27:Consensual or punitive unpaid labor
2457:America at 1750: A Social Portrait
1809:Hawthorne, Harry (13 March 1946).
1073:Kelly, James (November 10, 2018).
982:America at 1750: A Social Portrait
947:Tomlins (2001) at notes 31, 42, 66
697:as well as Involuntary Servitude.
640:The majority of the population of
69:, although there are differences.
25:
2062:Galenson, David W. (March 1981).
1811:"Indentured labour in New Guinea"
1291:Indentured Labor, Caribbean Sugar
1015:. Ebony Magazine. pp. 31–40.
607:Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901
255:Indian woman in traditional dress
2632:Colonial United States (British)
2165:Explorations in Economic History
2098:Galenson, David W. (June 1981).
1304:Cutler, Cecilia (12 July 2017).
1255:McCurdy, J. G. Bacon's rebellion
400:sugar colonies tried the use of
297:Colonial Indian indenture system
2404:The Journal of Economic History
2339:. University of Georgia Press.
2244:The Journal of Economic History
2186:The Journal of Economic History
2136:The Journal of Economic History
2071:The Journal of Economic History
1765:Australian Agricultural Company
1333:Slavery and Economy in Barbados
1276:Stevenson, K. Bacon's Rebellion
985:. Knopf Doubleday. p. 36.
819:The Journal of Economic History
679:United Nations General Assembly
540:. The workers came mainly from
1913:Government Portal of Mauritius
1815:Institute of Pacific Relations
396:After the end of slavery, the
167:in rebellions and civil wars.
1:
1992:. The University of Chicago.
1638:. London: Oxford Univ. Press.
587:Indentured labour existed in
510:During the 1860s planters in
2513:Anthem Press, London, 2002,
2177:10.1016/0014-4983(85)90016-6
2107:Journal of Political Economy
1711:. London: J. Cross. p.
343:), as well as the growth of
226:, passed in the wake of the
1875:Issue: A Journal of Opinion
979:Richard Hofstadter (1971).
754:List of indentured servants
552:– with a small number from
2648:
1012:White Servitude in America
485:
472:Indian Legislative Council
300:
261:Wars of the Three Kingdoms
219:Passenger Vessels Act 1803
183:acted similarly after the
98:
36:Bucks County, Pennsylvania
2416:10.1017/S0022050706000362
2290:10.1163/22134360-09101056
2256:10.1017/s0022050700015497
2198:10.1017/s0022050700035130
2148:10.1017/s002205070003134x
2083:10.1017/s0022050700042728
1553:Handler & Reilly 2017
1541:Handler & Reilly 2017
1458:Handler & Reilly 2017
1433:Bahadur, Gaiutra (2014).
1408:Bahadur, Gaiutra (2014).
1388:South Australian Register
1172:10.1080/00236568108584612
842:10.1017/S0022050700040602
784:Irish indentured servants
501:Van Diemen's Land Company
339:) to Pacific Ocean (i.e.
2465:Jernegan, Marcus Wilson
1705:Atkinson, James (1826).
1185:Miller, William (1940).
1079:Irish Historical Studies
595:often conflict with the
222:contract purchases. The
2459:(Knopf, 1971) pp 33–65
2444:excerpt and text search
2438:Ballagh, James Curtis.
1849:"Documenting Democracy"
1782:p.15 Duxbury, Jennifer
1231:Schmidt, Ethan (2015).
1060:"The transported child"
789:United States labor law
576:(subsequently known as
568:(subsequently known as
319:to various colonies of
303:Indian indenture system
148:(1730–1799). Historian
2499:Tomlins, Christopher.
2376:10.1080/00236560123269
2215:Social Science History
1621:www.striking-women.org
1143:: CS1 maint: others (
927:10.1080/00236560123269
256:
39:
2455:Hofstadter, Richard.
2277:New West Indian Guide
1634:Tinker, Hugh (1974).
1580:Block & Shaw 2011
749:Involuntary servitude
254:
140:Several instances of
33:
2612:Indentured servitude
2489:Salinger, Sharon V.
2335:Shaw, Jenny (2013).
2028:10.1093/pastj/gtq059
1799:Hesperian Press 2003
1191:Pennsylvania History
764:Penal transportation
657:site, was the first
360:Indian South African
190:Indentured servants
72:Historically, in an
43:Indentured servitude
1855:on October 26, 2009
1821:(5). JStor: 74–78.
1091:10.1017/ihs.2018.33
1007:Bennett Jr., Lerone
619:British East Africa
538:South Sea Islanders
476:Indian nationalists
443:). The first ship,
200:American Revolution
177:Battle of Worcester
63:judicial punishment
18:Indentured servants
2577:10.1111/hic3.12088
2472:Morgan, Edmund S.
