India's three-stage nuclear power programme

873:

access to latest technologies, access to higher unit output reactors which are more economical, access to global finance for building reactors, ability to export its indigenous small reactor size PHWRs, better information flow for its research community, etc. Finally, the deal also gives India two options that are relatively independent from the three-stage programme, at least in terms of their dependencies on success or failure. The first option is that, India can opt to stay with the first stage reactors as long as the global supply of uranium lasts. The plus side of this is that it covers any risk from short term delays or failures in implementing the three-stage programme. On the negative side, this is an option that is antithetical to the underlying objective of energy independence through the exploitation of thorium.

945:, went to the extent of making public, the milder position of keeping the country's indigenous fast breeder programme out of the ambit of international safeguards, saying "in the long run, the energy that will come out from the nuclear fuel resources available in India (from domestic uranium and thorium mines) should always form the larger share of the nuclear energy programme..." and "our strategy should be such that the integrity and autonomy of our being able to develop the three-stage nuclear power programme, be maintained, we cannot compromise that." The full demand of the Indian scientists, to have the ability to reprocess plutonium from spent fuel of the imported reactors (goes beyond the defensive position of Kakodkar), appears to have been met in the final deal. 898: 804:

early 1990s. One study done for U.S. Congress in that time period reaches the conclusion, "India’s current fuel situation means that New Delhi cannot produce sufficient fuel for both its nuclear weapons programme and its projected civil nuclear programme." An independent study arrives at roughly the same conclusion, "India’s current uranium production of less than 300 tons/year can meet at most, two-thirds of its needs for civil and military nuclear fuel." This uranium shortfall during the deal negotiations was understood by both players to be a temporary aberration that was poised to be resolved with requisite investments in India's uranium milling infrastructure.

817:(DAE) estimated that India could reach 70 GW by 2032 and 275 GW by 2052. In such a scenario, the third stage could be made operational following the fast breeder implementation, and nuclear power capacity could grow to 530 GW. The estimated stagnation of the nuclear power at about 21GW by 2020 is likely due to the fact that even the short "doubling time" of the breeder reactors is quite slow, on the order of 10–15 years. Implementing the three-stage programme using the domestic uranium resources alone is feasible, but requires several decades to come to fruition. Imports of fissile material from outside would considerably speed up the programme. 923:

increase the success potential of its three-stage programme as well as its efforts to build a "minimum credible nuclear deterrent". It was estimated that the power produced by imported reactors could be 50% more expensive than the country's existing nuclear power cost. However, this was perceived as a minor point in the larger context of the deal. In a U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing, Under Secretary for Political Affairs Nicholas Burns' prepared remarks stated that "India had made this the central issue in the new partnership developing between our countries". Indian government proceeded to negotiate and execute the

171:

thorium rather than uranium… The first generation of atomic power stations based on natural uranium can only be used to start off an atomic power programme… The plutonium produced by the first generation power stations can be used in a second generation of power stations designed to produce electric power and convert thorium into U-233, or depleted uranium into more plutonium with breeding gain… The second generation of power stations may be regarded as an intermediate step for the breeder power stations of the third generation all of which would produce more U-233 than they burn in the course of producing power.

965: 591:

Bhabha's plan, because building up a sufficiently large fissile stock is essential to the large deployment of the third stage. In Bhabha's 1958 papers on role of thorium, he pictured a doubling time of 5–6 years for breeding U-233 in the Th–U233 cycle. This estimate has now been revised to 70 years due to technical difficulties that were unforeseen at the time. Despite such setbacks, according to publications done by DAE scientists, the doubling time of fissile material in the

755:(LEU) and 80% thorium. The low enriched uranium (LEU) for this AHWR design is readily available on the world market. As of November 2011, construction will start after the site is identified in 6 months time. It will take another 18 months to get clearances on regulatory and environmental grounds. Construction is estimated to take six years. If everything goes according to plan, AHWR could be operational in India by 2020. In Aug 2017 the AHWR location was still not announced. 869:

objective, it becomes necessary to look at alternative approaches for obtaining the fissile material. This conclusion is mostly independent of future technical breakthroughs, and complementary to the eventual implementation of the three-stage approach. It was realised that the best way to get access to the requisite fissile material would be through uranium imports, which was not possible without ending India's nuclear isolation by U.S. and the NSG.

785: 547:, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and natural uranium. In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238 present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239. Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to "breed" more fuel than they consume. Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor and transmuted to 349: 676: 1261:

The possible nuclear power capacity beyond the year 2020 has been estimated by DAE is shown in the table. The 63 GW expected by 2032 will be achieved by setting up 16 indigenous Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR), of which ten is to be based on reprocessed uranium. Out of the 63 GW, about 40 GW will be generated through the imported Light Water Reactors (LWR), made possible after the NSG waiver.

1358: 698:, which in principle can be refueled – after its initial fuel charge – using only naturally occurring thorium. According to the three-stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could grow to about 10 GW through PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above that would have to come from FBRs till about 50GW. The third stage is to be deployed only after this capacity has been achieved. 1129: 125: 1372: 1080: 1008: 972: 1044: 425:

limit as being slightly over 13 GW in capacity. Several other sources estimate that the known reserves of natural uranium in the country permit only about 10 GW of capacity to be built through indigenously fueled PHWRs. The three-stage programme explicitly incorporates this limit as the upper cut off of the first stage, beyond which PHWRs are not planned to be built.

1096: 990: 1145: 1177: 1113: 1193: 1161: 1026: 1237: 1062: 1220: 186:. Four years later in 1958, the Indian government formally adopted the three-stage plan. Indian energy resource base was estimated to be capable of yielding a total electric power output of the order shown in the table below. Indian government recognised that thorium was a source that could provide power to the Indian people for the long term. 1227: 33: 868:

Indian power generation capacity has grown at 5.9% per annum in the 25-year period prior to 2006. If Indian economy is to grow at 8–9% for the next 25-year period of 2006 to 2032, total power generation capacity has to increase at 6–7% per annum. As the fissile material growth rate does not meet this

424:

Indian uranium reserves are capable of generating a total power capacity of 420 GWe-years, but the Indian government limited the number of PHWRs fueled exclusively by indigenous uranium reserves, in an attempt to ensure that existing plants get a lifetime supply of uranium. US analysts calculate this

318:

on 21 March 2012 that, "Out of nearly 100 deposits of the heavy minerals, at present only 17 deposits containing about 4 million tonnes of monazite have been identified as exploitable. Mine-able reserves are ~70% of identified exploitable resources. Therefore, about 225,000 tonnes of thorium metal is

162:

in a reactor fueled by other fissile materials. The first two stages, natural uranium-fueled heavy water reactors and plutonium-fueled fast breeder reactors, are intended to generate sufficient fissile material from India's limited uranium resources, so that all its vast thorium reserves can be fully

922:

Indian commentators welcomed the opportunity simply because they could see that India would be able end its international isolation on the nuclear front and obtain a de facto acknowledgement of it as a nuclear weapon state to some degree, in addition to it being able to obtain the uranium that would

739:

is ready for deployment. AHWR is a 300 MWe vertical pressure tube type, boiling light water cooled and heavy water moderated reactor, using uranium233–thorium MOX and plutonium–thorium MOX. It is expected to generate 65% of its power from thorium and can also be configured to accept other fuel types

554:

The surplus plutonium bred in each fast reactor can be used to set up more such reactors, and might thus grow the Indian civil nuclear power capacity till the point where the third stage reactors using thorium as fuel can be brought online, which is forecasted as being possible once 50 GW of nuclear

376:

as by-product. PHWRs was a natural choice for implementing the first stage because it had the most efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilisation, and the existing Indian infrastructure in the 1960s allowed for quick adoption of the PHWR technology. India correctly calculated that it would

322:

India is a leader of thorium based research. It is also by far the most committed nation as far as the use of thorium fuel is concerned, and no other country has done as much neutron physics work on thorium. The country published about twice the number of papers on thorium as its nearest competitors

1345:

the presently available uranium reserves of 5.469 million tonnes can support 570 GWe till 2025. If the total identified and undiscovered uranium reserves of 16 million tonnes are brought online, the power availability can be extended till the end of the century. While calling for more research into

872:

U.S. analyst Ashley J. Tellis argues that the Indo–US nuclear deal is attractive to India because it gives it access to far more options on its civil nuclear programme than would otherwise be the case, primarily by ending its isolation from the international nuclear community. These options include

96:

India published about twice the number of papers on thorium as its nearest competitors, during each of the years from 2002 to 2006. The Indian nuclear establishment estimates that the country could produce 500 GWe for at least four centuries using just the country's economically extractable thorium

1260:

The Integrated Energy Policy of India estimates the share of nuclear power in the total primary energy mix to be between 4% and 6.4% in various scenarios by the year 2031–32. A study by the DAE, estimates that the nuclear energy share will be about 8.6% by the year 2032 and 16.6% by the year 2052.

803:

In spite of the overall adequacy of its uranium reserves, Indian power plants could not get the necessary amount of uranium to function at full capacity in the late 2000s, primarily due to inadequate investments made in the uranium mining and milling capacity resulting from fiscal austerity in the

503:

Capital costs of PHWRs is in the range of Rs. 6 to 7 crore ($ 1.2 to $ 1.4 million) per MW, coupled with a designed plant life of 40 years. Time required for construction has improved over time and is now at about five years. Tariffs of the operating plants are in the range of Rs. 1.75 to 2.80 per

170:

The total reserves of thorium in India amount to over 500,000 tons in the readily extractable form, while the known reserves of uranium are less than a tenth of this. The aim of long range atomic power programme in India must therefore be to base the nuclear power generation as soon as possible on

1456:

For analysis purposes, "doubling time" can be defined in three separate ways: Reactor Doubling Time (RDT) – which is the doubling that takes place within the reactor, System Doubling Time (SDT) – which is the doubling that takes into account all fuel losses that take place outside the reactor and

948:

According to the Indian government's official position, India's indigenous three-stage nuclear power programme is unaffected by the Indo–US Nuclear Deal; "Its full autonomy has been preserved." Both right and left-wing political parties opposed the deal in the Parliament. The left feared the deal

934:

According to one foreign analyst, the deal could "over time… result in India being weaned away from its… three-phase nuclear program involving FBRs and advanced PHWRs. This would occur should India become confident that it would have assured supplies of relatively cheap natural uranium, including

952:

According to one view within the Indian defence establishment, the deal "has for all practical purposes capped Indian ability to field test and proof high yield nuclear weapons till some time in future (about 20 years) when Indian three-stage nuclear fuel cycle based on Thorium fuel matures into

1252:

Bhabha announced that there would be 8,000 MW of nuclear power in the country by 1980. As the years progressed, these predictions were to increase. By 1962, the prediction was that nuclear energy would generate 20,000–25,000 MW by 1987, and by 1969, the AEC predicted that by 2000 there would be

590:

Doubling time refers to the time required to extract as output, double the amount of fissile fuel, which was fed as input into the breeder reactors. This metric is critical for understanding the time durations that are unavoidable while transitioning from the second stage to the third stage of

295:

are bigger; around 12–33% of global reserves, according to IAEA and US Geological Survey. Several in-depth independent studies put Indian thorium reserves at 30% of the total world thorium reserves. Indian uranium production is constrained by government investment decisions rather than by any

812:

It was estimated that after attaining 21 GW from nuclear power by 2020, further growth might require imported uranium. This is problematic because deployment of third stage requires that 50 GW be already established through the first and second stages. If imported uranium was made available,

820:

As per research data, the U238–Pu cycle has the shortest doubling time by a large margin, and that technology's compounded yearly fissile material growth rate has been calculated as follows, after making some basic assumptions about the operating features of the fast breeder reactors.

