144:
133:
121:
353:
the coating on the substrate. Most frits for industrial applications are fired for as low as 20 minutes, but frits for very heavy-duty industrial applications may take double this time. Porcelain enamel coatings on aluminium substrates may be fired at temperatures as low as 530°C, but most steel substrates require temperatures in excess of 800°C.
207:, require different frit compositions to bond to them. For cover coats, the frit is composed to bind to the ground-coat and produce the desired external properties. Frit is normally prepared by mixing the ingredients and then milling the mixture into a powder. The ingredients, most often metal oxides and minerals such as
412:
oxides as minor components, could drastically improve its adhesion ability to carbon steels. Concurrent with this development was the first use of wet-slurry enamel application; this allowed porcelain enamel to be applied to much more complex shapes by dipping the shape into the liquid enamel slurry.
227:, are acquired in particulate form; the precise chemical composition and amount of each ingredient must be carefully measured and regulated. Once prepared, this powdered frit is then slumped and stirred to promote even distribution of materials; most frits are smelted at temperatures between 1150 and
81:
is used in almost every industry and a huge array of products; porcelain enamel is a very economic way of protecting this, and other chemically vulnerable materials, from corrosion. It can also produce very smooth, glossy finishes in a wide array of colours; these colours will not fade on exposure to
315:
The simplest method of dry application, especially for cast-iron substrates, is to heat the substrate and roll it in powdered frit. The frit particles melt on contact with the hot substrate and adhere to its surface. This method requires a high level of operator skill and concentration to achieve an
352:
Firing, where coated substrates are passed through a furnace to experience long periods of stable high temperatures, converts the adhering particles of frit into a continuous glass layer. The effectiveness of the process is highly dependent on the time, temperature, and the quality or thickness of
335:
The simplest method of wet application is to dip the substrate in a bath of liquid slurry; complete immersion coats all available surfaces of the substrate. Dipping is not often used in industry, however, because many preliminary trial dippings are required before the thickness of the coat can be
339:
A form of dipping suitable for modern industrial application is flow coating. Rather than dip the product in a bath of slurry, slurry is flowed over the surface of the substrate to be coated. This method allows for much more economical use of slurry and time; it is capable of allowing very rapid
396:
The production of porcelain enamelled products on an industrial scale first began in
Germany in 1840. The method used was very primitive compared to modern methods: the product was heated to a very high temperature and dusted with enamel, then immediately fired. This frequently resulted in poor
190:
Because frits frequently must be mixed at higher temperatures than the firing requires, most modern industrial enamellers do not mix their own frits completely; frit is most often purchased from dedicated frit producers in standard compositions and then any special ingredients added before
174:
side panels and tunnel walls. In recent years, agricultural silos have also been constructed with porcelain enamelled steel plates to protect the interior from corrosion and the exterior from weathering; this may indicate a future trend of coating all outdoor mild steel products in a
187:, the unfired enamel mixture; the preparation of the substrate; the application and firing; and then finishing processes. Most modern applications also involve two layers of enamel: a ground-coat to bond to the substrate and a cover-coat to provide the desired external properties.
416:
Up until the 1930s, all enamel applications required two coats of enamel: an undercoat to adhere to the substrate which was always blue (due in part to the presence of cobalt oxides), and a top coat of the desired colour (most often white). It was not until 1930 that the use of
393:. It was not long before this method of enamelling became outdated with the development of new ferrous substrates, and most modern research into porcelain enamelling is concerned with creating an acceptable bond between enamels and new metal substrates.
384:
first became the subject of porcelain enamelling processes; these first attempts were met with limited success. A reliably successful technique was not developed until the middle of the 19th century, with the development of a method for enamelling
327:; this allows the frit to hold an electrical charge during application. An electrostatic gun fires the dry frit powder onto the electrically earthed metal substrate; electrical forces bind the charged powder to the substrate and it adheres.
343:
Wet enamel may also be sprayed onto the product using specialized spray guns. Liquid slurry is fed into the nozzle of a spray gun, and compressed air atomizes the slurry and ejects it from the nozzle of the gun in a controlled jet.
