Dawes Act - Knowledge

1255:, was issued in 1928. Its conclusions and recommendations formed the basis for land reform provisions that were included in what would become the IRA. "The original versions of the IRA included two key titles; one dealing with probate and the other with land consolidation." Because of opposition to many of these provisions in Indian Country, often by the major European-American ranchers and industry who leased land and other private interests, most were removed while Congress was considering the bill. The final version of the IRA included only a few basic land reforms and probate measures. Although Congress enabled major reforms in the structure of tribes through the IRA and stopped the allotment process, it did not meaningfully address fractionation as had been envisioned by 1266:(GAO) conducted an audit of 12 reservations to determine the severity of fractionation on those reservations. The GAO found that on the 12 reservations for which it compiled data, there were approximately 80,000 discrete owners but, because of fractionation, there were over a million ownership records associated with those owners. The GAO also found that if the land were physically divided by the fractional interests, many of these interests would represent less than one square foot of ground. In early 2002, the Department of the Interior attempted to replicate the audit methodology used by the GAO and to update the GAO report data to assess the continued growth of fractionation." It found that it increased by more than 40% between 1992 and 2002. 47: 527: 1051:

settlers who encountered Native American societies in the latter half of the nineteenth century "judged women's work as lower in status than that of men" and assumed it was a sign of indigenous women's "disempowerment and drudgery". As a result, "in evolutionary terms, Whites saw women's performance of what seemed to be male tasks – farming, home building, and supply gathering – as a corruption of gender roles and an impediment to progress." In theory, the gendered tasks "accorded many indigenous women esteem and even rewards and status within their tribes."

1226:, stated that there were "approximately four million owner interests in the 10,000,000 acres (40,000 km) of individually owned trust lands, a situation the magnitude of which makes management of trust assets extremely difficult and costly." "These four million interests could expand to eleven million interests by the year 2030 unless an aggressive approach to fractionation is taken." "There are now single pieces of property with ownership interests that are less than 0.0000001% or 1/9 millionth of the whole interest, which has an estimated value of 0.004 cent." 990:

educational funding" to Native Americans long after its passage. Under Dawes, land parcels were dispersed in accordance with perceived blood quanta. Indigenous people labeled "full-blooded" were allocated "relatively small parcels of land deeded with trust patents over which the government retained complete control for a minimum of twenty-five years." Those who were labeled "mixed-blood" were "deeded larger and better tracts of land, with 'patents in fee simple' (complete control), but were also forced to accept U.S. citizenship and relinquish tribal status."

4454: 521: 623:". Between 1887 and 1934, Native Americans ceded control of about 100 million acres of land (as of 2019 the United States has a total 1.9 billion acres of land) or about "two-thirds of the land base they held in 1887" as a result of the act. The loss of land ownership and the break-up of traditional leadership of tribes produced potentially negative cultural and social effects that have since prompted some scholars to consider the act as one of the most destructive U.S. policies for Native Americans in history. 811:

culture. They adopted the values of the dominant society and saw land as real estate to be bought and developed; they learned how to use their land effectively to become prosperous farmers. As they were inducted as citizens of the country, they would shed those of their discourses and ideologies presumed to be uncivilized and exchange them for ones that allowed them to become industrious, self-supporting citizens, and finally rid themselves of their need for government supervision.

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sold to non-Native buyers at bargain prices. Additionally, land deemed to be surplus beyond what was needed for allotment was opened to White settlers, though the profits from the sales of these lands were often invested in programs meant to aid the Native Americans. Over the 47 years of the Act's life, Native Americans lost about 90 million acres (360,000 km) of treaty land, or about two-thirds of the 1887 land base. About 90,000 Native Americans were made landless.

1244:"Unlike most private trusts, the federal government bears the entire cost of administering the Indian trust. As a result, the usual incentives found in the commercial sector for reducing the number of small or inactive accounts do not apply to the Indian trust. Similarly, the United States has not adopted many of the tools that States and local government entities have for ensuring that unclaimed or abandoned property is returned to productive use within the local community." 225: 1063:

private property ownership was the cornerstone of the act, reformers "believed that civilization could only be effected by concomitant changes to social life" in indigenous communities. As a result, "they promoted Christian marriages among indigenous people, forced families to regroup under male heads (a tactic often enforced by renaming), and trained men in wage-earning occupations while encouraging women to support them at home through domestic activities."

708: 716: 5321: 957: 766:, while compulsory for Native Americans, allotted each tribe a claim to their new lands, protection over their territories, and the right to govern themselves. With the U.S. Senate to be involved only for negotiation and ratification of treaties, the Native Americans adjusted their ways of life and tried to maintain their traditions. The traditional tribal organization, a defining characteristic of 1151: 1293:

highly fractionated parcels of land, the government spends more money probating estates, maintaining title records, leasing the land, and attempting to manage and distribute tiny amounts of income to individual owners than is received in income from the land. In many cases, the costs associated with managing these lands can be significantly more than the value of the underlying asset."

1080:... the Secretary of the Interior may, in his discretion, and he is hereby authorized, whenever he shall be satisfied that any Native American allottee is competent and capable of managing his or her affairs at any time to cause to be issued to such allottee a patent in fee simple, and thereafter all restrictions as to sale, encumbrance, or taxation of said land shall be removed. 1241:"Under current regulations, probates need to be conducted for every account with trust assets, even those with balances between one cent and one dollar. While the average cost for a probate process exceeds $ 3,000, even a streamlined, expedited process...costing as little as $ 500 would require almost $ 10,000,000 to probate the $ 5,700 in these accounts." 1280:

denominator used to compute fractional interests in the property is 3,394,923,840,000. The smallest heir receives $ .01 every 177 years. If the tract were sold (assuming the 439 owners could agree) for its estimated $ 8,000 value, he would be entitled to $ .000418. The administrative costs of handling this tract are estimated by the

658:. But, because there was no method of determining precise bloodlines, commission members often assigned "full-blood status" to Native Americans who were perceived as "poorly-assimilated" or "legally incompetent", and "mixed-blood status" to Native Americans who "most resembled whites", regardless of how they identified culturally. 1215:. As original allottees die, their heirs receive equal, undivided interests in the allottees' lands. In successive generations, smaller undivided interests descend to the next generation. Fractionated interests in individual Native American allotted land continue to expand exponentially with each new generation. 1084:

The use of competence opens up the categorization, making it much more subjective and thus increasing the exclusionary power of the Secretary of Interior. Although this act gave power to the allottee to decide whether to keep or sell the land, given the harsh economic reality of the time, and lack of

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In 1890, Dawes himself remarked about the incidence of Native Americans losing their land allotments to settlers: "I never knew a White man to get his foot on an Indian's land who ever took it off." The amount of land in native hands rapidly depleted from some 150 million acres (610,000 km)