339:

However, conventional uranium-fueled reactors are much cheaper to operate; so India imports large quantities of uranium from abroad. Also, in March 2011, large deposits of uranium were discovered in the Tummalapalle belt in the southern part of the Kadapa basin in Andhra Pradesh.

268:, India has limited uranium reserves, consisting of approximately 54,636 tonnes of "reasonably assured resources", 25,245 tonnes of "estimated additional resources", 15,488 tonnes of "undiscovered conventional resources, and 17,000 tonnes of "speculative resources". According to 767:

are designing unique first-of-its-kind accelerator driven systems. No country has yet built an Accelerator Driven System for power generation. Dr Anil Kakodkar, former chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission called this a mega science project and a "necessity" for humankind.

1346:

thorium as an energy source and the country's indigenous three-stage programme, he said, "The world always felt there would be a miracle. Unfortunately, we have not seen any miracle for the last 40 years. Unless we wake up, humans won't be able to exist beyond this century."

714:

As there is a long delay before direct thorium utilisation in the three-stage programme, the country is looking at reactor designs that allow more direct use of thorium in parallel with the sequential three-stage programme. Three options under consideration are the Indian

327:(BARC) had the highest number of publications in the thorium area, across all research institutions in the world during the period 1982–2004. During this same period, India ranks an overall second behind the United States in the research output on Thorium. According to 335:

in the United States, "India has the most technically ambitious and innovative nuclear energy programme in the world. The extent and functionality of its nuclear experimental facilities are matched only by those in Russia and are far ahead of what is left in the US."

744:(AERB), the results of which were deemed satisfactory. AHWR would offer very little growth for the fuel build up that is essential for wide deployment of the third stage, and perhaps the impact on the accumulated fissile material could even be negative. 100:

The first Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor has been repeatedly delayed – and is currently expected to be commissioned by October 2022 – and India continues to import thousands of tonnes of uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbekistan. The 2005

740:

in full core including enriched uranium and uranium–plutonium MOX. There was a plan for constructing such an AHWR with a plutonium–thorium core combination in 2007. This AHWR design was sent for an independent pre-licensing design safety review by the

1253:

43,500 MW of nuclear generating capacity. All of this was before a single unit of nuclear electricity was produced in the country. Reality was quite different. Installed capacity in 1979–80 was about 600 MW, about 950 MW in 1987, and 2720 MW in 2000.

876:

The second option, and perhaps the more interesting one, is that India can choose to access the third stage of thorium reactors by skipping the more difficult second stage of the plan through some appropriately selected parallel approach such as the

2759: 555:

power capacity has been achieved. The uranium in the first stage PHWRs that yield 29 EJ of energy in the once-through fuel cycle, can be made to yield between 65 and 128 times more energy through multiple cycles in fast breeder reactors.

311:. The 846,477 tonne figure compares with the earlier estimates for India, made by IAEA and US Geological Survey of 319,000 tonnes and 290,000 to 650,000 tonnes respectively. The 800,000 tonne figure is given by other sources as well. 81:. The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilised in meeting the country's energy requirements. Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as India has only around 1–2% of the global 1316:

stated in 2009 that the nation could generate up to 470 GW of power by 2050 if it managed the three-stage program well. "This will sharply reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and will be a major contribution to global efforts to

701:

According to replies given in Q&A in the Indian Parliament on two separate occasions, 19 August 2010 and 21 March 2012, large scale thorium deployment is only to be expected "3–4 decades after the commercial operation of

1470:

An earlier version of the three-stage plan called for 15 GWe to be generated through PHWRs and 25GWe to be generated through FBRs fueled by the plutonium reprocessed from PHWRs, before the introduction of thorium was to be

109:

waiver, which ended more than three decades of international isolation of the Indian civil nuclear programme, have created many hitherto unexplored alternatives for the success of the three-stage nuclear power programme.

4705: 4286: 5364: 4528: 4479: 3855: 2755: 4987: 4330: 4728: 5057: 4423: 5798: 1257:

In 2007, after five decades of sustained and generous government financial support, nuclear power's capacity was just 3,310 MW, less than 3% of India's total power generation capacity.

4384: 175:

In November 1954, Bhabha presented the three-stage plan for national development, at the conference on "Development of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes" which was also attended by

284:

had yielded confirmed reserve figure of 49,000 tonnes with a potential that it could rise to 150,000 tonnes. This was a rise from an earlier estimate of 15,000 tonnes for that area.

2733: 4790: 4360: 1457:

Compounded System Doubling Time (CSDT) – which is the doubling that takes into account the fact that net gain in fissile material is promptly used to start up other reactors.(

409:

series derived from the original Canadian supplied CANDU reactors. The IPHWR series consists of three designs of 220 MWe, 540 MWe and 700 MWe capacity under the designations

5121: 4713: 1325:. Indian nuclear scientists estimate that the country could produce 500 GWe for at least four centuries using just the country's economically extractable thorium reserves. 500:. These additions will bring the total power capacity from the first stage PHWRs to near the total planned capacity of 10 GW called for by the three-stage power programme. 4292: 953:

mainstream power production, thus eliminating Indian dependence on imported nuclear fuel from NSG countries or if there is a breakout in global nuclear test moratorium."

776:

The Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) is under development. Studies on conceptual design of the Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactors (IMSBR) have been initiated.

5443: 1667: 5947: 4864: 3717: 1422: 4094: 3789: 5372: 5942: 4194: 2565: 1248:

On the basis of the three-stage plan and assuming optimistic development times, some extravagant predictions about nuclear power have been made over the years:

4520: 4471: 4314: 3186:

Ferguson, Charles D. (2007), "Assessing the Vulnerability of the Indian Civil Nuclear Programme to Military and Terrorist Attack", in Henry D. Sokolski (ed.),

5259: 964: 3742: 272:, these reserves are only sufficient to generate about 10 GWe for about 40 years. In July 2011, it was reported that a four-year-long mining survey done at 5833: 5348: 3847: 3969: 1634: 5324: 5067: 4997: 299:

As per official estimates shared in the country's Parliament in August 2011, the country can obtain 846,477 tonnes of thorium from 963,000 tonnes of ThO

4503: 5896: 4336: 5243: 4738: 4270: 5838: 3571: 4448: 4142: 897: 4881: 4550: 4433: 5406: 4901: 3761: 582:

was due to be completed in 2012. It is not yet complete. The date of commission has been delayed to October 2022 from the previous date in 2019.

5013: 3244: 4376: 3391: 3339: 3321: 3303: 3285: 3259: 3231: 3213: 3195: 3177: 1437: 288: 82: 3312:

Stephenson, John; Tynan, Peter (2007), "Will the U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Cooperation Initiative Light India?", in Henry D. Sokolski (ed.),

5436: 3359: 4809: 4167: 3902: 3677: 4218: 89:

at about 25% of the world's known thorium reserves. However, thorium is more difficult to use than uranium as a fuel because it requires

5901: 3645: 5141: 4574: 2729: 5911: 3615: 924: 658: 102: 4847: 3819: 5996: 5881: 5828: 4646: 4352: 3679:

An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further Exploration and Forecasts for Thorium Requirements in the Near Future

1432: 1334: 942: 132: 4927: 3524: 706:

with short doubling time". Full exploitation of India's domestic thorium reserves will likely not occur until after the year 2050.

5865: 4408: 3487: 2707: 901: 5991: 5429: 4610: 520: 369: 3587: 5906: 5886: 5777: 5767: 5752: 5540: 4456: 1183: 1151: 1069: 979: 741: 575: 559: 493: 457: 332: 5293: 3397: 3365: 1659: 377:

be easier to create heavy water production facilities (required for PHWRs) than uranium enrichment facilities (required for

3985: 496:, and the one planned for Banswara would also come under the first stage of the programme, totalling a further addition of 5843: 5808: 5747: 5737: 5645: 4036: 3941: 3705: 2789: 1213: 1119: 1086: 1033: 878: 489: 469: 324: 4086: 4067: 3800: 5921: 5782: 5772: 5037: 4593: 3508: 1199: 1051: 748: 736: 720: 449: 4247: 4186: 5960: 5762: 5757: 2573: 1427: 1208: 1167: 1135: 814: 579: 571: 477: 473: 353: 307:

occurring in beaches and river sands in association with other heavy metals. Indian monazite contains about 9–10% ThO

5268: 4308: 5916: 5742: 4226: 1102: 997: 949:

would make the country subservient to U.S. interests, while the right felt it would limit further nuclear testing.

441: 5189: 4947: 3733: 5696: 5604: 5471: 1318: 908: 508: 273: 5340: 4021: 17: 5215: 3963: 1626: 574:(DAE), has been given the responsibility to build the fast breeder reactors in India. The construction of this 5316: 4495: 5615: 3654: 935:

from Australia. Of course, nobody in the Indian nuclear establishment would yet admit to that possibility."

928: 793: 661:

suggests a doubling time of 22 years for oxide fuel, 13 years for carbide fuel and 10 years for metal fuel.

512: 180: 106: 5209: 5937: 5452: 5237: 1405: 1395: 497: 429: 389:

which is not fissile but can be converted in a reactor to the fissile isotope plutonium-239. Heavy water (

3563: 5466: 4134: 1400: 1322: 437: 155: 4558: 4262: 1321:", he reportedly said. According to plan, 30% of the Indian electricity in 2050 will be generated from 5398: 4911: 4627: 3770: 5965: 5803: 5021: 595:

can be brought down to about 10 years by choosing appropriate technologies with short doubling time.

58: 4685: 3265: 5970: 5586: 5577: 4139:

James Martin Centre for Nonproliferation Studies at the Monterey Institute of International Studies

886: 882: 724: 716: 378: 315: 62: 5620: 5062: 4992: 4733: 4428: 4122: 3894: 3874:"Estimation of safety parameters of equilibrium cycle of Indian Pressurized Water Reactor (IPWR)" 3873: 670: 504:

unit, depending on the life of the reactor. In the year 2007–08 the average tariff was Rs. 2.28.

