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the personal information of a consumer with whom the business does not have a direct relationship, subject to specified exceptions". This law was created to safeguard against the "cloak of invisibility" (unregistered, unregulated, untracked information broker) that previous data brokers roamed in. It was also meant to regulate the purchasing of data in commercial third party buyers, and tracks the data brokers information trades.
552:(GDPR) regulations, brought into operation in 2018. Under GDPR, data can only be collected for re-use on one of six legal bases. The rather vague term "legitimate interest" is often abused or misinterpreted. Explicit consent from users is required for information storage. In addition, data processing related with political opinion and religious belief is prohibited unless the consent of data subject is granted.
736:
646:
In
October 2019, California Governor Gavin Newsom signed into action statute AB 1202. This bill "would require data brokers to register with, and provide certain information to, the Attorney General. The bill would define a data broker as a business that knowingly collects and sells to third parties
610:
The proposed US Data
Accountability and Trust Act (introduced in 2009) contained a number of requirements for auditing and verification of accuracy of data held by information brokers, and additional measures in the case of a security breach. The bill also gave identified individuals the means and
124:
degree; however, towards the end of the 20th century, people with degrees in science, law, business, medicine, or other disciplines entered the profession, and the line between the terms information professional and information broker became more blurred. In 1977, Kelly
Warnken published the first
148:
made it much easier for companies to collect, analyze, store and transfer large amounts of data about individuals. This gave rise to the information broker or data broker industry. As of 2021, there is no required academic qualification for the job of information broker; some people may have a
119:
Credit scores were first used in the 1950s, and information brokering emerged as a career for individuals during that decade. However the business of information brokering did not become widely known or specifically regulated until the 1990s. During the 1970s, "information brokers" often had a
683:
The information produced by data brokers has been criticized for enabling discrimination in pricing, services and opportunities. For example, a May 2014 White House report found that web searches that included black-seeming first names such as
Jermaine were more likely to result in ads being
103:
is sometimes abbreviated to IB, and other terms used for information brokers include data brokers, independent information specialists, information or data agents, data providers, data suppliers, information resellers, data vendors, syndicated data brokers, or information product companies.
269:
are three common reasons for using data brokers, and these are the three broad categories defined by the
Federal Trade Commission. Information brokers need to screen their clients carefully to avoid criminals obtaining data on individuals for nefarious purposes: US broking companies
182:
defines an information broker as "a business that aggregates information from a variety of sources; processes it to enrich, cleanse or analyze it; and licenses it to other organizations". It states that data is "licensed for particular or limited uses" rather than sold to a client.
206:
for clients; or updating clients whenever new information on a specific topic or person. Clients use data brokers to save themselves time and money, as the brokers are trained in the skills needed to retrieve such information effectively and efficiently. Information brokers are
169:
as "companies that collect information, including personal information about consumers, from a wide variety of sources for the purpose of reselling such information to their customers for various purposes, including verifying an individual's identity, differentiating records,
211:, who find information on a variety of subjects, including companies (often competitors), markets, people, and products. Their role includes analysis and synthesis of the data they find, Brokers may find everything else they can about an individual on the Internet, and
451:. In 2012, Acxiom claimed to have files on about 500 million active consumers worldwide, with about 1,500 data points per person and, in 2023, Acxiom (renamed LiveRamp) claims to have files on 2.5 billion people and over 3,000 data points per person. The company
666:. It states that "Today, a wide range of companies known as 'data brokers' collect and maintain data on hundreds of millions of consumers, which they analyze, package, and sell generally without consumer permission or input." Their main findings were that:
337:
number and other such identifying information, as well as occupation, property ownership, income, etc. Advertising companies are most often only interested in profiles and categories rather than personal information about an individual.
638:
had recommended the United States
Congress develop legislation enabling consumers to see the information that data brokers hold about them, a recommendation it renewed in subsequent reports in 2012 and 2014. In 2013, the
497:
claimed that it has psychological profiles of 220 million United States citizens, based on 5,000 separate data sets, with another source reporting 230 million. A scandal emerged after it was found that after 270,000
1987:
606:
require companies to disclose their information-sharing policies using clear, unambiguous language, and consider creating a centralized, user-friendly method for consumers to opt out of information-sharing.
1600:
384:
detection, and to sell to individuals and organizations so they can research people for various reasons. Some datasets may also include geolocation data and is included in marketing resources from
84:
vary. In the United States there is no federal regulation protection for the consumer from data brokers, although some states have begun enacting laws individually. In the
European Union,
372:, home ownership status, investment habits, product preferences and health-related interests. Brokers then sell the profiles to other organizations that use them mainly to target
1294:
707:
2157:"Agency Announces Settlement of Separate Actions Against Retailer TJX, and Data Brokers Reed Elsevier and Seisint for Failing to Provide Adequate Security for Consumers Data"
1939:
2200:
186:
Information brokers (IBs) collect and collate data concerning myriad topics, ranging from the daily communications of an individual to more specialized data such as
502:
users consented to sharing their data, data was scraped from about 50 million profiles on the social media platform. This was seen as breach of trust by
Facebook.