258:
The metal to be used as a substrate is primarily determined by the application to which the product will be put, independent of any enamel considerations. Most commonly used are steels of various compositions, but also used are
270:
Before the application of enamel, the surface of the substrate must be prepared with a number of processes. The most important processes are the cleaning of the surface of the substrate; all remnants of chemicals,
82:
UV light, as paint will. Being a fired ceramic, porcelain enamel is also highly heat-resistant; this allows it to be used in high-temperature applications where an organic anti-corrosion coating or
183:
The application of industrial porcelain enamel can be a complicated process involving many different and very technical steps. All enamelling processes involve the mixture and preparation of
199:
For ground coats, the composition of a frit for any given application is determined primarily by the metal used as the substrate: different varieties of steel, and different metals such as
408:
The ability to apply porcelain enamel to sheet steels was not developed until 1900, with the discovery that making minor changes to the composition of the enamel, such as including
151:
Porcelain enamel is used most often in the manufacture of products that will be expected to come under regular chemical attack or high heat such as cookware, burners, and
242:
of frit suspended in water must be created. To remain in suspension, frits must be milled to an extremely fine particle size, or mixed with a suspension agent such as
1198:
421:
steel (steel with less than 0.005% carbon content) as a substrate was linked to allowing lighter-colored enamels to adhere directly to the substrate.
143:
750:
397:
adhesion or a spotty coat; two coats were always required to achieve a continuous, corrosion-resistant surface. It could only be applied to
710:
705:. The Pergamon Materials Engineering Practice Series (1st ed.). Pergamon Press, on the behalf of The Institute of Ceramics.
1223:
1019:
275:, oils, and other contaminants must be completely removed. To facilitate this, frequent processes performed on substrates are
1135:
1112:
968:
50:
and physical damage, modify the structural characteristics of the substrate, and improve the appearance of the product.
299:
Enamel may be applied to the substrate via many different methods. These methods are most often delineated into either
1304:
743:
38:(also known as vitreous enamel) for industrial, rather than artistic, applications. Porcelain enamel, a thin layer of
288:
999:
920:
810:
166:
Porcelain enamel is also used architecturally as a coating for wall panels. It may be used externally to provide
1309:
900:
320:
1263:
1130:
1004:
163:
area: pots, pans, cooktops, appliances, sinks, toilets, bathtubs, even walls, counters, and other surfaces.
73:
The most important characteristic of porcelain enamel, from an industrial perspective, is its resistance to
736:
307:
applications, determined by whether the enamel is applied as a dry powder or a liquid slurry suspension.
1072:
880:
377:
58:
96:
Porcelain enamel also sees less frequent employment of some of its other properties; examples are its
1228:
1102:
850:
840:
152:
1175:
1034:
895:
155:. It is used in the production of many household goods and appliances, especially those used in the
1248:
1170:
1092:
1067:
1314:
1155:
1077:
825:
815:
381:
284:
167:
125:
1299:
1268:
1233:
1203:
1160:
1097:
1082:
994:
885:
706:
132:
316:
even coating, and due to its inconstant nature is not often used in industrial applications.
1024:
1014:
1009:
779:
280:
224:
101:
89:
35:
1218:
1213:
1062:
958:
930:
915:
910:
905:
865:
835:
361:
65:, home appliances, bathroom fixtures, water heaters, and scientific laboratory equipment.
935:
1180:
1150:
1145:
1293:
1087:
1044:
950:
925:
820:
105:
83:
54:
170:
and desirable appearance, or internally to provide wear resistance; for example, on
1253:
1208:
1165:
855:
830:
784:
402:
247:
120:
700:
1278:
1243:
963:
845:
212:
1273:
1238:
1107:
875:
870:
276:
78:
1140:
1039:
398:
386:
260:
232:
200:
171:
100:
resistance, where it may perform better than many metals; its resistance to
74:
47:
1258:
1029:
805:
800:
216:
160:
137:
97:
62:
231:. After smelting, the frit is again milled into a powder, most often by
978:
728:
390:
324:
156:
39:
323:. Before application, the dry frit must be encapsulated in an organic
1054:
860:
409:
376:
since antiquity for the purposes of decoration. It was not until the
373:
369:
264:
208:
204:
319:
The most common method of dry application used in industry today is
405:, and only used for relatively simple products like pots and pans.
287:
the surface and provide anchoring points for the enamel), alkaline
973:
940:
890:
774:
759:
272:
220:
142:
131:
119:
46:
applied to a substrate of metal, is used to protect surfaces from
43:
365:
243:
53:
Enamel has been used for art and decoration since the period of
732:
147:
The porcelain-enamelled interior of a chemical reaction vessel
616:
614:
481:
479:
655:
653:
466:
464:
462:
437:
435:
433:
702:
Vitreous
Enamelling: A Guide to Modern Enamelling Practice
336:
predicted reliably enough for the desired application.
108:, where it can resist rapid cooling from temperatures
104:, where it is entirely impervious; its resistance to
1189:
1121:
1053:
987:
949:
793:
767:
720:Clarke, Geoffrey; Feher, Fracis & Ida (1967).
136:Assortment of old enamel bathroom appliances in
61:. It is most commonly used in the production of
1199:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
744:
8:
724:. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation.