119: 40: 405:. Since the program began, India has developed a series of sequentially larger PHWR's under the 4158: 3686: 1660:"Minister foresees 2022 completion date for Indian FBR : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News" 5823: 5636: 5394: 5100: 4906: 4826: 4663: 3387: 3355: 3335: 3317: 3299: 3281: 3255: 3227: 3209: 3191: 3173: 1338: 784: 398: 47: 3658: 3441: 3421: 686:

A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series of

4114: 3886: 3461: 911: 904: 752: 540: 328: 281: 183: 4772: 3943:

World literature on thorium research: A scientometric study based on Science Citation Index

3626: 348: 5161: 5113: 4839: 4676: 3828: 3504:

FAQs on the India–US Agreement for Co-operation concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy

3386:, Synthesis Lectures on Nuclear Technology and Society, Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 1410: 1390: 1342: 703: 695: 592: 536: 390: 365: 151: 90: 3927:, Washington D.C.: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore 4109:

Gupta, Arvind (May 2011), "India's Nuclear Energy Programme: Prospects and Challenges",

3535: 5818: 5664: 1313: 796: 789: 727:

may also be under consideration based on some recent reports and is under development.

139: 128: 4400: 3481: 2703: 5985: 5813: 5656: 4126: 3947: 3898: 1363: 938: 915: 544: 461: 373: 143: 4967: 124: 3596: 1377: 675: 93:, and global uranium prices remain low enough that breeding is not cost effective. 5191:

Founder's Day 2007 Address by Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission – Anil Kakodkar

4118: 3502: 3381: 3349: 428:

Almost the entire existing base of Indian nuclear power (4780 MW) is composed of

4754: 4160:

Atoms for War? U.S.–Indian Civil Nuclear Cooperation and India's Nuclear Arsenal

3994: 3821:

Fissile Materials in South Asia: The Implications of the U.S.–India Nuclear Deal

3383:

India's nuclear fuel cycle: Unraveling the impact of the US–India nuclear accord

3240: 691: 687: 548: 386: 382: 159: 78: 5083: 4042: 3919: 3890: 2781: 2000: 1998: 5859: 4058: 1353: 146:

by working around India's limited uranium resources. Thorium itself is not a

5853: 5520: 5510: 4241: 2080: 2078: 1357: 507:

India is also working on the design of reactors based on the more efficient

485: 481: 465: 445: 418: 410: 4729:"Development work on 300 MW advanced heavy water reactor at advanced stage" 61:, the well-known physicist, in the 1950s to secure the country's long term 32: 484:, thus contributing 440 MW each to the grid. The 2 units of 700 MWe each ( 5594: 5563: 5421: 5287: 5261:

Thorium-based Nuclear Power: The Road to Green, Sustainable Nuclear Power

1015: 764: 516: 304: 166:

Bhabha summarised the rationale for the three-stage approach as follows:

74: 36: 5142:"India plans to cut carbon and fuel poverty with untested nuclear power" 3222:

Iyengar, P.K.; Prasad, A.N.; Gopalakrishnan, A.; Karnad, Bharat (2009),

5891: 5848: 5545: 5195: 3818:

Mian, Zia; Nayyar, A.H.; Rajaraman, R.; Ramana, M.V. (September 2006),

1236: 751:

design that will be taken up for construction is to be fueled with 20%

680: 567: 402: 292: 147: 86: 70: 66: 44: 4706:"India's new fast-breeder on track, nuclear power from September next" 1505: 1503: 1219: 5691: 4928:"How Homi Bhabha's vision turned India into a nuclear R&D leader" 4013: 277: 4521:"India widens N-fuel base, signs up Uzbek firm for uranium supplies" 2730:"A New US, India Project: A Power Plant Safer Than Nuclear Reactors" 1226: 4449:"L&T bags Rs 844 crore order for Kakrapar Atomic Power Station" 142:

conceived of the three-stage nuclear programme as a way to develop

5683: 5515: 5505: 5317:"UK public confidence in nuclear remains steady despite Fukushima" 4113:, vol. 35, no. 3, Strategic Analysis, pp. 373–380, 3380:

Woddi, Taraknath V.K.; Charlton, William S.; Nelson, Paul (2009),

2857: 2855: 896: 783: 674: 563: 524: 453: 433: 414: 406: 357: 347: 269: 176: 123: 31: 3486:, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 10 August 2011, 3278:

Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology and Applications

1890: 3625:, Canberra: Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, archived from 3023: 2453: 2208: 2206: 2004: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 265: 5425: 4797:, Chidambaram (TN, India), Press Trust of India, 4 January 2007 3589:

India's Baseline Plan for Nuclear Energy self-sufficiency stage

5497: 5122:"India eyeing 63,000 MW nuclear power capacity by 2032: NPCIL" 3532:

Remarks as Prepared for the Senate Foreign Relations Committee

3348:

Raven, Peter H.; Hassenzahl, David M.; Berg, Linda R. (2012),

3294:

Noronha, Ligia (2009), Ligia Noronha; Anant Sudarshan (eds.),

4014:"India's Nuclear Breeders: Technology, Viability and Options" 2193: 2191: 2084: 381:). Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of the fissile isotope 4291:, Australia: Future Directions International, archived from 4135:"The U.S.–India Reprocessing Agreement and Its Implications" 3735:

Thorium Utilisation for Sustainable Supply of Nuclear Energy

3525:"Hearing on U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Cooperation Initiative" 2872: 2870: 2224: 2134: 2132: 303:, which in turn can be obtained from 10.7 million tonnes of 27:

India's nuclear energy progamme envisioned by Homi J. Bhabha

2343: 2341: 135:

and the architect of Indian three-stage (thorium) programme

4811:

AHWR undergoes design changes to increase safety, security

4243:

A future energy giant? India's thorium-based nuclear plans

3827:, International Panel on Fissile Materials, archived from 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 1701: 1699: 1697: 931:

waiver on international uranium imports to India in 2008.

3616:"Implications of the Sale of Australian Uranium to India" 3276:

Krivit, Steven; Lehr, Jay H.; Kingery, Thomas B. (2011),

2834: 2560: 2558: 2537: 1757: 1755: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1565: 1563: 1550: 1548: 163:

utilised in the third stage of thermal breeder reactors.

5799:

Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research

4060:

U.S. Nuclear Cooperation with India: Issues for Congress

3316:, Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute, 3254:, Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute, 3190:, Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute, 3070: 3068: 2899: 2897: 2666: 2178: 2176: 1509: 5555: 4686:"80% of work on fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam over" 4432:, Press Trust of India, 19 January 2011, archived from 4041:, World Nuclear Association, March 2012, archived from 1592: 1590: 558:

The design of the country's first fast breeder, called

4948:"India plans 'safer' nuclear plant powered by thorium" 4628:"Nuclear power plant will be a big boon for Rajasthan" 4472:"BARC begins work on 900 MW pressurised water reactor" 4424:"India's 20th nuclear reactor connected to power grid" 3168:

Diwan, Parag; Sarkar, A.N. (2009), "Energy Security",

2065: 2063: 2061: 1718: 1716: 1714: 519:

reactor platform to supplement the currently deployed

4988:"Indo-US nuke deal will help launch thorium reactors" 4773:"Nuclear power is our gateway to a prosperous future" 4012:

Tongia, Rahul; Arunachalam, V.S. (15 December 1997),

3507:, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, 3245:"Nuclear Power in India: Failed Past, Dubious Future" 2236: 2107: 2105: 1535: 1533: 1520: 1518: 5532: 2756:"An Indo–US facility that can make designer humans?" 2377: 2375: 1949: 1947: 360:

reactors, the first stage of the three stage program

5930: 5874: 5791: 5730: 5705: 5682: 5644: 5635: 5603: 5585: 5576: 5554: 5531: 5496: 5487: 5480: 5459: 5218:

Q&A: Thorium Reactor Designer Ratan Kumar Sinha

5085:

US shifting goalpost on n-deal: Atomic Energy chief

4612:

Construction starts on 2 700 MWe PHWRs in Rajasthan

4401:"AP houses one of world's largest uranium reserves" 4093:, The IUP Journal of Governance and Public Policy, 3134: 2163: 2161: 2159: 1866: 1797: 5020:, vol. 24, no. 8, Mumbai, archived from 4595:Construction started for 2 700MW PHWRs at Kakrapar 3872: 2618: 2260: 2248: 1627:"Problems with the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor" 440:(BWR) units at Tarapur. The installed capacity of 287:Although India has only around 1–2% of the global 4888:, Chennai, Press Trust of India, 21 February 2012 4849:India designs new version of AHWR for thorium use 4020:, Pittsburgh: Current Science, pp. 549–558, 3871:Raj, Devesh; Kannan, Umasankari (10 March 2020). 3564:"Experience of thorium fuel development in India" 3280:, Wiley Series on Energy, John Wiley & Sons, 2594: 2308: 2212: 1989: 1818: 1746: 1458: 570:Ltd (Bhavini), a public sector company under the 5897:Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) 5839:Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) 5128:, Chennai, Press Trust of India, 11 October 2011 4882:"Work on thorium-based reactor to commence soon" 4219:"India leading research on Thorium: US official" 4087:"Indo–US Nuclear Deal: The Technology Dimension" 2861: 18:India's three stage nuclear power programme 5912:Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL) 5892:Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. (BHAVINI) 5038:"Now, fuel crunch takes toll on Kalpakkam unit" 4332:India Designs Thorium-Fueled Reactor for Export 3710:The IUP Journal of Governance and Public Policy 2915: 2566:"India Aims to Build World's First Thorium ADS" 2465: 2123: 799:exchange greetings in New Delhi on 2 March 2006 168: 4166:, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 3098: 2630: 2197: 2016: 50:, is the primary source of the world's thorium 5437: 4866:India Turns to Thorium As Future Reactor Fuel 3879:Life Cycle Reliability and Safety Engineering 3595:, Argonne National Laboratory, archived from 3449:, Department of Atomic Energy, 19 August 2010 3429:, Department of Atomic Energy, 19 August 2010 2690: 2642: 2489: 763:India's Department of Atomic Energy and US's 723:(AHWR) and Compact High Temperature Reactor. 8: 4648:India's first PFBR to go critical early 2013 3469:, Department of Atomic Energy, 21 March 2012 2963: 2347: 1773: 448:reactors, making it the third largest after 372:(PHWR) produce electricity while generating 323:during each of the years from 2002 to 2006. 5948:India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement 5943:India's three stage nuclear power programme 5834:Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology 5012:Subramanian, T.S. (21 April – 4 May 2007), 4737:, Chennai, 20 December 2008, archived from 4478:. Indo-Asian News Service. 12 August 2013. 4185:Vishwakarma, Arun S. (January–March 2009), 3059: 2888: 2513: 2366: 2296: 2138: 1613: 1472: 1423:India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement 55:India's three-stage nuclear power programme 5641: 5582: 5493: 5484: 5444: 5430: 5422: 5014:"Total self-sufficiency in PHWR programme" 3534:, U.S. Department of State, archived from 3332:India's Nuclear Diplomacy After Pokhran II 3224:Strategic Sell-Out: Indian–US Nuclear Deal 2417: 1830: 1128: 772:Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) 314:It was further clarified in the country's 85:, but one of the largest shares of global 4377:"Largest uranium reserves found in India" 3443:Second Stage Development of Atomic Energy 3086: 2477: 2332: 2320: 2284: 2272: 1842: 1761: 808:Drivers for the deal from the Indian side 468:). The remaining three power stations at 444:is now 880 MW consisting of four 220 MWe 344:Stage I – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor 5403:Sustainable Energy – Without the Hot Air 5236:Rhodes, Prof. Chris (26 February 2012), 4704:Jaganathan, Venkatachari (11 May 2011), 4288:India Seeks Energy Security from Thorium 3790:"Indian Nuclear Program at a Crossroads" 3314:Gauging U.S.–India Strategic Cooperation 3252:Gauging U.S.–India Strategic Cooperation 3188:Gauging U.S.–India Strategic Cooperation 2606: 2525: 2405: 2182: 2040: 1596: 1569: 1494: 1263: 823: 597: 564:Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research 511:technology derived from the work on the 188: 5866:Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) 5162:"Revive R&D in thorium, says India" 4771:Kalam, A.P.J. Abdul (6 November 2011), 3848:"IPWR Indian Pressurized Water Reactor" 3146: 2876: 2678: 2654: 2069: 1734: 1722: 1487: 1449: 1079: 918:in Washington, D.C., on 10 October 2008 331:, a former director (1986–1997) of the 154:to produce energy. Instead, it must be 5109: 5098: 4996:, Press Trust of India, archived from 4986:Subramanian, T.S. (25 February 2006), 4902:"Redefining Energy Security for India" 4835: 4824: 4814:, Mumbai: OneIndia News, 20 April 2011 4672: 4661: 4598:, World Nuclear News, 22 November 2010 4575:"Waiting for the Fast Breeder Reactor" 3490:from the original on 10 September 2012 3110: 3074: 3035: 2999: 2927: 2903: 2846: 2810: 2710:from the original on 25 September 2013 2501: 2441: 2393: 2111: 2096: 2052: 2028: 1977: 1965: 1914: 1878: 1854: 1785: 1705: 1581: 1539: 1524: 780:Linkages with the Indo–US nuclear deal 488:) that are under construction at both 436:series, with the exception of the two 319:available for nuclear power program." 5887:Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) 5140:Ramesh, Randeep (29 September 2009), 5056:Subrahmanyam, K. (12 December 2005), 5036:Subramaniam, Kandula (11 June 2008), 4791:"India to begin construction of AHWR" 4756:Mumbai engages ADS for nuclear energy 4753:Bilbao y León, Sama (27 March 2012), 4455:, Mumbai/Ahmedabad, 9 December 2009, 4225:, Press Trust of India, 20 May 2010, 4097:from the original on 17 February 2015 3968:, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 3918:Rethinaraj, T.S. Gopi (5 June 2006), 3905:from the original on 19 February 2023 3732:Banerjee, Srikumar (September 2010), 3511:from the original on 16 November 2011 3354:(8 ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 3206:Bhabha and His Magnificent Obsessions 3122: 3024:Lok Sabha Q&A – Qn. No. 2728 2010 3011: 2987: 2975: 2762:from the original on 26 February 2018 2549: 2454:Lok Sabha Q&A – Qn. No. 2727 2010 2381: 2005:Lok Sabha Q&A – Qn. No. 1181 2012 1953: 1654: 1652: 1333:According to the Chairman of India's 364:In the first stage of the programme, 260:Fuel reserves and research capability 7: 5809:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) 4852:, Mumbai: ZeeNews, 16 September 2009 4387:from the original on 12 January 2022 4250:from the original on 17 January 2012 3940:Kademani, B.S. (12 September 2006), 2951: 2822: 2792:from the original on 27 October 2016 2167: 1902: 1688: 1095: 264:According to a report issued by the 5844:Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) 5489:Three-stage nuclear power programme 5351:from the original on 14 August 2024 5327:from the original on 14 August 2024 5296:from the original on 14 August 2024 4966:Subramanian, T.S. (December 1998), 4946:Rahman, Maseeh (1 November 2011b), 4926:Rahman, Maseeh (1 November 2011a), 4651:, Chennai: ZeeNews, 21 January 2012 4531:from the original on 31 August 2014 4506:from the original on 14 August 2024 4459:from the original on 14 August 2024 4273:from the original on 14 August 2024 4229:from the original on 14 August 2024 3962:Gadekar, Surendra (6 August 2008), 3846:Mukherjee, A.B. (25 October 2018). 3788:Maitra, Ramtanu (23 January 2009), 3720:from the original on 17 August 2024 3574:from the original on 7 October 2011 3523:Burns, Nicholas (2 November 2005), 3400:from the original on 14 August 2024 3368:from the original on 14 August 2024 3208:, Universities Press (India) Ltd., 3047: 2939: 2429: 2150: 1938: 1554: 927:, which then paved the way for the 879:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor 731:Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) 131:, the founding Chairman of India's 5286:Hore-Lacy, Ian (6 December 2009), 5246:from the original on 15 April 2012 5239:The Thorium Age Waits in the Wings 5088:, New Delhi: Indian Express Review 5082:Bagla, Pallava (6 February 2006), 4615:, World Nuclear News, 18 July 2011 4496:"Start-up of India's PFBR delayed" 4482:from the original on 11 April 2021 4411:from the original on 26 April 2012 4351:Bromby, Robin (16 November 2011), 4317:from the original on 11 March 2012 4310:A Brief Overview of Thorium Energy 4197:from the original on 15 March 2012 4066:, Congressional Research Service, 4057:Kerr, Paul K. (11 December 2011), 3858:from the original on 12 April 2021 1926: 1637:from the original on 20 March 2024 1438:Indian weapons of mass destruction 1144: 694:fuelled reactors. This would be a 665:Stage III – Thorium Based Reactors 150:material, and thus cannot undergo 25: 5882:Atomic Energy Commission of India 5829:High Altitude Research Laboratory 5160:Dikshit, Sandeep (9 March 2010), 4500:Nuclear Engineering International 4173:from the original on 2 March 2012 4145:from the original on 12 June 2014 4073:from the original on 1 March 2012 4024:from the original on 28 June 2017 3972:from the original on 7 March 2012 3685:, Hyderabad: IAEA, archived from 3135:Raven, Hassenzahl & Berg 2011 2736:from the original on 27 June 2017 2225:Subramaniam – Indian Express 2008 2085:Ministry of External Affairs, GOI 1867:Woddi, Charlton & Nelson 2009 1798:Woddi, Charlton & Nelson 2009 1433:Nuclear Command Authority (India) 1176: 1025: 893:Stakeholder views on the linkages 385:. Most of the remaining 99.3% is 5712:Compact High Temperature Reactor 5409:from the original on 4 June 2016 4968:"A debate over breeder reactors" 4900:Kamat, Nandkumar (31 May 2010), 4869:, Nuclear Energy Institute, 2012 4399:Dharur, Suresh (22 April 2012), 4363:from the original on 2 June 2012 4329:Patel, Sonal (1 November 2009), 3946:, Scientometrics, archived from 3748:from the original on 15 May 2013 3614:Gordon, Sandy (September 2008), 1670:from the original on 9 June 2024 1370: 1356: 1341:, without the implementation of 1235: 1225: 1218: 1212:Atomic Power Stations in India ( 1191: 1175: 1159: 1143: 1127: 1112: 1111: 1094: 1078: 1060: 1042: 1024: 1007: 1006: 988: 971: 970: 963: 902:United States Secretary of State 568:Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam 370:pressurised heavy water reactors 5365:"Thor's nuclear-powered hammer" 5258:Sorensen, Kirk (25 July 2007), 4246:, Physorg.com, 1 October 2010, 3423:Right to Reprocess Nuclear Fuel 3414:Official government disclosures 2595:Krivit, Lehr & Kingery 2011 1990:Krivit, Lehr & Kingery 2011 1192: 1043: 957:Indian nuclear energy forecasts 830:Fissile Material Growth % 735:Of the options, the design for 531:Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor 452:(1400 MW) (2 x BWR Mark-1, 2 x 5907:Homi Bhabha National Institute 5339:Clark, Duncan (13 July 2009), 5315:Jha, Alok (9 September 2011), 5212:Q&A With: Sudhinder Thakur 4335:, powermag.com, archived from 4133:Harvey, Cole J. (5 May 2010), 3763:Nuclear Power – An alternative 3250:, in Henry D. Sokolski (ed.), 3204:Venkataraman, Ganesan (1994), 2572:. 