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The Dawes Act ended Native American communal holding of property (with cropland often being privately owned by families or clans), by which they had ensured that everyone had a home and a place in the tribe. The act "was the culmination of American attempts to destroy tribes and their governments and

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of 1906 amended the sections of the Dawes Act dealing with US Citizenship (Section 6) and the mechanism for issuing allotments. The Secretary of Interior could force the Native American Allottee to accept title for land. U.S. Citizenship was granted unconditionally upon receipt of land allotment (the

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Every member of the bands or tribes receiving a land allotment is subject to laws of the state or territory in which they reside. Every Native American who receives a land allotment "and has adopted the habits of civilized life" (lived separate and apart from the tribe) is bestowed with United States

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was a top priority and was needed for the peoples' very survival. This was the belief among people who "admired" them, as well as people who thought they needed to leave behind their tribal landholding, reservations, traditions, and, ultimately, their Indian identities. Senator Henry Dawes launched a

1320:) was systematically manipulated to deprive the Native Americans of their lands and resources. Ellen Fitzpatrick claimed that Debo's book "advanced a crushing analysis of the corruption, moral depravity, and criminal activity that underlay White administration and execution of the allotment policy." 1062:

and values of economic dependency strictly within this small household unit. The Dawes Act was thus implemented to destroy "native cultural patterns" by drawing "on theories, common to both ethnologists and material feminists, that saw environmental change as a way to effect social change." Although

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the real aim was to get at the Indian lands and open them up to settlement. The provisions for the apparent benefit of the Indians are but the pretext to get at his lands and occupy them. ... If this were done in the name of greed, it would be bad enough; but to do it in the name of humanity ... is

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Today, this tract produces $ 2,000 in income annually and is valued at $ 22,000. It now has 505 owners but the common denominator used to compute fractional interests has grown to 220,670,049,600,000. If the tract were sold (assuming the 505 owners could agree) for its estimated $ 22,000 value, the

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to people classified "competent and capable". The criteria for this determination is unclear but it meant that allottees deemed "competent" by the Secretary of the Interior would have their land taken out of trust status, subject to taxation, and could be sold by the allottee. The allotted lands of

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and farm wives through the assignment of individual land holdings known as allotments." In an attempt to fulfill this objective, the Dawes Act "outlawed Native American culture and established a code of Indian offenses regulating individual behavior according to Euro-American norms of conduct." Any

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Most allottees given land on the Great Plains were not successful at achieving economic viability via farming. Division of land among heirs upon the allottees' deaths quickly led to land fractionalization. Most allotment land, which could be sold after a statutory period of 25 years, was eventually

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of 1898 extended the provisions of the Dawes Act to the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory. It did away with their self-government, including tribal courts. In addition to providing for allotment of lands to tribal members, it authorized the Dawes Commission to make determinations of members

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The Act facilitated assimilation; they would become more "Americanized" as the government allotted the reservations and the Indians adapted to subsistence farming, the primary model at the time. Native Americans held specific ideologies pertaining to tribal land. Some natives began to adapt to the

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proposed establishing "colonies" or "reservations" that would be exclusively for the natives, similar to those which some native tribes had created for themselves in the east. It was a form of relocation whereby the US government would offer a transfer of the natives from current locations to areas

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Additionally, Native Americans who did not "meet the established criteria" as being either "full-blood" or "mixed-blood" were effectively "detribalized", being "deposed of their American Indian identity and displaced from their homelands, discarded into the nebula of American otherness." While the

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annually from all sources of trust asset management, including coal sales, timber harvesting, oil and gas leases and other rights-of-way and lease activity. No single fiduciary institution has ever managed as many trust accounts as the Department of the Interior has managed over the last century.

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were settling on the eastern border of the Indian territories (where most of the Native American tribes had been relocated). Conflicts between the groups increased as they competed for resources and operated according to different cultural systems. Searching for a quick solution to their problem,

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In addition, the fractionation of land and the resultant ballooning number of trust accounts quickly produced an administrative nightmare. Over the past 40 years, the area of trust land has grown by approximately 80,000 acres (320 km) per year. Approximately 357 million dollars is collected

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Fractionation has become significantly worse. As noted above, in some cases the land is so highly fractionated that it can never be made productive. With such small ownership interests, "it is nearly impossible to obtain the level of consent necessary to lease the land." "In addition, to manage

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Interior is involved in "the management of 100,000 leases for individual and tribes on trust land that encompasses approximately 56,000,000 acres (230,000 km). Leasing, use permits, sale revenues, and interest of approximately $ 226 million per year are collected for approximately 230,000

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With the seizure of many Native American land holdings, indigenous structures of domestic life, gender roles, and tribal identity were critically altered in order to meld with society. For instance, "an important objective of the Dawes Act was to restructure Native American gender roles." White

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The Dawes Act compelled Native Americans to adopt European American culture by prohibiting Indigenous cultural practices and encouraging settler cultural practices and ideologies into Native American families and children. By transferring communally-owned Native land into private property, the

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The federal government initially viewed the Dawes Act as such a successful democratic experiment that they decided to further explore the use of blood-quantum laws and the notion of federal recognition as the qualifying means for "dispensing other resources and services such as health care and

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Tract 1305 is 40 acres (160,000 m) and produces $ 1,080 in income annually. It is valued at $ 8,000. It has 439 owners, one-third of whom receive less than $ .05 in annual rent and two-thirds of whom receive less than $ 1. The largest interest holder receives $ 82.85 annually. The common

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extended the provisions of the Dawes Act to the "Five Civilized Tribes", required the abolition of their governments and dissolution of tribal courts, allotment of communal lands to individuals registered as tribal members, and sale of lands declared surplus. This law was "an outgrowth of the

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to 78 million acres (320,000 km) by 1900. The remainder of the land, once allotted to appointed natives, was declared surplus and sold to non-native settlers as well as railroad and other large corporations; other sections were converted into federal parks and military compounds.

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and proprietary relationship with property" that did not previously exist in their cultures. Before private property could be dispensed, the government had to determine which Indians were eligible for allotments, which propelled an official search for a federal definition of "Indian-ness".

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S. 1721, a Bill to Amend the Indian Land Consolidation Act to Improve Provisions Relating to Probate of Trust and Restricted Land: Legislative Hearing Before the Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress, Second Session, Wednesday, June 23,

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The new policy intended to concentrate Native Americans in areas away from the new settlers. During the later nineteenth century, Native American tribes resisted the imposition of the reservation system and engaged with the United States Army (in what were called the

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military force and continuing waves of new settlers, the tribes negotiated agreements to resettle on reservations. Native Americans ended up with a total of over 155 million acres (630,000 km) of land, ranging from arid deserts to prime agricultural land.

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individual Indian money accounts, and about $ 530 million per year are collected for approximately 1,400 tribal accounts. In addition, the trust currently manages approximately $ 2.8 billion in tribal funds and $ 400 million in individual Native American funds."