683:
671:
659:
644:
632:
620:
605:
593:
581:
569:
557:
545:
533:
521:
509:
497:
485:
470:
453:
441:
364:has been applied to jewelry metals such as
751:
737:
729:
429:
86:may be impractical or even dangerous (
7:
175:weather-resistant porcelain enamel.
14:
699:Maskall, K.A.; White, D. (1986).
238:For wet application of enamel, a
1269:Radioactive waste vitrification
1224:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
112:and higher; and its longevity.
1:
1136:Chemically strengthened glass
57:, and for industry since the
16:Type of metal surface coating
969:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
722:The Technique of Enamelling
20:Industrial porcelain enamel
1331:
1000:Chemical vapor deposition
921:Ultra low expansion glass
811:Borophosphosilicate glass
1239:Glass-reinforced plastic
901:Sodium hexametaphosphate
684:Maskall & White 1986
672:Maskall & White 1986
660:Maskall & White 1986
645:Maskall & White 1986
633:Maskall & White 1986
621:Maskall & White 1986
606:Maskall & White 1986
594:Maskall & White 1986
582:Maskall & White 1986
570:Maskall & White 1986
558:Maskall & White 1986
546:Maskall & White 1986
534:Maskall & White 1986
522:Maskall & White 1986
510:Maskall & White 1986
498:Maskall & White 1986
486:Maskall & White 1986
471:Maskall & White 1986
454:Maskall & White 1986
442:Maskall & White 1986
321:electrostatic deposition
191:application and firing.
1131:Anti-reflective coating
1005:Glass batch calculation
886:Photochromic lens glass
148:
140:
129:
124:A porcelain-enamelled
1264:Prince Rupert's drops
1113:Transparent materials
1073:Gradient-index optics
881:Phosphosilicate glass
378:Industrial Revolution
146:
135:
123:
59:Industrial Revolution
1229:Glass ionomer cement
1103:Photosensitive glass
1030:Liquidus temperature
851:Fluorosilicate glass
153:laboratory equipment
32:glass fused to steel
1249:Glass-to-metal seal
1171:Self-cleaning glass
1093:Optical lens design
1305:Glass applications
1234:Glass microspheres
1156:Hydrogen darkening
1078:Hydrogen darkening
826:Chalcogenide glass
816:Borosilicate glass
179:Enamelling process
168:weather resistance
149:
141:
130:
1287:
1286:
1204:Glass-coated wire
1176:sol–gel technique
1161:Insulated glazing
1098:Photochromic lens
1083:Optical amplifier
1035:sol–gel technique
572:, pp. 62–75.
340:production runs.
28:glass-lined steel
1322:
1025:Ion implantation
780:Glass transition
753:
746:
739:
730:
725:
716:
687:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
648:
642:
636:
630:
624:
618:
609:
603:
597:
591:
585:
579:
573:
567:
561:
555:
549:
543:
537:
531:
525:
519:
513:
507:
501:
495:
489:
483:
474:
468:
457:
451:
445:
439:
389:cooking pots in
362:Porcelain enamel
283:(which can also
230:
111:
102:organic solvents
90:Metal fume fever
36:porcelain enamel
34:) is the use of
1330:
1329:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1310:Vitreous enamel
1290:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1219:Glass electrode
1214:Glass databases
1191:
1185:
1123:
1117:
1049:
983:
959:Bioactive glass
945:
931:Vitreous enamel
916:Thoriated glass
911:Tellurite glass
896:Soda–lime glass
866:Gold ruby glass
836:Cranberry glass
789:
763:
757:
719:
713:
698:
690:
682:
678:
670:
666:
658:
651:
647:, pp. 1–2.
643:
639:
631:
627:
619:
612:
604:
600:
592:
588:
580:
576:
568:
564:
556:
552:
544:
540:
532:
528:
520:
516:
508:
504:
496:
492:
488:, pp. 4–6.
484:
477:
469:
460:
456:, pp. 4–7.
452:
448:
440:
431:
427:
359:
350:
333:
331:Wet application
313:
311:Dry application
297:
291:, and rinsing.