456:
165:
Information brokering has been described as the "business of buying and selling information as a commodity". Information brokers have been defined by the (US)
858:
find work selling data as "stringers" for the
Central Intelligence Corporation. Information broker characters play a prominent role in stories published by
2156:
695:
in the United States. PRC also maintains a list of information brokers, with links to their privacy policies, terms of service, and opt-out provisions.
2047:
471:
is not required to acquire this data, due to the fact that it is "open source" or "commercially obtained". Use of the data also has implications in
2048:"TC Recommends Congress Require the Data Broker Industry to be More Transparent and Give Consumers Greater Control Over Their Personal Information"
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1099:
612:
1363:
1268:
30:
This article is about the collection of personal information for use by third parties. For librarians who perform information research, see
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The data are aggregated to create individual profiles, often made up of thousands of pieces of information, such as a person's age, race,
1803:
1505:
1218:
1301:
555:
In the US, individuals generally cannot find out what data a broker holds on them, how a broker got it, or how it is used. There is no
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549:
233:
Clients of information brokers come from a wide range of industries and professions, including manufacturing, financial institutions,
85:
88:
serves to regulate data brokers' operations. Some data brokers report to have large numbers of population data or "data attributes".
937:
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but sometimes sourced privately, and selling or licensing such information to third parties for a variety of uses. Sources, usually
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2104:
1908:
1352:
640:
464:
2248:
1964:
Hoofnagle, and
Jennifer King, Chris Jay (17 December 2007). "Consumer Information Sharing: Where the Sun Still Don't Shine".
757:
506:
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displayed that include the word "arrest," compared with web searches including white-seeming first names such as Geoffrey.
2243:
838:; Nicholas Wayne, Rachel, Elean Duga, Gustav St. Germain, Carol, and the President of the Daily Days newspaper company in
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50:
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study, after requesting and analyzing information-sharing practices at 86 companies, found many operating under an
1988:"Data Accountability and Trust Act: Federal Breach Notification, Data Security Policies and File Access Addressed"
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688:
487:
302:
202:. They may also provide various other services, such as analysing the data and writing reports on them; creating
70:
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Data broker products provide information about consumer offline behavior to tailor online outreach by marketers.
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Examples of information brokers in contemporary fiction would be the Shadow Broker in the video game series
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in 2011 as H.R. 1707., but died after being referred to committee. The bill was first introduced by Rep.
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A Review of the Data Broker Industry: Collection, Use, and Sale of Consumer Data for Marketing Purposes
505:
In 2018, American companies spent $ 19 billion acquiring and analyzing consumer data, according to the
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Data brokers have also faced legal charges for security breaches due to poor data security practices.
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There are varying regulations around the world limiting the collection of information on individuals;
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Beginning in the late twentieth century, technological developments such as the development of the
1940:"Data broker was selling lists of rape victims, alcoholics, and 'erectile dysfunction sufferers'"
1026:
722:, with members from 20 countries worldwide, representing both primary and secondary researchers.
467:(FBI) has purchased personal data from the company Venntel. Under both of these circumstances, a
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393:
306:
208:
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Data brokers collect a huge volume of detailed information on hundreds of millions of consumers.
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Information from property records, tax filings, etc. may also be available via "people-search"
2253:
2225:"AIIP members are owners of diverse, information-centric businesses located around the world."
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model that it described as inconsistent with consumer expectations, and recommended that the
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has purchased cell phone location data and home utility data from data brokers to facilitate
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opportunity to review and correct the data held that related to them. It passed through the
472:
310:
141:
74:
1804:"Aadhaar in the hand of spies Big Data, global surveillance state and the identity project"
345:
sites, either for a small fee or no cost. These websites can thereby have implications for
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1327:"Information broker job description, career as an information broker, salary, employment"
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73:, court reports and purchase histories. The information from data brokers may be used in
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Many brokers work independently, while others are employees of large companies such as
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212:
66:
54:
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1831:"'I made Steve Bannon's psychological warfare tool': meet the data war whistleblower"
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567:
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Files on individuals are generally sold in lists; examples cited in testimony to the
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2012:
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towards specific groups, or to verify a person's identity including for purposes of
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368:, religious affiliation, political affiliation, occupation, household income,
1219:"Congressional Testimony: What Information Do Data Brokers Have on Consumers?"
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The Information Brokers: How to Start and Operate Your Own Fee-based Service
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The Information Brokers: How to Start and Operate Your Own Fee-based Service
109:
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Data brokers sell products that identify financially vulnerable consumers.