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could issue rules to assure equal distribution of water for irrigation among the tribes, and provided that "no other appropriation or grant of water by any riparian proprietor shall be authorized or permitted to the damage of any other riparian proprietor."

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as a social unit, became apparent to the non-native communities of the United States. The tribe was viewed as a highly cohesive group, led by a hereditary, chosen chief, who exercised power and influence among the members of the tribe by aging traditions.

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violations of this code were to be "tried in a Court of Indian Offenses on each reservation." Included with the Dawes Act were "funds to instruct Native Americans in Euro-American patterns of thought and behavior through Indian Service schools."

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Allowed for pro-rata distribution when the reservation did not have enough land for each individual to receive allotments in original quantities, and provided that when land is only suitable for grazing purposes, such land be allotted in double

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to open Indian lands to settlement by non-Indians and to development by railroads." Land owned by Native Americans decreased from 138 million acres (560,000 km) in 1887 to 48 million acres (190,000 km) in 1934.

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A head of family would receive a grant of 160 acres (65 ha), a single person or orphan over 18 years of age would receive a grant of 80 acres (32 ha), and persons under the age of 18 would receive 40 acres (16 ha)

1104: – documented fraud and misappropriation by government agents. In particular, the Meriam Report claimed that the General Allotment Act had been used to illegally deprive Native Americans of their land rights. 1126:

Despite the termination of the allotment process in 1934, the effects of the General Allotment Act continue into the present. For example, one provision of the Act was the establishment of a trust fund, administered by the

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signed the Dawes Allotment Act into law. Responsible for enacting the allotment of the tribal reservations into plots of land for individual households, the Dawes Act was intended by reformers to achieve six goals:

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The economic consequences of fractionation are severe. Some recent appraisal studies suggest that when the number of owners of a tract of land reaches between ten and twenty, the value of that tract drops to zero.

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individual did not need to move off the reservation to receive citizenship). Land allotted to Native Americans was taken out of Trust and subject to taxation. The Burke Act did not apply to any Native Americans in

1131:, to collect and distribute revenues from oil, mineral, timber, and grazing leases on Native American lands. The BIA's alleged improper management of the trust fund resulted in litigation, in particular the case 65:

An Act to provide for the allotment of lands in severalty to Indians on the various reservations, and to extend the protection of the laws of the United States and the Territories over the Indians, and for other

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was one of the most outspoken opponents of allotment. In 1881, he said that allotment was a policy "to despoil the Indians of their lands and to make them vagabonds on the face of the earth." Teller also said,

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access to credit and markets, liquidation of Indian lands was almost inevitable. It was known by the Department of Interior that virtually 95% of fee-patented land would eventually be sold to whites.

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Dawes Act is "typically recognized" as the "primary instigation of divisions between tribal and detribalized Indians," the history of detribalization in the United States "actually precedes Dawes."

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would remain Indian land in perpetuity," completed the obliteration of tribal land titles in Indian Territory, and prepared for admission of the territory land to the Union as the state of

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Although the act was passed in 1887, the federal government implemented the Dawes Act on a tribe-by-tribe basis thereafter. For example, in 1895, Congress passed the

3062: 1674: 895:, and Western Miami tribes by act of 1889. Allotment of the lands of these tribes was mandated by the Act of 1891, which amplified the provisions of the Dawes Act. 5356: 5000: 4615: 4385: 2616: 347: 321: 5005: 326: 4284: 3493: 3272: 1071:

In 1906, the Burke Act (also known as the Forced Patenting Act) amended the GAA to give the Secretary of the Interior the power to issue allottees a patent in

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conducted a major study of the conditions of the Native Americans and included data on the impacts of fractionation. This report, which became known as the

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Native Americans determined to be incompetent by the Secretary of the Interior were automatically leased out by the federal government. The act reads:

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smallest heir would now be entitled to $ .00001824." The administrative costs of handling this tract in 2003 are estimated by the BIA at $ 42,800."

494: 475: 456: 1431:"General Allotment Act (or Dawes Act), Act of Feb. 8, 1887 (24 Stat. 388, ch. 119, 25 USCA 331), Acts of Forty-ninth Congress–Second Session, 1887" 5126: 4903: 4830: 3463: 3146: 2060: 839: 390: 2212: 4995: 4787: 4542: 4206: 969:

The effects of the Dawes Act were destructive on Native American sovereignty, culture, and identity since it empowered the U.S. government to:

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Eligible Native Americans had four years to select their land; afterward the selection would be made for them by the Secretary of the Interior.

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was established in 1893 as a delegation to register members of tribes for allotment of lands. They came to define tribal belonging in terms of

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parcels, legislators hoped to complete the assimilation process by forcing Native Americans to adopt individual households and strengthen the

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tribal communal landholdings into allotments for Native American heads of families and individuals. This would convert traditional systems of

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Stremlau, Rose. (2005). "To Domesticate and Civilize Wild Indians": Allotment and the Campaign to Reform Indian Families, 1875–1887.

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campaign to "rid the nation of tribalism through the virtues of private property, allotting land parcels to Indian heads of family."

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commissioned a study of the federal administration of Indian policy and the condition of Native American people. Completed in 1928,

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citizenship "without in any manner impairing or otherwise affecting the right of any such Indian to tribal or other property".

670:, and completed the extinction of Indian land claims in the territory. This violated the promise of the United States that the 609: 352: 130: 122: 5025: 4906: 4875: 4777: 4747: 4514: 4294: 4163: 3747: 3344: 3227: 3085: 2688: 1176: 357: 2435:

Olund, Eric N. (2002). "Public Domesticity during the Indian Reform Era; or, Mrs. Jackson is induced to go to Washington."

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For over one hundred thirty years, the consequences of federal Indian allotments have developed into the problem of

4757: 4559: 4437: 3988: 3576: 3292: 2536: 2378: 1172: 106: 4669: 2045: 5324: 5161: 5072: 4868: 4823: 4502: 3910: 3633: 3334: 2895: 2822: 2680: 1405: 1339: 1263: 1108: 863: 700:(also known as the Wheeler-Howard Law) on June 18, 1934. It prohibited any further land allotment and created a " 697: 425: 46: 5269: 5217: 4508: 4221: 4063: 3983: 3968: 3759: 3047: 2949: 2925: 2752: 1281: 1161: 1128: 1039: 2193:. Wilcomb E. Washburn and William C. Sturtevant, eds. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1988. pp. 226–29 1490:

The Settlement of America: An Encyclopedia of Westward Expansion from Jamestown to the Closing of the Frontier

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After considerable debate, Congress terminated the allotment process under the Dawes Act by enacting the

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Native peoples who were deemed to be mixed-blood were granted U.S. citizenship, while others were "