19 July 2016. Archived from 2538:World Nuclear Association 2012 1160: 989: 742:Atomic Energy Regulatory Board 560:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor 333:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1: 5292:, The Encyclopedia of Earth, 4684:Srikanth (27 November 2011), 4573:Jha, Saurav (25 March 2019). 4549:Jayan, T.V. (21 March 2011), 4519:Sasi, Anil (27 August 2014). 4187:"Way to a Credible Deterrent" 4141:, Nuclear Threat Initiative, 3987:The Nuclear Energy Imperative 3965:India's nuclear fuel shortage 3797:Executive Intelligence Review 3586:Bucher, R.G. (January 2009), 2667:Nuclear Energy Institute 2012 2468:, pp. 31, 53–55, 57, 60. 1819:Tongia & Arunachalam 1997 1510:Press Information Bureau 2011 1459:Tongia & Arunachalam 1997 515:program to develop a 900 MWe 325:Bhabha Atomic Research Centre 5922:Uranium Corporation of India 5481:Nuclear reactor technologies 5363:Rodricks, Dan (9 May 2011), 5194:, BARC, 2007, archived from 5058:"India and the nuclear deal" 4375:Bedi, Rahul (19 July 2011), 4119:10.1080/09700161.2011.559963 2862:Noronha & Sudarshan 2009 1061: 721:Advanced Heavy Water Reactor 657:Another report prepared for 551:for use in the third stage. 77:sands of coastal regions of 5902:Department of Atomic Energy 5230:Studies, papers and reports 3555:Studies, papers and reports 3334:, Pearson Education India, 2916:Stephenson & Tynan 2007 2466:Stephenson & Tynan 2007 2124:Stephenson & Tynan 2007 1428:Weapons of mass destruction 1417:Weapons of mass destruction 815:Department of Atomic Energy 572:Department of Atomic Energy 354:Narora Atomic Power Station 198:Power potential (TWe-year) 6013: 5917:Indian Rare Earths Limited 5715:High-flux Research Reactor 4157:Tellis, Ashley J. (2006), 3891:10.1007/s41872-020-00115-2 2704:"Press Information Bureau" 2237:Jayan – The Telegraph 2011 1385:Nuclear and energy related 887:accelerator driven systems 717:Accelerator Driven Systems 668: 117: 5956: 5697:Fast Breeder Test Reactor 5605:Nuclear marine propulsion 5472:Tummalapalle uranium mine 4712:, Chennai, archived from 4263:"India's thorium success" 4193:, Indian Defence Review, 3854:(10th Nuclear Conclave). 909:External Affairs Minister 759:Accelerator Driven System 659:U.S. Department of Energy 509:Pressurized Water Reactor 5997:Nuclear history of India 4634:, Jaipur, 10 August 2011 4353:"Thorium a safer option" 2942:, pp. 94, 102, 104. 1335:Atomic Energy Commission 1329:Thorium energy forecasts 943:Atomic Energy Commission 133:Atomic Energy Commission 5341:"Thorium nuclear power" 5242:, Energy Balance Blog, 4307:Fin, Al (1 July 2011), 3921:U.S.–India Nuclear Deal 3769:, NPCIL, archived from 3655:Thorium Energy Alliance 3483:Availability of Thorium 3296:India's Energy Politics 2619:The Economic Times 2007 2514:Diwan & Sarkar 2009 2297:Diwan & Sarkar 2009 2261:World Nuclear News 2011 2249:World Nuclear News 2010 2139:Diwan & Sarkar 2009 941:, then Chairman of the 696:thermal breeder reactor 513:Arihant-class submarine 5992:Nuclear power in India 5938:Energy policy of India 5768:Rajasthan (Rawatbhata) 5587:Electricity generation 5453:Nuclear power in India 5267:, NASA, archived from 4759:, Mumbai: Cern Courier 4038:Nuclear Power in India 3993:, IDFC, archived from 3706:"Indo–US Nuclear Deal" 3298:, Taylor and Francis, 2309:Business Standard 2013 2213:Business Standard 2009 1747:Financial Express 2008 1664:world-nuclear-news.org 1406:Nuclear power in India 1396:Energy policy of India 1323:thorium based reactors 1312:Indian Prime Minister 1255: 919: 800: 683: 541:mixed oxide (MOX) fuel 361: 173: 136: 73:reserves found in the 51: 5467:Jaduguda uranium mine 4267:The Financial Express 3623:Working Paper No. 410 3562:Majumdar, S. (1999), 3330:Rai, Ajai K. (2009), 2333:Raj & Kannan 2020 1401:Nuclear Liability Act 1319:combat climate change 1250: 900: 787: 704:fast breeder reactors 678: 593:fast breeder reactors 537:fast breeder reactors 535:In the second stage, 438:Boiling Water Reactor 351: 127: 65:, through the use of 35: 5804:Nuclear Fuel Complex 5792:Research and testing 5731:Nuclear Power Plants 5578:Light Water Reactors 5000:on 10 September 2011 4085:Puri, Raman (2007), 4045:on 18 September 2012 3704:Kalidas, R. (2007), 2786:Thorium Energy World 2570:Thorium Energy World 1633:. 24 February 2021. 1557:, pp. 1, 16–17. 1209:class=notpageimage| 925:Indo–US Nuclear Deal 914:, after signing the 753:low enriched uranium 562:(PFBR), was done by 480:all have 2 units of 192:Energy resource type 129:Homi Jehangir Bhabha 114:Origin and rationale 103:Indo–US Nuclear Deal 5778:Jaitapur (Proposed) 5738:Gorakhpur (Haryana) 5556:Stage III - Thorium 5198:on 12 December 2010 4561:on 17 February 2015 4436:on 18 November 2011 4000:on 14 February 2019 3776:on 3 September 2013 3760:Jain, S.K. (2009), 3644:Hargraves, Robert, 3602:on 27 December 2016 3099:Economic Times 2011 2990:, pp. 373–380. 2631:Times of India 2008 2576:on 1 September 2018 2198:Times of India 2011 2017:Economic Times 2010 1891:Iyengar et al. 2009 1223: Active plants 883:molten salt reactor 725:Molten Salt Reactor 710:Parallel approaches 539:(FBRs) would use a 63:energy independence 5961:Electricity sector 5862:(Operation Shakti) 5783:Kovvada (Proposed) 5758:Madras (Kalpakkam) 5395:MacKay, David J.C. 5274:on 18 October 2011 5126:The Economic Times 5108:Unknown parameter 5063:The Times of India 5042:The Indian Express 5024:on 12 October 2007 4993:The Times of India 4834:Unknown parameter 4795:The Economic Times 4734:The Times of India 4671:Unknown parameter 4525:The Indian Express 4502:. 11 August 2014. 4429:The Times of India 4339:on 3 February 2012 4223:The Economic Times 3950:on 16 January 2013 3852:India Energy Forum 3834:on 12 January 2012 3226:, Pentagon Press, 3172:, Pentagon Press, 2691:Business Line 2012 2643:OneIndia News 2011 2490:Bilbao y León 2012 1232:Under construction 1136:Chennai(Kalpakkam) 920: 801: 684: 671:Thorium fuel cycle 362: 137: 120:Thorium fuel cycle 57:was formulated by 52: 5979: 5978: 5824:Heavy Water Board 5726: 5725: 5722: 5721: 5637:Research reactors 5631: 5630: 5572: 5571: 5460:Uranium resources 5369:The Baltimore Sun 5070:on 3 January 2013 4907:The Navhind Times 4741:on 11 August 2011 4476:Business Standard 4453:Business Standard 3984:Sethi, Manpreet, 3741:, Virginia Tech, 3676:Jayaram, K.M.V., 3463:Thorium Based NPP 3393:978-1-59829-984-7 3341:978-81-317-2668-6 3323:978-1-58487-284-9 3305:978-0-203-88436-2 3287:978-0-470-89439-2 3261:978-1-58487-284-9 3233:978-81-8274-432-5 3215:978-81-7371-007-0 3197:978-1-58487-284-9 3179:978-81-8274-352-6 2964:Subrahmanyam 2005 2879:, pp. 25–32. 2504:, pp. 14–20. 2348:ZeeNews-IANS 2012 2099:, pp. 40–41. 1774:Venkataraman 1994 1708:, pp. 50–51. 1584:, pp. 41–42. 1339:Srikumar Banerjee 1310: 1309: 1273:Optimistic (GWe) 1270:Pessimistic (GWe) 885:, or the various 866: 865: 655: 654: 430:first stage PHWRs 296:shortage of ore. 257: 256: 225:Uranium (in PHWR) 48:phosphate mineral 16:(Redirected from 6004: 5856:(Smiling Buddha) 5642: 5583: 5494: 5485: 5446: 5439: 5432: 5423: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5371:, archived from 5359: 5358: 5356: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5273: 5266: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5156: 5155: 5153: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5117: 5111: 5106: 5104: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5078: 5077: 5075: 5066:, archived from 5052: 5051: 5049: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5008: 5007: 5005: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4910:, archived from 4896: 4895: 4893: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4843: 4837: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4749: 4748: 4746: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4680: 4674: 4669: 4667: 4659: 4658: 4656: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4606: 4605: 4603: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4557:, archived from 4540: 4538: 4536: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4371: 4370: 4368: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4313:, oilprice.com, 4303: 4302: 4300: 4295:on 26 March 2015 4281: 4280: 4278: 4258: 4257: 4255: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4172: 4165: 4153: 4152: 4150: 4129: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4091:vol. II, issue 4 4081: 4080: 4078: 4072: 4065: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4008: 4007: 4005: 3999: 3992: 3980: 3979: 3977: 3958: 3957: 3955: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3926: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3876: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3833: 3826: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3805: 3799:, archived from 3794: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3775: 3768: 3756: 3755: 3753: 3747: 3740: 3728: 3727: 3725: 3700: 3699: 3697: 3691: 3684: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3664:on 22 April 2014 3663: 3657:, archived from 3652: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3631: 3620: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3601: 3594: 3582: 3581: 3579: 3570:, Vienna: IAEA, 3549: 3548: 3546: 3540: 3529: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3477: 3476: 3474: 3468: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3448: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3428: 3408: 3407: 3405: 3376: 3375: 3373: 3361:978-0470-94570-4 3344: 3326: 3308: 3290: 3272: 3270: 3264:, archived from 3249: 3236: 3218: 3200: 3182: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3063: 3060:Vishwakarma 2009 3057: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2954:, pp. 7–14. 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2892: 2889:Subramanian 2006 2886: 2880: 2874: 2865: 2859: 2850: 2844: 2838: 2835:Mian et al. 2006 2832: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2758:. 31 July 2016. 