256:
228:
197:
181:
118:
109:
71:
69:Characteristics
48:chemical attack
22:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
1328:
1326:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1181:Tempered glass
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1151:DNA microarray
1148:
1146:Dealkalization
1143:
1138:
1133:
1127:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1020:Glass modeling
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
991:
989:
985:
984:
982:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
955:
953:
951:Glass-ceramics
947:
946:
944:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
891:Silicate glass
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
797:
795:
791:
790:
788:
787:
782:
777:
771:
769:
765:
764:
762:science topics
758:
756:
755:
748:
741:
733:
727:
726:
717:
711:
689:
688:
676:
664:
649:
637:
625:
610:
598:
586:
574:
562:
550:
538:
526:
514:
502:
490:
475:
458:
446:
428:
426:
423:
382:ferrous metals
358:
355:
349:
346:
332:
329:
312:
309:
296:
293:
289:neutralization
255:
252:
196:
193:
180:
177:
117:
114:
70:
67:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1327:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
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1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
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1200:
1197:
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1194:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1088:Optical fiber
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1045:Vitrification
1043:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1015:Glass melting
1013:
1011:
1010:Glass forming
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
992:
990:
986:
980:
977:
975:
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
954:
952:
948:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
926:Uranium glass
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
906:Soluble glass
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
821:Ceramic glaze
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
798:
796:
792:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
772:
770:
766:
761:
754:
749:
747:
742:
740:
735:
734:
731:
723:
718:
714:
708:
704:
703:
697:
696:
695:
694:
685:
680:
677:
673:
668:
665:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
641:
638:
635:, p. 86.
634:
629:
626:
623:, p. 81.
622:
617:
615:
611:
608:, p. 80.
607:
602:
599:
596:, p. 83.
595:
590:
587:
584:, p. 79.
583:
578:
575:
571:
566:
563:
560:, p. 50.
559:
554:
551:
548:, p. 41.
547:
542:
539:
536:, p. 37.
535:
530:
527:
524:, p. 33.
523:
518:
515:
512:, p. 20.
511:
506:
503:
500:, p. 18.
499:
494:
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
467:
465:
463:
459:
455:
450:
447:
443:
438:
436:
434:
430:
424:
422:
420:
414:
411:
406:
404:
400:
394:
392:
388:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
356:
354:
347:
345:
341:
337:
330:
328:
326:
322:
317:
310:
308:
306:
302:
294:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
268:
266:
262:
253:
251:
249:
245:
241:
236:
234:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
194:
192:
188:
186:
178:
176:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
145:
139:
134:
127:
122:
115:
113:
107:
106:thermal shock
103:
99:
94:
92:
91:
85:
84:galvanization
80:
76:
68:
66:
64:
60:
56:
55:Ancient Egypt
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1254:Porous glass
1209:Safety glass
1166:Porous glass
1124:modification
936:Wood's glass
856:Fused quartz
831:Cobalt glass
785:Supercooling
721:
712:0-08-0334288
701:
693:Bibliography
692:
691:
686:, p. 4.
679:
674:, p. 3.
667:
662:, p. 2.
640:
628:
601:
589:
577:
565:
553:
541:
529:
517:
505:
493:
473:, p. 8.
449:
444:, p. 1.
418:
415:
407:
403:wrought-iron
395:
360:
351:
342:
338:
334:
318:
314:
304:
300:
298:
269:
257:
248:electrolytes
239:
237:
225:cobalt oxide
198:
189:
184:
182:
165:
150:
116:Applications
95:
87:
72:
52:
31:
27:
24:glass lining
23:
19:
18:
1279:Glass fiber
1244:Glass cloth
988:Preparation
964:CorningWare
846:Flint glass
841:Crown glass
794:Formulation
419:zero carbon
295:Application
213:silica sand
1294:Categories
1274:Windshield
1108:Refraction
1068:Dispersion
876:Milk glass
871:Lead glass
425:References
277:degreasing
235:grinding.
79:Mild steel
1315:Porcelain
1141:Corrosion
1040:Viscosity
995:Annealing
387:cast-iron
261:aluminium
254:Substrate
233:ball mill
201:aluminium
172:escalator
75:corrosion
1300:Coatings
1259:Pre-preg
1063:Achromat
806:Bioglass
801:AgInSbTe
281:pickling
217:soda ash
161:bathroom
138:Sardinia
98:abrasion
63:cookware
1190:Diverse
1122:Surface
979:Zerodur
391:Germany
357:History
157:kitchen
40:ceramic
1192:topics
1055:Optics
861:GeSbTe
768:Basics
709:
410:cobalt
374:copper
372:, and
370:silver
348:Firing
325:silane
265:copper
240:slurry
229:1300°C
223:, and
209:quartz
205:copper
974:Macor
941:ZBLAN
775:Glass
760:Glass
399:cast-
380:that
273:rusts
221:borax
110:500°C
44:glass
30:, or
707:ISBN
401:and
366:gold
285:etch
263:and
244:clay
211:(or
203:and
195:Frit
185:frit
128:sign
126:Tube
88:see
305:dry
303:or
301:wet
246:or
215:),
159:or
93:).
42:or
1296::
652:^
613:^
478:^
461:^
432:^
368:,
279:,
267:.
250:.
219:,
77:.
26:,
752:e
745:t
738:v
715:.
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