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Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: Volume 2 Hispanic Americans and Native Americans

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Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: Volume 2 Hispanic Americans and Native Americans

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Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Lake Mohonk Conference of Friends of the Indian

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Making Home Work: Domesticity and Native American Assimilation in the American West, 1860–1919

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federal government attempted to address what it referred to as the "Indian Problem." Numerous

667: 5310: 5245: 5099: 5062: 4960: 4891: 4818: 4797: 4216: 4153: 4148: 3768: 3615: 3566: 3309: 3257: 2104: 1943:"Dawes Severalty Act Amendments of 1891 (Statutes at Large 26, 794–96, NADP Document A1891)" 1313: 1055: 945: 851: 783: 689: 671: 651: 593: 576:) regulated land rights on tribal territories within the United States. Named after Senator 512: 507: 305: 294: 266: 256: 239: 224: 204: 17: 5052: 3777: 3763: 3709: 3247: 3232: 3079: 2808: 2728: 2632: 2600: 2064: 1678: 1395: 1271: 1007: 915: 620: 5146: 3561: 2121:

Struggle for Land: Native North American Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Colonization

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Schultz, Jeffrey D.; Aoki, Andrew L.; Haynie, Kerry L.; McCulloch, Anne M., eds. (2000).

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Schultz, Jeffrey D.; Aoki, Andrew L.; Haynie, Kerry L.; McCulloch, Anne M., eds. (2000).

1370: 1308:(1940), claimed the allotment policy of the Dawes Act (as later extended to apply to the 976:

implement the specious notion of blood-quantum as the legal criteria for defining Indians

410: 4377: 1269:"As an example of continuing fractionation, consider a real tract identified in 1987 in 5275: 5239: 5187: 5151: 4191: 3841: 3536: 3531: 3433: 3304: 3299: 3136: 2913: 2584: 1385: 1059: 738: 707: 577: 415: 186: 166: 1488:

Blansett, Kent (2015). Crutchfield, James A.; Moutlon, Candy; Del Bene, Terry (eds.).

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Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought, 10th Anniversary Edition

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Red Pedagogy: Native American Social and Political Thought, 10th Anniversary Edition

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United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes

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Debo, Angie. And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes

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Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian–White Relations, Volume 4

1137:(settled in 2009 for $ 3.4 billion), to force a proper accounting of revenues. 4099: 3796: 3786: 3773: 3735: 3731: 3701: 3650: 3526: 3131: 1459: 1301: 1072: 927: 892: 597: 31: 2370: 2137:(2nd ed.). Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. pp. 104–105. 4023: 3930: 3816: 3806: 3726: 3717: 3596: 2883: 2462: 1334: 940: 888: 682: 635: 2474:

Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory

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Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.

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Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898

827:

the allotments would be held in trust by the U.S. Government for 25 years;

4955: 3925: 3831: 3721: 3713: 3689: 3684: 3443: 3169: 2456: 1946: 1360: 1011: 701: 675: 647: 643: 631: 2205:"The History of "Competency" as a Tool to Control Native American Lands" 1554:

M. B. Osburn, Katherine (1998). Mccall, Laura; Yacovone, Donald (eds.).

869:

a strip of territory in the State of Nebraska adjoining the Sioux Nation

3697: 3498: 3428: 2082:

Major Acts of Congress:Indian General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) (1887).

639: 134: 1605:"The U.S. Has Nearly 1.9 Billion Acres of Land. Here's How It is Used" 1259:, then Commissioner of Indian Affairs, or the Brookings Institution. 1112: 1043: 1887:

Norman: U. of OK Press, 1973, pp. 5–6. Originally published in 1934.

850:

Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, Miami, and Peoria in

650:) in Indian Territory were initially exempt from the Dawes Act. The 4860: 1306:

And Still the Waters Run: The Betrayal of the Five Civilized Tribes

979:

institutionalize divisions between "full-bloods" and "mixed-bloods"

973:

legally preempt the sovereign right of Indians to define themselves

4116:

List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations

4044:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

1793:

Sandweiss, Martha A., Carol A. O’ Connor, and Clyde A. Milner II.

1715:

Sandweiss, Martha A., Carol A. O’ Connor, and Clyde A. Milner II.

1111:

of 1934 ("Wheeler-Howard Act"). However, the allotment process in

955: 714: 706: 2832:

List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes

584:, it authorized the President of the United States to subdivide 4864: 4381: 3173: 2482: 806:

opening the remainder of the land to White settlers for profit.

3391:

Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)

1144: 880: 774:

By the end of the 1880s, some U.S. stakeholders felt that the

2308:

Resources, United States Congress House Committee on (2004).

3268:

Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas

1874:. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. p. 3. Print. 1861:. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. p. 2. Print. 4678:

County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State

2713:

County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State

1809:

Red pedagogy: Native American social and political thought

1556:

A Shared Experience: Men, Women, and the History of Gender

27:

US legislative act regulating Native American tribal lands

2046:

Terry L. Anderson, Property Rights Among Native Americans

1719:, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p. 174. Print. 982:"detribalize" a sizeable segment of the Indian population 3994:

Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States

2244:"History of Indian Land Consolidation | Indian Affairs" 2123:. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2002. p. 48. Print. 2974:

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

2938:

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act

2459:: full text from the Native American Documents Project 2165:. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 10–11. 803:

securing parts of the reservations as Indian land, and

776:

assimilation of Native Americans into American culture

1848:. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. p. 1. 846:

The Dawes Act did not apply to the territory of the:

4721:

City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York

4662:

Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida

2785:

City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York

2665:

Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida

1732:, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1991. p. 1 1672:"The Thirties in America: Indian Reorganization Act" 1247:

Fractionation is not a new issue. In the 1920s, the

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Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation

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Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art

2840: 2641:

Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation

2520: 2469:

Wheeler-Howard Act (Indian Reorganization Act) 1934

2393:

History's Memory: Writing America's Past, 1880–1980

173: 155: 145: 140: 121: 102: 97: 89: 78: 70: 61: 53: 1811:. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 96. 960:A 1911 ad offering "allotted Indian land" for sale 754:in the West) for decades. Finally defeated by the 681:The Dawes Act was amended again in 1906 under the 107: 5352:United States federal Native American legislation 1797:. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. p. 174 4344:List of Indian reservations in the United States 4009:Native American recognition in the United States 2737:Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield 1885:The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands. 1119:, continued until its revocation in 1971 by the 1042:(OIA) "hoped to transform Native Americans into 819:The important provisions of the Dawes Act were: 3063:Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 1277: 4616:United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co. 4069:The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) 2617:United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co. 1693:Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto 1528:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 142–143. 1466:. National Archives and Records Administration 1222:, Special Trustee for American Indians at the 985:legally appropriate vast tracts of Indian land 312:22nd & 24th President of the United States 4876: 4393: 3494:Native American identity in the United States 3185: 2494: 2396:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 614:their absorption into the American mainstream 608:, which administered the Dawes Act among the 545: 8: 5048:Agricultural Experiment Stations Act of 1887 4339:State-recognized tribes in the United States 4121:Modern social statistics of Native Americans 2721:South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc. 1923:act of 1889, March 2, ch. 422 (post, p. 344) 1695:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 54. 1454: 1452: 39: 4444:Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 1745:, Westport, Connecticut: 1981. p. 6. Print. 1651:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 607. 1626:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 608. 1179:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 800:reducing the cost of native administration, 4883: 4869: 4861: 4538: 4419: 4400: 4386: 4378: 3315:Native Americans in the American Civil War 3192: 3178: 3170: 2657:McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission 2501: 2487: 2479: 1335:Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906 797:furthering the progress of native farmers, 552: 538: 215: 4322:Native American Medal of Honor recipients 3330:Cultural assimilation of Native Americans 2463:Dawes Act (1887) Information & Videos 2269:"What is Fractionation? | Indian Affairs" 2109:. The Lake Mohonk Conference. p. 87. 2025:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 164. 1681:, Salem Press, Retrieved August 13, 2013. 1199:Learn how and when to remove this message 724:Creation of reservations and assimilation 596:by forcing Native Americans to "assume a 4941:New York Institute for Special Education 4477:(1790, 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) 3680:Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924) 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 1872:The Dispossession of the American Indian 1859:The Dispossession of the American Indian 1846:The Dispossession of the American Indian 1730:The Dispossession of the American Indian 1581:A History of American Law: Third Edition 1376:Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations 1096: – commonly known as the 5382:Settlement schemes in the United States 4843:Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians 4831:Tribal sovereignty in the United States 3010:Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians 1795:The Oxford History of The American West 1717:The Oxford History of The American West 1422: 791:breaking up of tribes as a social unit, 218: 4686:South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe 1347:, Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act 879:Provisions were later extended to the 38: 5357:Aboriginal title in the United States 4705:Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho 4409:Aboriginal title in the United States 4054:National Congress of American Indians 3999:Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women 3962:National Congress of American Indians 3901:American Indian Religious Freedom Act 3489:Native American disease and epidemics 3263:European colonization of the Americas 2944:American Indian Religious Freedom Act 2761:Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho 2514:Native Americans in the United States 2338: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2156: 2154: 1583:. Simon & Schuster. p. 387. 1351:Aboriginal title in the United States 7: 5038:Dependent and Disability Pension Act 4635:Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States 4059:National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) 3916:Native American people and Mormonism 3760:Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879) 2625:Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States 2381:website (retrieved January 9, 2009). 1758:, Westport, Connecticut: 1981, p. 1. 1549: 1547: 1545: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1483: 1481: 1177:adding citations to reliable sources 1094:The Problem of Indian Administration 911:Established criteria for inheritance 592:into a government-imposed system of 5377:United States federal Indian policy 5347:Native American history of Oklahoma 5011:Presidential Succession Act of 1886 4836:List of federally recognized tribes 4608:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy 4327:List of federally recognized tribes 2932:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 2593:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy 2315:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1121:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 1088:In 1926, Secretary of the Interior 1054:By dividing reservation lands into 903:In 1891 the Dawes Act was amended: 794:encouraging individual initiatives, 5372:Repealed United States legislation 4432:Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions 4090:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 4085:Black Indians in the United States 4049:Native American Rights Fund (NARF) 3325:Certificate Degree of Indian Blood 112:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 25: 5157:Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom 5073:Indian Appropriations Act of 1889 4589:New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble 4014:Native American women in politics 3365:Native Americans and World War II 3350:Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 3102:National Indian Gaming Commission 2697:Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe 2561:New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble 2203:Bartecchi D (February 19, 2007). 931:when registering tribal members. 5320: 5319: 4452: 3646:Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877) 3634:Antelope Hills expedition (1858) 3370:American Indian boarding schools 2649:Menominee Tribe v. United States 2135:Alaska Natives and American Laws 2103:Barrows, Isabel C., ed. (1890). 1149: 719:The second page of the Dawes Act 525: 519: 223: 45: 5021:Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 4064:Women of All Red Nations (WARN) 2856:(1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834) 1967:Dawes Amendment Sec 1 and Sec 2 1769:Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land, 1492:. Routledge. pp. 161–162. 1224:U.S. Department of the Interior 862:any of the reservations of the 782:On February 8, 1887, President 737:Commissioner of Indian Affairs 711:The first page of the Dawes Act 353:Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 5120:Democratic National Convention 5093:Democratic National Convention 5026:Interstate Commerce Commission 4989:Democratic National Convention 4907:President of the United States 4515:Indian Land Claims Settlements 4164:Native American Pidgin English 3969:American Indian Movement (AIM) 3345:Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 3228:Archaic period in the Americas 3086:In the Courts of the Conqueror 2689:Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez 1833:Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land 1782:Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land 1756:Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land 1743:Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land 1579:Friedman, Lawrence M. (2005). 