2328:10.17613/M61Z41S48
2016:Past & Present
1919:on 16 October 2016
1661:. 2 September 2017
1487:10.17613/M61Z41S48
900:10.1111/hic3.12088
774:Scottish poorhouse
544:– mainly from the
325:the end of slavery
257:
228:American Civil War
185:Monmouth Rebellion
155:Lerone Bennett Jr.
150:Richard Hofstadter
40:
2448:Brown, Kathleen.
2346:978-0-8203-4634-2
2054:978-0-333-65605-1
1999:978-0-226-21138-1
1763:A feature of the
1293:. pp. 50–70.
1009:(November 1969).
728:Human trafficking
723:English Poor Laws
212:Bacon's Rebellion
173:Battle of Preston
130:Thirteen Colonies
122:American Colonies
16:(Redirected from
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2003:
1984:Bahadur, Gaiutra
1971:
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1968:
1967:
1956:
1950:
1949:
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1941:. United Nations
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1085:(162): 265–292.
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835:
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677:(adopted by the
649:, in the bay at
589:Papua New Guinea
407:, families from
165:prisoners of war
146:Peter Williamson
21:
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2641:
2640:
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2637:
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2602:
2601:
2587:
2571:(10): 893–902.
2565:History Compass
2562:
2559:
2548:Zipf, Karin L.
2526:Wareing, John.
2479:Nagl, Dominik.
2476:(Norton, 1975).
2397:
2394:
2392:Further reading
2361:
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2316:History Ireland
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1373:(2004) pp 96–97
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894:(10): 893–902.
888:History Compass
885:
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833:10.1.1.482.4975
814:Whaples, Robert
812:
811:
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708:Bracero program
703:
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615:
566:Gilbert Islands
546:Solomon Islands
497:New South Wales
490:
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329:Indian diaspora
305:
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249:
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192:could not marry
169:Oliver Cromwell
112:British America
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2557:Historiography
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2410:(4): 882–905.
2393:
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2283:(1/2): 30–55.
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2119:10.1086/260980
2113:(3): 446–467.
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2022:(210): 33–60.
2011:
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1594:, p. 157.
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647:Aapravasi Ghat
627:Uganda Railway
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597:oral tradition
574:Ellice Islands
560:areas such as
486:Main article:
483:
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449:, sailed from
391:British Empire
345:Indo-Caribbean
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2171:(3): 316–39.
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1582:, p. 60.
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1554:
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1542:
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1242:9781607323082
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1218:, p. 13.
1217:
1216:Galenson 1984
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718:Debt Bondage
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488:Blackbirding
470:, "When the
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351:population.
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956:Gary Nash,
921:(1): 5–43.
794:Unpaid work
663:plantations
558:Micronesian
402:emancipated
398:West Indian
379:Pondicherry
317:transported
265:transported
80:to learn a
2606:Categories
1977:References
1966:2011-10-14
1945:2011-10-14
1923:22 January
1859:2009-07-04
1758:2012-11-14
1718:2012-11-14
1691:2024-02-09
1394:2022-03-18
1329:Population
740:(document)
653:and now a
651:Port Louis
572:) and the
554:Polynesian
534:Queensland
522:, and the
505:Swan River
421:Portuguese
375:magistrate
369:island of
142:kidnapping
135:New Jersey
126:indentures
2384:153628561
2355:864551346
2307:164512540
2264:153945665
2156:154682898
2091:154760626
1909:"History"
1604:Shaw 2013
1592:Shaw 2013
1565:Shaw 2013
1520:Shaw 2013
1505:Shaw 2013
1139:cite book
1099:159797724
935:153628561
858:145691938
828:CiteSeerX
738:Indenture
642:Mauritius
603:Australia
542:Melanesia
512:Australia
455:Caribbean
387:Mauritius
337:Mauritius
247:Caribbean
234:Contracts
133:north to
87:Like any
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1986:(2014).
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631:Idi Amin
570:Kiribati
451:Calcutta
437:Demerara
433:Trinidad
383:Karaikal
321:European
2552:(2005).
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1895:1166488
1835:3022147
1723:On Sir
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779:Slavery
695:peonage
582:Kanakas
550:Vanuatu
527:Islands
482:Oceania
429:Jamaica
425:Madeira
413:Germany
409:Ireland
371:Réunion
333:Réunion
313:coolies
311:called
309:Indians
67:slavery
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2495:(2000)
2485:online
2469:(1931)
2461:online
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655:UNESCO
613:Africa
578:Tuvalu
564:, the
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446:Whitby
441:Guyana
405:slaves
364:French
51:salary
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2420:JSTOR
2380:S2CID
2303:S2CID
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2202:S2CID
2152:S2CID
2123:S2CID
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801:Notes
562:Samoa
524:Samoa
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417:Malta
356:Natal
315:were
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2539:ISBN
2515:ISBN
2351:OCLC
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1994:ISBN
1925:2015
1747:ISBN
1667:2017
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1237:ISBN
1145:link
1127:OCLC
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987:ISBN
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556:and
548:and
516:Fiji
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