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2700: 2694: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2658: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2634: 2628: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2562: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2469: 2463: 2457: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2370: 2367:Subramanian 2007 2364: 2351: 2345: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2282: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2201: 2195: 2186: 2180: 2171: 2165: 2154: 2148: 2142: 2136: 2127: 2121: 2115: 2109: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2073: 2067: 2056: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2026: 2020: 2014: 2008: 2002: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1951: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1906: 1900: 1894: 1888: 1882: 1876: 1870: 1864: 1858: 1852: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1828: 1822: 1816: 1801: 1795: 1789: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1759: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1709: 1703: 1692: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1656: 1647: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1623: 1617: 1614:Subramanian 1998 1611: 1600: 1594: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1567: 1558: 1552: 1543: 1537: 1528: 1522: 1513: 1507: 1498: 1492: 1476: 1473:Subramanian 1998 1468: 1462: 1454: 1380: 1375: 1374: 1373: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1264: 1239: 1229: 1222: 1195: 1194: 1179: 1178: 1163: 1162: 1147: 1146: 1131: 1130: 1115: 1114: 1098: 1097: 1082: 1081: 1064: 1063: 1046: 1045: 1028: 1027: 1010: 1009: 992: 991: 974: 973: 967: 912:Pranab Mukherjee 905:Condoleezza Rice 824: 598: 329:Siegfried Hecker 293:thorium reserves 289:uranium reserves 236:Uranium (in FBR) 189: 184:Jawaharlal Nehru 87:thorium reserves 83:uranium reserves 21: 6012: 6011: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5982: 5981: 5980: 5975: 5952: 5926: 5870: 5787: 5718: 5701: 5678: 5627: 5599: 5568: 5550: 5527: 5476: 5455: 5450: 5420: 5412: 5410: 5405:, p. 166, 5393: 5390: 5378: 5376: 5375:on 21 June 2011 5362: 5354: 5352: 5338: 5330: 5328: 5314: 5311: 5299: 5297: 5285: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5257: 5249: 5247: 5235: 5232: 5226: 5224:Further reading 5221: 5201: 5199: 5188: 5184: 5182:Primary sources 5179: 5171: 5169: 5159: 5151: 5149: 5139: 5131: 5129: 5120: 5107: 5097: 5091: 5089: 5081: 5073: 5071: 5055: 5047: 5045: 5035: 5027: 5025: 5011: 5003: 5001: 4985: 4977: 4975: 4972:Vol. 15, No. 25 4965: 4957: 4955: 4945: 4937: 4935: 4925: 4917: 4915: 4899: 4891: 4889: 4880: 4872: 4870: 4863: 4855: 4853: 4846: 4833: 4823: 4817: 4815: 4808: 4800: 4798: 4789: 4781: 4779: 4770: 4762: 4760: 4752: 4744: 4742: 4727: 4719: 4717: 4703: 4695: 4693: 4683: 4670: 4660: 4654: 4652: 4645: 4637: 4635: 4626: 4618: 4616: 4609: 4601: 4599: 4592: 4583: 4581: 4572: 4564: 4562: 4551:"Fuelling Fear" 4548: 4534: 4532: 4518: 4509: 4507: 4494: 4485: 4483: 4470: 4462: 4460: 4447: 4439: 4437: 4422: 4414: 4412: 4398: 4390: 4388: 4374: 4366: 4364: 4350: 4342: 4340: 4328: 4320: 4318: 4306: 4298: 4296: 4284: 4276: 4274: 4269:, 13 May 2008, 4261: 4253: 4251: 4240: 4232: 4230: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4200: 4198: 4184: 4176: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4148: 4146: 4132: 4111:vol 35, issue 3 4108: 4100: 4098: 4084: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4048: 4046: 4035: 4027: 4025: 4011: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3975: 3973: 3961: 3953: 3951: 3939: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3917: 3908: 3906: 3870: 3861: 3859: 3845: 3837: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3792: 3787: 3779: 3777: 3773: 3766: 3759: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3731: 3723: 3721: 3703: 3695: 3693: 3692:on 28 June 2011 3689: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3665: 3661: 3650: 3643: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3618: 3613: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3585: 3577: 3575: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3544: 3542: 3541:on 5 March 2013 3538: 3527: 3522: 3514: 3512: 3501: 3493: 3491: 3480: 3472: 3470: 3466: 3460: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3432: 3430: 3426: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3403: 3401: 3394: 3379: 3371: 3369: 3362: 3347: 3342: 3329: 3324: 3311: 3306: 3293: 3288: 3275: 3271:on 22 July 2016 3268: 3262: 3247: 3239: 3234: 3221: 3216: 3203: 3198: 3185: 3180: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2986: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2962: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2868: 2860: 2853: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2795: 2793: 2780: 2779: 2775: 2765: 2763: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2665: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2641: 2637: 2629: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2605: 2601: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2577: 2564: 2563: 2556: 2548: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2500: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2476: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2452: 2448: 2440: 2436: 2428: 2424: 2418:Jaganathan 2011 2416: 2412: 2404: 2400: 2392: 2388: 2380: 2373: 2365: 2354: 2346: 2339: 2331: 2327: 2319: 2315: 2307: 2303: 2295: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2223: 2219: 2211: 2204: 2196: 2189: 2181: 2174: 2166: 2157: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2130: 2122: 2118: 2110: 2103: 2095: 2091: 2083: 2076: 2068: 2059: 2051: 2047: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2023: 2015: 2011: 2003: 1996: 1988: 1984: 1976: 1972: 1964: 1960: 1952: 1945: 1937: 1933: 1925: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1889: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1865: 1861: 1853: 1849: 1841: 1837: 1831:Rethinaraj 2006 1829: 1825: 1817: 1804: 1800:, pp. 7–8. 1796: 1792: 1784: 1780: 1772: 1768: 1760: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1733: 1729: 1721: 1712: 1704: 1695: 1687: 1683: 1673: 1671: 1658: 1657: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1631:The India Forum 1625: 1624: 1620: 1612: 1603: 1595: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1568: 1561: 1553: 1546: 1538: 1531: 1523: 1516: 1508: 1501: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1479: 1469: 1465: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1411:Thermal reactor 1391:Energy security 1376: 1371: 1369: 1362: 1355: 1352: 1331: 1246: 1245: 1244: 1234: 1224: 1217: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1203: 1202: 1196: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1172: 1171: 1170: 1164: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1148: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1132: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1108: 1107: 1106: 1099: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1087:Mumbai(Trombay) 1083: 1075: 1074: 1073: 1065: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1047: 1039: 1038: 1037: 1029: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1011: 1003: 1002: 1001: 993: 985: 984: 983: 975: 959: 895: 810: 788:U.S. President 782: 774: 761: 733: 712: 673: 667: 588: 533: 460:(1180 MW) (2 x 396: 391:deuterium oxide 366:natural uranium 346: 310: 302: 262: 253:155–168 or 358 195:Amount (tonnes) 122: 116: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6010: 6008: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5984: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5934: 5932: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5878: 5876: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5868: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5819:Dhruva reactor 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5717: 5716: 5713: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5688: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5670: 5667: 5662: 5659: 5654: 5650: 5648: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5623: 5618: 5609: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5591: 5589: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566: 5560: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5535: 5533:Stage II - FBR 5529: 5528: 5526: 5525: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5502: 5500: 5498:Stage I - PHWR 5491: 5482: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5456: 5451: 5449: 5448: 5441: 5434: 5426: 5419: 5418: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5384: 5360: 5336: 5310: 5307: 5306: 5305: 5283: 5255: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5157: 5137: 5118: 5079: 5053: 5033: 5009: 4983: 4963: 4943: 4923: 4914:on 3 June 2010 4897: 4878: 4861: 4844: 4806: 4787: 4768: 4750: 4725: 4716:on 13 May 2013 4701: 4681: 4643: 4624: 4607: 4590: 4570: 4542: 4541: 4516: 4492: 4468: 4445: 4420: 4396: 4372: 4357:The Australian 4348: 4326: 4304: 4285:McHugh, Liam, 4282: 4259: 4238: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4206: 4182: 4154: 4130: 4106: 4082: 4054: 4033: 4009: 3981: 3959: 3937: 3915: 3885:(2): 129–134. 3868: 3843: 3815: 3806:on 22 May 2013 3785: 3757: 3729: 3701: 3673: 3641: 3632:on 18 May 2013 3611: 3583: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3550: 3520: 3499: 3478: 3458: 3438: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3409: 3392: 3377: 3360: 3345: 3340: 3327: 3322: 3309: 3304: 3291: 3286: 3273: 3260: 3237: 3232: 3219: 3214: 3201: 3196: 3183: 3178: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3151: 3139: 3137:, p. 252. 3127: 3115: 3103: 3091: 3087:S.K. Jain 2009 3079: 3064: 3052: 3050:, pp. 97. 3040: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2980: 2968: 2956: 2944: 2932: 2920: 2908: 2893: 2881: 2866: 2864:, p. 229. 2851: 2839: 2827: 2815: 2803: 2773: 2747: 2721: 2695: 2683: 2671: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2623: 2611: 2599: 2587: 2554: 2542: 2530: 2518: 2506: 2494: 2482: 2478:S.K. Jain 2009 2470: 2458: 2446: 2434: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2386: 2371: 2352: 2337: 2325: 2321:Mukherjee 2018 2313: 2301: 2289: 2285:S.K. Jain 2009 2277: 2273:The Hindu 2011 2265: 2253: 2241: 2229: 2217: 2202: 2187: 2172: 2155: 2143: 2128: 2116: 2101: 2089: 2074: 2057: 2045: 2033: 2021: 2009: 1994: 1982: 1970: 1958: 1943: 1931: 1919: 1907: 1895: 1893:, p. 513. 1883: 1871: 1859: 1847: 1843:S.K. Jain 2009 1835: 1823: 1802: 1790: 1778: 1776:, p. 157. 1766: 1762:S.K. Jain 2009 1751: 1739: 1727: 1710: 1693: 1681: 1648: 1618: 1601: 1586: 1574: 1572:, p. 135. 