358:Interstate Commerce Commission 1: 5192:Grover Cleveland High School 4946:1881 Buffalo mayoral election 4521:Indian Claims Limitations Act 3862:Battle of Kelley Creek (1911) 3638:Comanche Campaign (1867–1875) 3626:Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877) 2968:Native American Languages Act 856:Osage and Sac and Fox in the 696:administration passed the US 74:General Allotment Act of 1887 4951:1882 New York state election 4670:Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe 4509:Indian Claims Commission Act 3957:Native American civil rights 3867:Battle of Bear Valley (1918) 3852:Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909) 3847:Battle of Sugar Point (1898) 3769:Rogue River Wars (1855–1856) 3396:Native American civil rights 3107:Native American civil rights 2962:Indian Gaming Regulatory Act 2801:Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl 2071:(retrieved 29 December 2009) 1100:after the study's director, 965:Identity and detribalization 922:Provisions of the Curtis Act 728:During the early 1800s, the 18:Indian General Allotment Act 5367:49th United States Congress 5137:Sherman Silver Purchase Act 4936:Grover Cleveland Birthplace 4310:Native American politicians 4300:Native American War Leaders 3778:Puget Sound War (1855–1856) 3764:Ghost Dance War (1890–1891) 3756:Great Sioux War (1876–1877) 3752:Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) 3736:First Sioux War (1854-1856) 3664:Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886) 3386:Native American Rights Fund 3122:Recognition of sacred sites 3117:Native American Rights Fund 3022:Federally recognized tribes 2902:Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act 2189:. "Indian Land Transfers." 2133:Case DS, Voluck DA (2002). 1117:Alaska Native Allotment Act 935:Provisions of the Burke Act 875:The Osage Tribe of Oklahoma 872:Red Lake Ojibwe Reservation 815:Provisions of the Dawes Act 574:Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 84:49th United States Congress 57:Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 5403: 5110:1892 presidential election 5083:1888 presidential election 4979:1884 presidential election 4560:Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 4438:Royal Proclamation of 1763 3989:Occupation of Wounded Knee 3706:Black Hawk War (1865–1872) 3694:Battle at Fort Utah (1850) 3676:Geronimo's War (1881–1886) 3672:Victorio's War (1879–1880) 3577:American Revolutionary War 2980:Indian Arts and Crafts Act 2537:Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 2437:Gender, Place, and Culture 2379:Princeton University Press 2161:Simonsen, Jane E. (2006). 1691:Deloria, Vine Jr. (1988). 1558:. NYU Press. p. 247. 29: 5291: 5172:National Democratic Party 5162:Venezuelan crisis of 1895 5001:Wedding to Frances Folsom 4898: 4450: 4357: 4171:Native American languages 3911:Native American religions 3660:Jicarilla War (1849–1855) 3642:Red River War (1874–1875) 3630:Comanche Wars (1836–1877) 3335:Indian Appropriations Act 2896:Indian Reorganization Act 2823:Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta 2681:United States v. Antelope 2444:Journal of Family History 1406:Indian termination policy 1340:Indian Reorganization Act 1264:General Accounting Office 1109:Indian Reorganization Act 899:Dawes Act 1891 Amendments 864:Seneca Nation of New York 840:Secretary of the Interior 742:in the region beyond the 698:Indian Reorganization Act 178: 44: 5270:Richard Falley Cleveland 5218:Mount Cleveland (Alaska) 5142:Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act 5078:Federal judges appointed 3984:Trail of Broken Treaties 3812:Hualapai War (1865–1870) 3802:Yavapai Wars (1861–1875) 3782:Coeur d'Alene War (1858) 3744:Colorado War (1863–1865) 3048:Bureau of Indian Affairs 2950:Indian Child Welfare Act 2753:South Dakota v. Bourland 2406:excerpt available online 2375:And Still the Waters Run 1282:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1129:Bureau of Indian Affairs 1067:Reduction of sovereignty 1040:Office of Indian Affairs 1033:Culture and gender roles 421:Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act 232:This article is part of 30:Not to be confused with 4440:(British North America) 4159:American Indian English 4095:Louisiana Creole people 3885:Native American studies 3837:Bannock Uprising (1895) 3792:Navajo Wars (1849–1866) 3748:Powder River War (1865) 3656:Apache Wars (1849–1924) 3474:Mesoamerican literature 3469:Indigenous Peoples' Day 3278:Partus sequitur ventrem 3097:Long Walk of the Navajo 3027:State recognized tribes 2926:Indian Civil Rights Act 1275:, 481 U.S. 704 (1987): 5213:Cleveland, Mississippi 4909:(1885–1889, 1893–1897) 4848:Legal status of Hawaii 4814:Indigenous land rights 4713:Idaho v. United States 3979:Occupation of Alcatraz 3921:Native American church 3787:Mohave War (1858–1859) 3774:Yakima War (1855–1858) 3732:Sioux Wars (1854–1891) 3710:White River War (1879) 3698:Walker War (1853–1854) 3582:Cherokee–American wars 3112:Native American gaming 3015:Legal status of Hawaii 2890:Indian Citizenship Act 2769:Idaho v. United States 2673:Bryan v. Itasca County 2609:Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock 2569:Standing Bear v. Crook 2021:Grande, Sandy (2015). 1985:Dawes Amendment Sec. 5 1976:Dawes Amendment Sec. 4 1807:Grande, Sandy (2015). 1524:Grande, Sandy (2015). 1381:Checkerboarding (land) 1286: 1082: 1022: 961: 720: 712: 442:Presidential campaigns 4581:Fellows v. Blacksmith 4434:(1629 New Netherland) 3842:Yaqui Uprising (1896) 3817:Modoc War (1872–1873) 3807:Snake War (1864–1869) 3722:Bluff Skirmish (1921) 3718:Bluff War (1914–1915) 3668:Tonto War (1871–1875) 3419:Mississippian culture 3382:Civil rights movement 3283:Five Civilized Tribes 2920:Indian Relocation Act 2777:United States v. Lara 2553:Fellows v. Blacksmith 1356:Competency Commission 1310:Five Civilized Tribes 1284:at $ 17,560 annually. 1249:Brookings Institution 1115:, under the separate 1078: 1017: 959: 718: 710: 694:Franklin D. Roosevelt 628:Five Civilized Tribes 570:General Allotment Act 431:Judicial appointments 375:Judicial appointments 5362:1887 in American law 5252:Richard F. Cleveland 5167:Enabling Act of 1889 5033:Tenure of Office Act 4918:Governor of New York 3857:Last Massacre (1911) 3822:Nez Perce War (1877) 3690:Ute Wars (1850–1923) 3587:Northwest Indian War 3340:Racial Integrity Act 2545:Worcester v. Georgia 2215:on December 11, 2008 2084:accessed 21 May 2011 2056:Kidwell, Clara Sue. 1949:on February 16, 2022 1754:Carlson, Leonard A. 1741:Carlson, Leonard A. 1401:Tribal disenrollment 1391:Detraditionalization 1173:improve this section 1134:Cobell v. Kempthorne 370:Enabling Act of 1889 343:Tenure of Office Act 5304:←Benjamin Harrison→ 5297:← Chester A. Arthur 5284:(great-grandfather) 5127:Second inauguration 5016:Electoral Count Act 4552:Johnson v. McIntosh 4469:Northwest Ordinance 4133:Reservation poverty 4078:Ethnic subdivisions 3950:Political movements 3611:Second Seminole War 3522:Anglo-Powhatan Wars 3092:Indian reservations 3053:Cherokee Commission 2529:Johnson v. McIntosh 2390:Ellen Fitzpatrick, 734:European immigrants 568:(also known as the 391:Second inauguration 207:on February 8, 1887 174:Legislative history 41: 5311:William McKinley → 5282:Richard Falley Jr. 4996:First inauguration 4503:Reorganization Act 4498:Curtis Act of 1898 4475:Nonintercourse Act 4034:Civic and economic 4019:Tribal sovereignty 3974:Red Power Movement 3941:Longhouse Religion 3876:Education, science 3827:Bannock War (1878) 3621:American Civil War 3572:Lord Dunmore's War 3360:Blood quantum laws 3243:Post-Classic stage 3152:Self-determination 3147:Tribal sovereignty 3073:Eagle-bone whistle 2866:Indian Removal Act 2854:Nonintercourse Act 2848:Blood quantum laws 2815:McGirt v. Oklahoma 2209:Pine Ridge Project 2063:2010-02-07 at the 1870:McDonnell, Janet. 1857:McDonnell, Janet. 1844:McDonnell, Janet. 1728:McDonnell, Janet. 1677:2013-08-28 at the 1460:"Dawes Act (1887)" 1345:Nelson Act of 1889 1318:Curtis Act of 1898 962: 914:Does not apply to 858:Oklahoma Territory 764:Reservation system 721: 713: 663:Curtis Act of 1898 338:First inauguration 185:in the Senate by 150:25 U.S.C.: Indians 54:Other short titles 5334: 5333: 5258:Francis Cleveland 5234:Frances Cleveland 5196:Buffalo, New York 5058:Berlin Conference 5043:Hatch Act of 1887 4858: 4857: 4731: 4730: 4530: 4529: 4375: 4374: 3906:Eagle feather law 3797:Paiute War (1860) 3740:Dakota War (1862) 3702:Tintic War (1856) 3616:Osage Indian War 3547:King Philip's War 3167: 3166: 3068:Eagle feather law 3002:State recognition 2793:Cobell v. Salazar 2705:Solem v. Bartlett 2577:Ex parte Crow Dog 2457:Dawes Act of 1887 2322:978-0-16-074225-5 2144:978-1-889963-08-2 2119:Churchill, Ward. 1932:Otis, pp. 177–188 1209: 1208: 1201: 1020:infinitely worse. 744:Mississippi River 668:land rush of 1889 566:Dawes Act of 1887 562: 561: 426:Venezuelan crisis 322:Executive actions 293:28th Governor of 249: 248: 214: 213: 124:Statutes at Large 16:(Redirected from 5394: 5323: 5322: 5246:Esther Cleveland 5100:Murchison letter 4961:Westland Mansion 4921: 4910: 4892:Grover Cleveland 4885: 4878: 4871: 4862: 4819:Aboriginal title 4539: 4456: 4420: 4402: 4395: 4388: 4379: 4285:Native Americans 4154:American English 3727:Posey War (1923) 3444:Iroquois culture 3310:Indian Territory 3258:Age of Discovery 3194: 3187: 3180: 3171: 3043:Aboriginal title 2860:Civilization Act 2796:(D.C. Cir. 2009) 2503: 2496: 2489: 2480: 2409: 2408:at Google Books. 2388: 2382: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2348: 2340: 2327: 2326: 2305: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2240: 2234: 2231: 2225: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2211:. Archived from 2200: 2194: 2187:Arrell M. Gibson 2183: 2177: 2176: 2158: 2149: 2148: 2130: 2124: 2117: 2111: 2110: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2085: 2080:Gunn, Steven J. 2078: 2072: 2054: 2048: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2007: 1998:. Archived from 1992: 1986: 1983: 1977: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1959: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1945:. Archived from 1939: 1933: 1930: 1924: 1921: 1915: 1914:Dawes Act Sec. 8 1912: 1906: 1905:Dawes Act Sec. 7 1903: 1897: 1896:Dawes Act Sec. 6 1894: 1888: 1881: 1875: 1868: 1862: 1855: 1849: 1842: 1836: 1831:Carlson (1981), 1829: 1823: 1822: 1804: 1798: 1791: 1785: 1780:Carlson (1981). 1778: 1772: 1767:Carlson (1981). 1765: 1759: 1752: 1746: 1739: 1733: 1726: 1720: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1688: 1682: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1619: 1613: 1612: 1601: 1595: 1594: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1551: 1540: 1539: 1521: 1504: 1503: 1485: 1476: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1464:OurDocuments.gov 1456: 1447: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1433:. Archived from 1427: 1314:Dawes Commission 1204: 1197: 1193: 1190: 1184: 1153: 1145: 946:Indian Territory 852:Indian Territory 784:Grover Cleveland 768:Native Americans 690:Great Depression 672:Indian territory 652:Dawes Commission 594:private property 554: 547: 540: 529: 528: 523: 245: 244: 242: 241:Grover Cleveland 235: 227: 220: 219: 216: 205:Grover Cleveland 159:sections created 125: 113: 109: 93:February 8, 1887 49: 42: 21: 5402: 5401: 5397: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5287: 5266:(granddaughter) 5222: 5176: 5053:Texas Seed Bill 4965: 4924: 4913: 4902: 4894: 4889: 4859: 4854: 4802: 4727: 4697:Rehnquist Court 4692: 4649: 4622: 4600:1890—1950 4595: 4566: 4526: 4457: 4448: 4411: 4406: 4376: 4371: 4353: 4273: 4175: 4137: 4104: 4073: 4037: 4035: 4028: 3945: 3889: 3877: 3871: 3832:Crow War (1887) 3503: 3429:Hohokam culture 3405: 3248:Woodland period 3233:Formative stage 3204: 3201:Native American 3198: 3168: 3163: 3080:Hunting license 3031: 3000: 2991: 2908:Nationality Act 2836: 2809:Sharp v. Murphy 2729:Hodel v. Irving 2633:Williams v. Lee 2601:Talton v. Mayes 2516: 2507: 2453: 2418: 2416:Further reading 2413: 2412: 2389: 2385: 2369: 2365: 2355: 2353: 2346: 2342: 2341: 2330: 2323: 2307: 2306: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2267: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2250: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2233:Robertson, 2002 2232: 2228: 2218: 2216: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2184: 2180: 2173: 2160: 2159: 2152: 2145: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2118: 2114: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2093:Otis, pp. 18–19 2092: 2088: 2079: 2075: 2065:Wayback Machine 2055: 2051: 2044: 2040: 2033: 2020: 2019: 2015: 2005: 2003: 2002:on May 25, 2011 1994: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1952: 1950: 1941: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1895: 1891: 1882: 1878: 1869: 1865: 1856: 1852: 1843: 1839: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1806: 1805: 1801: 1792: 1788: 1779: 1775: 1766: 1762: 1753: 1749: 1740: 1736: 1727: 1723: 1714: 1710: 1703: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1679:Wayback Machine 1670: 1666: 1659: 1646: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1621: 1620: 1616: 1603: 1602: 1598: 1591: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1553: 1552: 1543: 1536: 1523: 1522: 1507: 1500: 1487: 1486: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1458: 1457: 1450: 1440: 1438: 1437:on May 25, 2011 1429: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1396:Detribalization 1326: 1299: 1272:Hodel v. Irving 1205: 1194: 1188: 1185: 1170: 1154: 1143: 1069: 1056:privately owned 1035: 1008:Henry M. Teller 1000: 967: 954: 937: 924: 916:Cherokee Outlet 901: 817: 726: 586:Native American 558: 526: 524: 517: 504: 503:Post-presidency 501: 443: 440: 387: 384: 334: 331: 313: 310: 297: 291: 240: 238: 237: 236: 233: 231: 210: 201:Signed into law 123: 111: 79:Enacted by 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5400: 5398: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5339: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5315: 5314: 5307: 5300: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5285: 5279: 5276:Rose Cleveland 5273: 5267: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5240:Ruth Cleveland 5237: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5190: 5188:Cleveland Park 5184: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5152:Pullman Strike 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5096: 5095: 5090: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5029: 5028: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5006:Foreign policy 5003: 4998: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4975: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4932: 4930: 4926: 4925: 4923: 4922: 4911: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4865: 4856: 4855: 4853: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4816: 4810: 4808: 4804: 4803: 4801: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4739: 4737: 4733: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4725: 4717: 4709: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4690: 4682: 4674: 4666: 4657: 4655: 4651: 4650: 4648: 4647: 4639: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4612: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4585: 4576: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4556: 4547: 4545: 4543:Marshall Court 4536: 4532: 4531: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4484: 4478: 4472: 4465: 4463: 4459: 4458: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4435: 4428: 4426: 4417: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4405: 4404: 4397: 4390: 4382: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4335: 4334: 4324: 4319: 4318: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4281: 4279: 4275: 4274: 4272: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4249:North Carolina 4246: 4241: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4183: 4181: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4145: 4143: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4124: 