1559: 1544: 1529: 1514: 1499: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1463: 1448: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1381: 1367: 1351: 1348: 1330: 1327: 1314:Manmohan Singh 1308: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1242:Planned plants 1207: 1206: 1198: 1197: 1190: 1189: 1182: 1181: 1174: 1173: 1166: 1165: 1158: 1157: 1150: 1149: 1142: 1141: 1134: 1133: 1126: 1125: 1118: 1117: 1110: 1109: 1101: 1100: 1093: 1092: 1085: 1084: 1077: 1076: 1067: 1066: 1059: 1058: 1049: 1048: 1041: 1040: 1031: 1030: 1023: 1022: 1013: 1012: 1005: 1004: 995: 994: 987: 986: 977: 976: 969: 968: 962: 961: 960: 958: 955: 894: 891: 864: 863: 860: 856: 855: 852: 848: 847: 844: 840: 839: 836: 832: 831: 828: 809: 806: 797:Manmohan Singh 794:Prime Minister 790:George W. Bush 781: 778: 773: 770: 760: 757: 732: 729: 711: 708: 666: 663: 653: 652: 649: 646: 642: 641: 638: 635: 631: 630: 627: 624: 620: 619: 616: 613: 609: 608: 607:Th–U233 cycle 605: 602: 587: 584: 532: 529: 421:respectively. 397:O) is used as 394: 345: 342: 308: 300: 280:district near 261: 258: 255: 254: 251: 248: 244: 243: 240: 237: 233: 232: 229: 226: 222: 221: 218: 215: 211: 210: 207: 204: 200: 199: 196: 193: 181:Prime Minister 144:nuclear energy 115: 112: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6009: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5958: 5955: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5935: 5933: 5929: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5877: 5875:Organisations 5873: 5867: 5864: 5861: 5858: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5814:CIRUS reactor 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5729: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5634: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5530: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5507: 5504: 5503: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5440: 5435: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5424: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5391: 5387: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5361: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5337: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5309:News articles 5308: 5295: 5291: 5290: 5284: 5270: 5263: 5262: 5256: 5245: 5241: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5217: 5216:IEEE Spectrum 5214: 5211: 5210:IEEE Spectrum 5208: 5197: 5193: 5192: 5187: 5186: 5181: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5147: 5143: 5138: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5110:|agency= 5102: 5087: 5086: 5080: 5069: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5010: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4933: 4929: 4924: 4913: 4909: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4887: 4886:Business Line 4883: 4879: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4851: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4836:|agency= 4828: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4758: 4757: 4751: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4702: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4678: 4673:|agency= 4665: 4650: 4649: 4644: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4614: 4613: 4608: 4597: 4596: 4591: 4580: 4579:Deccan Herald 4576: 4571: 4560: 4556: 4555:The Telegraph 4552: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4544:</ref> 4530: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4435: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4410: 4407:, Hyderabad, 4406: 4402: 4397: 4386: 4382: 4381:The Telegraph 4378: 4373: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4349: 4338: 4334: 4333: 4327: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4305: 4294: 4290: 4289: 4283: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4249: 4245: 4244: 4239: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4215: 4211:News articles 4210: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4169: 4162: 4161: 4155: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4107: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4069: 4062: 4061: 4055: 4044: 4040: 4039: 4034: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4010: 3996: 3989: 3988: 3982: 3971: 3967: 3966: 3960: 3949: 3945: 3944: 3938: 3923: 3922: 3916: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3869: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3844: 3830: 3823: 3822: 3816: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3786: 3772: 3765: 3764: 3758: 3744: 3737: 3736: 3730: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3702: 3688: 3681: 3680: 3674: 3660: 3656: 3649: 3648: 3642: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3612: 3598: 3591: 3590: 3584: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3559: 3554: 3537: 3533: 3526: 3521: 3510: 3506: 3505: 3500: 3489: 3485: 3484: 3479: 3465: 3464: 3459: 3445: 3444: 3439: 3425: 3424: 3419: 3418: 3413: 3399: 3395: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3378: 3367: 3363: 3357: 3353: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3325: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3253: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3235: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3217: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3199: 3193: 3189: 3184: 3181: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3148: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3128: 3125:, p. 26. 3124: 3119: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3092: 3089:, p. 10. 3088: 3083: 3080: 3077:, p. 78. 3076: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2933: 2930:, p. 51. 2929: 2924: 2921: 2918:, p. 39. 2917: 2912: 2909: 2906:, p. 62. 2905: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2882: 2878: 2873: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2849:, p. 47. 2848: 2843: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2828: 2825:, p. 43. 2824: 2819: 2816: 2813:, p. 45. 2812: 2807: 2804: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2774: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2709: 2705: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2612: 2609:, p. 16. 2608: 2607:Banerjee 2010 2603: 2600: 2597:, p. 98. 2596: 2591: 2588: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2531: 2528:, p. 21. 2527: 2526:Banerjee 2010 2522: 2519: 2516:, p. 89. 2515: 2510: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2471: 2467: 2462: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2447: 2444:, p. 14. 2443: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2406:Srikanth 2011 2402: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2302: 2299:, p. 90. 2298: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2257: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2233: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2218: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183:Banerjee 2010 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2153:, p. 93. 2152: 2147: 2144: 2141:, p. 88. 2140: 2135: 2133: 2129: 2126:, p. 31. 2125: 2120: 2117: 2113: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2046: 2042: 2041:Kademani 2006 2037: 2034: 2031:, p. 61. 2030: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1992:, p. 91. 1991: 1986: 1983: 1980:, pp. 8. 1979: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1959: 1955: 1950: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1884: 1881:, p. 60. 1880: 1875: 1872: 1868: 1863: 1860: 1857:, p. 59. 1856: 1851: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1791: 1788:, p. 77. 1787: 1782: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1682: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1597:Banerjee 2010 1593: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1570:Ferguson 2007 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495:Majumdar 1999 1491: 1488: 1482: 1474: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1453: 1450: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1415: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1384: 1383: 1379: 1368: 1365: 1364:Energy portal 1359: 1354: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1343:fast breeders 1340: 1336: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1315: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1298: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1221: 1215: 1210: 1201: 1185: 1169: 1153: 1137: 1121: 1104: 1088: 1072: 1071: 1054: 1053: 1036: 1035: 1018: 1017: 1000: 999: 982: 981: 966: 956: 954: 950: 946: 944: 940: 939:Anil Kakodkar 936: 932: 930: 926: 917: 916:123 Agreement 913: 910: 906: 903: 899: 892: 890: 888: 884: 880: 874: 870: 861: 858: 857: 853: 850: 849: 845: 842: 841: 837: 834: 833: 829: 826: 825: 822: 818: 816: 807: 805: 798: 795: 791: 786: 779: 777: 771: 769: 766: 758: 756: 754: 750: 745: 743: 738: 730: 728: 726: 722: 718: 709: 707: 705: 699: 697: 693: 689: 682: 677: 672: 664: 662: 660: 650: 647: 644: 643: 639: 636: 633: 632: 628: 625: 622: 621: 617: 614: 611: 610: 606: 604:U238–Pu cycle 603: 600: 599: 596: 594: 586:Doubling time 585: 583: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 556: 552: 550: 546: 545:plutonium-239 542: 538: 530: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 505: 501: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 442:Kaiga station 439: 435: 431: 426: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 392: 388: 384: 380: 375: 374:plutonium-239 371: 367: 359: 355: 350: 343: 341: 337: 334: 330: 326: 320: 317: 312: 306: 297: 294: 290: 285: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 259: 252: 249: 246: 245: 241: 238: 235: 234: 230: 227: 224: 223: 219: 216: 213: 212: 208: 205: 202: 201: 197: 194: 191: 190: 187: 185: 182: 178: 172: 167: 164: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 134: 130: 126: 121: 113: 111: 108: 104: 98: 94: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 49: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 5931:Other topics 5488: 5411:, retrieved 5402: 5377:, retrieved 5373:the original 5368: 5353:, retrieved 5345:The Guardian 5344: 5329:, retrieved 5321:The Guardian 5320: 5298:, retrieved 5288: 5276:, retrieved 5269:the original 5260: 5248:, retrieved 5238: 5200:, retrieved 5196:the original 5190: 5170:, retrieved 5165: 5150:, retrieved 5146:The Guardian 5145: 5130:, retrieved 5125: 5090:, retrieved 5084: 5072:, retrieved 5068:the original 5061: 5046:, retrieved 5041: 5026:, retrieved 5022:the original 5017: 5002:, retrieved 4998:the original 4991: 4976:, retrieved 4971: 4956:, retrieved 4952:The Guardian 4951: 4936:, retrieved 4932:The Guardian 4931: 4916:, retrieved 4912:the original 4905: 4890:, retrieved 4885: 4871:, retrieved 4865: 4854:, retrieved 4848: 4816:, retrieved 4810: 4799:, retrieved 4794: 4780:, retrieved 4776: 4761:, retrieved 4755: 4743:, retrieved 4739:the original 4732: 4718:, retrieved 4714:the original 4709: 4694:, retrieved 4689: 4653:, retrieved 4647: 4636:, retrieved 4631: 4617:, retrieved 4611: 4600:, retrieved 4594: 4582:. Retrieved 4578: 4563:, retrieved 4559:the original 4554: 4543: 4533:. Retrieved 4524: 4508:. Retrieved 4499: 4484:. Retrieved 4475: 4461:, retrieved 4452: 4438:, retrieved 4434:the original 4427: 4413:, retrieved 4404: 4389:, retrieved 4380: 4365:, retrieved 4356: 4341:, retrieved 4337:the original 4331: 4319:, retrieved 4309: 4297:, retrieved 4293:the original 4287: 4275:, retrieved 4266: 4252:, retrieved 4242: 4231:, retrieved 4222: 4199:, retrieved 4190: 4175:, retrieved 4159: 4147:, retrieved 4138: 4110: 4099:, retrieved 4090: 4075:, retrieved 4059: 4047:, retrieved 4043:the original 4037: 4026:, retrieved 4017: 4002:, retrieved 3995:the original 3986: 3974:, retrieved 3964: 3952:, retrieved 3948:the original 3942: 3929:, retrieved 3920: 3907:. Retrieved 3882: 3878: 3860:. Retrieved 3851: 3836:, retrieved 3829:the original 3820: 3808:, retrieved 3801:the original 3796: 3778:, retrieved 3771:the original 3762: 3750:, retrieved 3734: 3722:, retrieved 3713: 3709: 3694:, retrieved 3687:the original 3678: 3666:, retrieved 3659:the original 3646: 3634:, retrieved 3627:the original 3622: 3604:, retrieved 3597:the original 3588: 3576:, retrieved 3567: 3543:, retrieved 3536:the original 3531: 3513:, retrieved 3503: 3492:, retrieved 3482: 3471:, retrieved 3462: 3451:, retrieved 3442: 3431:, retrieved 3422: 3402:, retrieved 3382: 3370:, retrieved 3350: 3331: 3313: 3295: 3277: 3266:the original 3251: 3241:Ramana, M.V. 3223: 3205: 3187: 3169: 3147:Dikshit 2010 3142: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3055: 3043: 3031: 3019: 3007: 3002:, p. 8. 