4123: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4081: 4079: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4040: 4038: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3965: 3964: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3887: 3881: 3879: 3878:and technology 3873: 3872: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3771: 3766: 3729: 3724: 3714:Ute War (1887) 3687: 3682: 3653: 3648: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3537:Peach Tree War 3534: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3513: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3434:Plains Indians 3431: 3426: 3421: 3415: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3403: 3401:Discrimination 3398: 3393: 3388: 3379: 3378: 3377: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3305:Trail of Tears 3302: 3300:Indian removal 3297: 3296: 3295: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3199: 3197: 3196: 3189: 3182: 3174: 3165: 3164: 3162: 3161: 3156: 3155: 3154: 3144: 3139: 3137:Trail of Tears 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3089: 3082: 3077: 3076: 3075: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3024: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3006: 3004: 2993: 2992: 2990: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2941: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2914:Public Law 280 2911: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2850:(1705 onwards) 2844: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2819: 2805: 2797: 2789: 2781: 2773: 2765: 2757: 2749: 2741: 2733: 2725: 2717: 2709: 2701: 2693: 2685: 2677: 2669: 2661: 2653: 2645: 2637: 2629: 2621: 2613: 2605: 2597: 2589: 2585:Elk v. Wilkins 2581: 2573: 2572:(D. Neb. 1879) 2565: 2557: 2549: 2541: 2533: 2524: 2522: 2518: 2517: 2508: 2506: 2505: 2498: 2491: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2465:– Chickasaw.TV 2460: 2452: 2451:External links 2449: 2448: 2447: 2440: 2433: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2383: 2363: 2328: 2321: 2285: 2260: 2235: 2226: 2195: 2178: 2171: 2150: 2143: 2125: 2112: 2095: 2086: 2073: 2049: 2038: 2031: 2013: 1987: 1978: 1969: 1960: 1934: 1925: 1916: 1907: 1898: 1889: 1876: 1863: 1850: 1837: 1824: 1818:978-0742518292 1817: 1799: 1786: 1773: 1760: 1747: 1734: 1721: 1708: 1701: 1683: 1664: 1657: 1639: 1632: 1614: 1596: 1589: 1571: 1564: 1541: 1534: 1505: 1498: 1477: 1448: 1421: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1414: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1386:Indian Removal 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1325: 1322: 1298: 1295: 1262:"In 1922, the 1207: 1206: 1157: 1155: 1148: 1142: 1139: 1068: 1065: 1060:nuclear family 1044:yeoman farmers 1034: 1031: 999: 996: 987: 986: 983: 980: 977: 974: 966: 963: 953: 950: 936: 933: 923: 920: 919: 918: 912: 909: 900: 897: 877: 876: 873: 870: 867: 860: 854: 832: 831: 828: 825: 816: 813: 808: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 739:William Medill 725: 722: 578:Henry L. Dawes 560: 559: 557: 556: 549: 542: 534: 531: 530: 518: 516: 515: 510: 502: 500: 499: 498: 497: 492: 481: 480: 479: 478: 473: 462: 461: 460: 459: 454: 441: 439: 438: 433: 428: 423: 418: 416:Pullman Strike 413: 408: 403: 398: 393: 385: 383: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 361: 360: 350: 345: 340: 332: 330: 329: 327:Foreign policy 324: 319: 311: 309: 308: 303: 292: 290: 289: 288: 287: 278: 264: 259: 251: 250: 247: 246: 234:a series about 230: 228: 212: 211: 209: 208: 198: 187:Henry L. Dawes 179: 176: 175: 171: 170: 160: 153: 152: 147: 146:Titles amended 143: 142: 138: 137: 127: 119: 118: 104: 100: 99: 95: 94: 91: 87: 86: 80: 76: 75: 72: 68: 67: 63: 59: 58: 55: 51: 50: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5399: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5327: 5326: 5317: 5316: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5306: 5305: 5301: 5299: 5298: 5294: 5293: 5290: 5283: 5280: 5277: 5274: 5271: 5268: 5265: 5264:Philippa Foot 5262: 5259: 5256: 5253: 5250: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5238: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5225: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5132:Panic of 1893 5130: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5085: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4905: 4904:22nd and 24th 4901: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4881: 4879: 4874: 4872: 4867: 4866: 4863: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4738: 4734: 4723: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4679: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4636: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4618: 4617: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4605: 4604: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4513: 4510: 4507: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4482: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462:United States 4460: 4455: 4445: 4442: 4439: 4436: 4433: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4403: 4398: 4396: 4391: 4389: 4384: 4383: 4380: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4356: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4287: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4182: 4180:By state/city 4178: 4172: 4169: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4151: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4119: 4118: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4107: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4031: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4004: 4003:Red handprint 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3963: 3960: 3959: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3948: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3882: 3880: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3728: 3725: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3607:Seminole Wars 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3567:Pontiac's War 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3552:Tuscarora War 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3506: 3500: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3484:Neighborhoods 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3424:Adena culture 3422: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3373: 3372: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3355:Jim Crow laws 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3264: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3238:Classic stage 3236: 3234: 3231: 3229: 3226: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3218:Paleo-Indians 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3195: 3190: 3188: 3183: 3181: 3176: 3175: 3172: 3160: 3157: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3142:Treaty rights 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3127:Seminole Wars 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3071: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3028: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3012: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2987: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2972: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2846: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2824: 2820: 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Reina 2742: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2726: 2723: 2722: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2682: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2662: 2659: 2658: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2622: 2619: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2558: 2555: 2554: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2542: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2434: 2431: 2430:0-691-04615-8 2427: 2423: 2420: 2419: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2402:0-674-01605-X 2399: 2395: 2394: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2364: 2352: 2345: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2318: 2314: 2313: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2261: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2230: 2227: 2214: 2210: 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