2995: 2983: 2971: 2959: 2947: 2935: 2923: 2911: 2884: 2877:Kalidas 2007 2842: 2830: 2818: 2806: 2794:. Retrieved 2785: 2776: 2764:. Retrieved 2750: 2738:. Retrieved 2724: 2714:18 September 2712:. Retrieved 2698: 2686: 2679:Rahman 2011b 2674: 2662: 2655:ZeeNews 2009 2650: 2638: 2626: 2614: 2602: 2590: 2578:. Retrieved 2574:the original 2569: 2545: 2533: 2521: 2509: 2497: 2485: 2480:, p. 4. 2473: 2461: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2413: 2401: 2396:, p. 7. 2389: 2328: 2316: 2304: 2292: 2287:, p. 9. 2280: 2268: 2256: 2244: 2232: 2220: 2185:, p. 6. 2146: 2119: 2092: 2070:Gadekar 2008 2055:, p. 4. 2048: 2036: 2024: 2012: 1985: 1973: 1961: 1934: 1922: 1910: 1898: 1886: 1874: 1869:, p. 8. 1862: 1850: 1845:, p. 2. 1838: 1833:, p. 7. 1826: 1793: 1781: 1769: 1764:, p. 3. 1742: 1735:Physorg 2010 1730: 1723:Rahman 2011a 1684: 1672:. Retrieved 1663: 1639:. Retrieved 1630: 1621: 1599:, p. 9. 1577: 1542:, p. 3. 1527:, p. 1. 1490: 1466: 1452: 1378:India portal 1332: 1311: 1259: 1256: 1251: 1247: 1241: 1231: 1068: 1050: 1032: 1014: 996: 978: 951: 947: 937: 933: 921: 875: 871: 867: 819: 811: 802: 792:and India's 775: 762: 746: 734: 713: 700: 685: 679:A sample of 656: 589: 557: 553: 534: 506: 502: 427: 423: 363: 338: 321: 313: 298: 286: 274:Tummalapalle 263: 214:Hydrocarbons 174: 169: 165: 138: 99: 95: 54: 53: 29: 5966:Solar power 5675:PURNIMA-III 5044:, New Delhi 4974:, Frontline 4692:, Kalpakkam 4535:1 September 4510:1 September 4405:The Tribune 3351:Environment 3111:Ramesh 2009 3075:Ramana 2007 3036:Harvey 2010 3000:Gordon 2008 2928:Tellis 2006 2904:Maitra 2009 2847:Tellis 2006 2811:Tellis 2006 2502:Bucher 2009 2442:Bucher 2009 2394:Bucher 2009 2097:Tellis 2006 2053:Bucher 2009 2029:Maitra 2009 1978:Tellis 2006 1966:Bromby 2011 1915:Dharur 2012 1879:Maitra 2009 1855:Maitra 2009 1786:Ramana 2007 1706:Tellis 2006 1582:Tellis 2006 1540:Gordon 2008 1525:Bucher 2009 907:and Indian 843:carbide-Lee 692:uranium-233 688:thorium-232 623:carbide-Lee 549:uranium-233 387:uranium-238 383:uranium-235 160:uranium-233 140:Homi Bhabha 79:South India 59:Homi Bhabha 5986:Categories 5971:Wind power 5860:Pokhran-II 5753:Kudankulam 5672:PURNIMA-II 3404:18 October 3372:18 October 3012:Bagla 2006 2988:Gupta 2011 2976:Burns 2005 2550:Kalam 2011 2382:Kamat 2010 2112:IDFC-Sethi 1954:Patel 2009 1674:12 January 1641:12 January 1483:References 1152:Kudankulam 669:See also: 543:made from 523:'s of the 494:Rawatbhata 458:Rawatbhata 316:parliament 217:12 billion 206:54 billion 156:transmuted 118:See also: 97:reserves. 41:rare earth 39:powder, a 5854:Pokhran-I 5669:PURNIMA-I 5521:IPHWR-700 5516:IPHWR-540 5511:IPHWR-220 5399:"Thorium" 5388:Web books 5166:The Hindu 5112:ignored ( 5018:Frontline 4838:ignored ( 4777:The Hindu 4690:The Hindu 4675:ignored ( 4632:The Hindu 4127:153516024 3899:216161923 3123:Hargraves 2952:Puri 2007 2823:Kerr 2011 2168:BARC 2007 1903:Bedi 2011 1689:Sasi 2014 1444:Footnotes 1184:Rajasthan 1034:Gorakhpur 601:Fuel Type 580:Kalpakkam 566:(IGCAR). 486:IPHWR-700 474:Kalpakkam 466:IPHWR-220 454:IPHWR-540 446:IPHWR-220 419:IPHWR-700 415:IPHWR-540 411:IPHWR-220 399:moderator 282:Hyderabad 231:0.3–0.42 5748:Kakrapar 5706:Proposed 5595:IPWR-900 5564:AHWR-300 5413:22 March 5407:archived 5397:(2009), 5379:21 March 5355:25 March 5349:archived 5331:21 March 5325:archived 5300:20 March 5294:archived 5244:archived 5202:11 April 5152:21 March 5132:23 March 5101:citation 5074:29 March 5028:11 April 5004:11 April 4954:, Mumbai 4934:, Mumbai 4918:11 April 4892:21 March 4873:14 April 4856:13 April 4827:citation 4818:13 April 4801:13 April 4782:13 April 4763:11 April 4745:26 March 4720:25 March 4664:citation 4584:19 April 4529:Archived 4504:Archived 4486:11 April 4480:Archived 4457:archived 4440:25 March 4415:27 April 4409:archived 4391:27 April 4385:archived 4361:archived 4343:20 March 4321:20 March 4315:archived 4271:archived 4248:archived 4227:archived 4201:27 March 4195:archived 4191:Vol 24.1 4168:archived 4149:27 March 4143:archived 4101:29 March 4095:archived 4077:29 March 4068:archived 4022:archived 4004:11 April 3976:23 April 3970:archived 3954:13 April 3909:11 April 3903:Archived 3856:Archived 3838:29 March 3810:15 April 3743:archived 3724:29 March 3718:archived 3696:26 March 3668:29 April 3647:Aim High 3636:27 March 3606:26 March 3572:archived 3545:29 March 3515:26 March 3509:archived 3494:21 March 3488:archived 3453:14 April 3433:14 April 3398:archived 3366:archived 3243:(2007), 3170:Volume 5 3048:Rai 2009 2940:Rai 2009 2790:Archived 2760:Archived 2734:Archived 2708:Archived 2430:Jha 2019 2151:Rai 2009 1939:Fin 2011 1668:Archived 1635:Archived 1350:See also 1120:Kakrapar 1016:Banswara 980:Jaitapur 765:Fermilab 719:(IADS), 527:series. 517:IPWR-900 490:Kakrapar 470:Kakrapar 356:has two 305:monazite 276:mine in 250:~300,000 105:and the 91:breeding 75:monazite 37:Monazite 5849:Pokhran 5773:Tarapur 5661:ZERLINA 5621:CLWR-B2 5616:CLWR-B1 5546:FBR-600 5289:Thorium 5278:1 March 5250:1 March 5172:5 April 5168:, Paris 5148:, Delhi 5092:7 April 4978:8 April 4958:1 March 4938:1 March 4696:2 March 4655:5 April 4638:3 March 4619:3 March 4602:3 March 4367:5 April 4299:4 March 4277:4 March 4254:4 March 4233:5 April 4177:7 April 4049:5 April 4028:9 April 3931:8 April 3780:4 March 3752:5 April 3578:4 March 3473:5 April 3156:Sources 2782:"India" 1555:Jayaram 1200:Tarapur 1052:Kovvada 859:carbide 681:thorium 645:carbide 498:4200 MW 482:220 MWe 450:Tarapur 432:of the 403:coolant 368:fueled 247:Thorium 177:India's 152:fission 148:fissile 71:thorium 67:uranium 45:thorium 5763:Narora 5692:KAMINI 5665:Dhruva 5653:APSARA 4125: 3897: 3862:18 May 3390: 3358: 3338: 3320: 3302: 3284: 3258: 3230: 3212: 3194: 3176: 2796:23 May 2766:27 May 2740:27 May 2580:23 May 1927:McHugh 1471:done.( 1240: 1230: 1168:Narora 1105: 998:Chutka 881:, the 862:3.15% 854:4.08% 846:2.31% 838:1.73% 478:Narora 464:, 2 x 456:) and 278:Kadapa 242:16–54 239:61,000 228:61,000 179:first 5743:Kaiga 5684:IGCAR 5657:CIRUS 5612:CLWR 5506:IPHWR 5272:(PDF) 5265:(PDF) 5048:2 May 4565:2 May 4463:2 May 4171:(PDF) 4164:(PDF) 4123:S2CID 4071:(PDF) 4064:(PDF) 4018:75(6) 3998:(PDF) 3991:(PDF) 3925:(PDF) 3895:S2CID 3832:(PDF) 3825:(PDF) 3804:(PDF) 3793:(PDF) 3774:(PDF) 3767:(PDF) 3746:(PDF) 3739:(PDF) 3716:(1), 3690:(PDF) 3683:(PDF) 3662:(PDF) 3651:(PDF) 3630:(PDF) 3619:(PDF) 3600:(PDF) 3593:(PDF) 3539:(PDF) 3528:(PDF) 3467:(PDF) 3447:(PDF) 3427:(PDF) 3269:(PDF) 3248:(PDF) 3161:Books 1103:Kaiga 851:metal 835:oxide 640:75.1 634:metal 612:oxide 525:IPHWR 462:CANDU 434:IPHWR 407:IPHWR 358:IPHWR 270:NPCIL 5646:BARC 5541:PFBR 5415:2012 5381:2012 5357:2012 5333:2012 5302:2012 5280:2012 5252:2012 5204:2012 5174:2012 5154:2012 5134:2012 5114:help 5094:2012 5076:2012 5050:2012 5030:2012 5006:2012 4980:2012 4960:2012 4940:2012 4920:2012 4894:2012 4875:2012 4858:2012 4840:help 4820:2012 4803:2012 4784:2012 4765:2012 4747:2012 4722:2012 4698:2012 4677:help 4657:2012 4640:2012 4621:2012 4604:2012 4586:2019 4567:2012 4537:2014 4512:2014 4488:2021 4465:2012 4442:2012 4417:2012 4393:2012 4369:2012 4345:2012 4323:2012 4301:2012 4279:2012 4256:2012 4235:2012 4203:2012 4179:2012 4151:2012 4103:2012 4079:2012 4051:2012 4030:2012 4006:2012 3978:2012 3956:2012 3933:2012 3911:2021 3864:2021 3840:2012 3812:2012 3782:2012 3754:2012 3726:2012 3698:2012 3670:2012 3638:2012 3608:2012 3580:2012 3568:BARC 3547:2012 3517:2012 3496:2012 3475:2012 3455:2012 3435:2012 3406:2016 3388:ISBN 3374:2016 3356:ISBN 3336:ISBN 3318:ISBN 3300:ISBN 3282:ISBN 3256:ISBN 3228:ISBN 3210:ISBN 3192:ISBN 3174:ISBN 2798:2017 2768:2017 2742:2017 2716:2016 2582:2017 1676:2022 1643:2022 1306:275 1300:2050 1295:131 1289:2040 1278:2030 1267:Year 1214:view 1070:PFBR 827:Type 749:AHWR 747:The 737:AHWR 648:10.2 618:108 615:17.8 576:PFBR 521:PHWR 492:and 476:and 417:and 401:and 379:LWRs 352:The 266:IAEA 203:Coal 69:and 43:and 4710:TNN 4115:doi 3887:doi 1303:208 1292:104 1284:63 929:NSG 651:70 637:8.5 629:50 578:at 393:, D 209:11 158:to 107:NSG 5988:: 5401:, 5367:, 5347:, 5343:, 5323:, 5319:, 5164:, 5144:, 5124:, 5105:: 5103:}} 5099:{{ 5060:, 5040:, 5016:, 4990:, 4970:, 4950:, 4930:, 4904:, 4884:, 4831:: 4829:}} 4825:{{ 4793:, 4775:, 4731:, 4708:, 4688:, 4668:: 4666:}} 4662:{{ 4630:, 4577:. 4553:, 4527:. 4523:. 4498:. 4474:. 4451:, 4426:, 4403:, 4383:, 4379:, 4359:, 4355:, 4265:, 4221:, 4189:, 4137:, 4121:, 4089:, 4016:, 3901:. 3893:. 3881:. 3877:. 3850:. 3795:, 3714:II 3712:, 3708:, 3653:, 3621:, 3566:, 3530:, 3396:, 3364:, 3067:^ 2896:^ 2869:^ 2854:^ 2788:. 2784:. 2732:. 2706:. 2568:. 2557:^ 2374:^ 2355:^ 2340:^ 2205:^ 2190:^ 2175:^ 2158:^ 2131:^ 2104:^ 2077:^ 2060:^ 1997:^ 1946:^ 1805:^ 1754:^ 1713:^ 1696:^ 1666:. 1662:. 1651:^ 1629:. 1604:^ 1589:^ 1562:^ 1547:^ 1532:^ 1517:^ 1502:^ 1475:). 1461:). 1337:, 1281:48 889:. 626:10 472:, 413:, 291:, 220:6 5445:e 5438:t 5431:v 5116:) 4842:) 4679:) 4588:. 4539:. 4514:. 4490:. 4117:: 3935:. 3913:. 3889:: 3883:9 3866:. 3149:. 3113:. 3101:. 3062:. 3038:. 3026:. 3014:. 2978:. 2966:. 2891:. 2837:. 2800:. 2770:. 2744:. 2718:. 2693:. 2681:. 2669:. 2657:. 2645:. 2633:. 2621:. 2584:. 2552:. 2540:. 2492:. 2456:. 2432:. 2420:. 2408:. 2384:. 2369:. 2350:. 2335:. 2323:. 2311:. 2275:. 2263:. 2251:. 2239:. 2227:. 2215:. 2200:. 2170:. 2114:. 2087:. 2072:. 2043:. 2019:. 2007:. 1968:. 1956:. 1941:. 1929:. 1917:. 1905:. 1821:. 1749:. 1737:. 1725:. 1691:. 1678:. 1645:. 1616:. 1512:. 1497:. 1216:) 690:– 395:2 309:2 301:2 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.