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has publicly noted it has connections with 80 data broker companies. The
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2085:"Column: Shadowy data brokers make the most of their invisibility cloak"
931:
760: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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1506:"Yes, Companies Are Harvesting – and Selling – Your Facebook Profile"
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Information brokers sometimes specialise in a specific area, such as
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89:
62:
2026:"Data Accountability and Trust Act (2009; 111th Congress H.R. 2221)"
1859:"Was Your Facebook Data Actually 'Breached'? Depends On Who You Ask"
325:. IBs may also purchase information from other companies (such as a
198:
data, mostly from publicly available sources, usually obtained from
1455:"All About information brokers: what they do and how to become one"
2013:
Data Accountability and Trust Act (2011; 112th Congress H.R. 1707)
1595:
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1591:
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Due to the interest in federal regulation, data broker firms have
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that permits or enables consumers to see, make corrections to, or
582:, police officers (by home address), alcoholics, and people with
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525:
by purchasing data from a data broker including data usage from
153:
in business or marketing, while others may have a background in
2175:
The Association of Independent Information Professionals (AIIP)
2170:
1429:
The Association of Independent Information Professionals (AIIP)
329:
company). The information collected may include name, address,
278:
have both been duped by phoney clients, leading in one case to
729:
579:
1561:"Data Brokers Know Where You Are—and Want to Sell That Intel"
1528:"Step-by-step: how to remove yourself from data broker sites"
1300:. Executive Office of the President. May 2014. Archived from
245:
might benefit from information which helps them to apply for
1634:
http://educationnewyork.com/files/rockefeller_databroker.pdf
2201:"Everything we know about what data brokers know about you"
862:. The character trope is best exemplified by the superhero
1601:"Data Brokers: A Call for Transparency and Accountability"
92:
purports to have data from 2.5 billion different people.
1700:"Acxiom Launches Marketplace to Drive Smarter Campaigns"
1647:"Acxiom, the Quiet Giant of Consumer Database Marketing"
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1629:
1627:
1625:
285:
Data may be harvested from various sources, including
2221:
Association of Independent Information Professionals
2220:
1295:"Big data: seizing opportunities, preserving values"
708:
Association of Independent Information Professionals
1915:. privacyrights.org. 4 October 2010. Archived from
662:A United States Senate Committee in 2013 published
1770:Guide to Your Personal Data (and Who Is Using It)"
1178:Broughton, D.; Blackburn, L.; Vickers, L. (1991).
866:, but the trope is later used with the characters
643:also called for Congress to consider legislation.
396:also advertise location-based marketing services.
215:with information from a variety of other sources.
49:(such as income, ethnicity, political beliefs, or
1180:"Information brokers and information consultants"
687:An Online Information Broker FAQ is published by
548:, where data brokers work hard to get around the
125:fee-based information directory, followed by the
116:are also sometimes termed information brokers.
1419:
1417:
679:Data brokers operate behind a veil of secrecy.
157:, or may have worked for a database provider.
2015:. GovTrack.us. Retrieved on 12 November 2013.
1065:"What Is a Data Broker and How Does It Work?"
844:; or Izaya Orihara in the light novel series
578:, financially vulnerable people, people with
475:(used in rent/housing and job applications).
8:
1351:Bressan, Stephane; Lee, Thomas (June 1997).
482:, a people search website, settled with the
1759:
1757:
1610:. Government of the United States. May 2014
1368:Accepted at the WebNet 97 World Conference.
1353:Information Brokering on the World Wide Web
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1016:
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415:Data brokers in the United States include
27:Data collector and vendor to third parties
1263:. Information management series. Bowker.
1123:
1121:
820:Learn how and when to remove this message
654:and spent $ 29 million in the year 2020.
127:Journal of Fee-Based Information Services
1729:"Data Brokers Are a Threat to Democracy"
1449:
1447:
1445:
1237:The independent information professional
1025:Luenendonk, Martin (18 September 2019).
658:Criticisms, consumer rights and breaches
2050:. Federal Trade Commission. 27 May 2014
1806:. Fountain Ink Magazine. Archived from
977:
1992:Privacy Compliance & Data Security
613:United States House of Representatives
1722:
1720:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1526:Shelest, Dimitri (24 December 2024).
1397:"What does an Information Broker do?"
1364:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1289:
1287:
1094:
1092:
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1088:
1086:
1027:"How to become an information broker"
987:
985:
983:
981:
641:U.S. Government Accountability Office
486:for $ 800,000 over violations of the
7:
1829:Cadwalladr, Carole (18 March 2018).
1395:Campana, Natalia (6 February 2020).
758:adding citations to reliable sources
309:lists, consumer purchase histories,
61:-based since the 1990s, may include
53:) or data about people, mostly from
1884:"Answer to Question No E-000054/19"
2083:Lazarus, David (5 November 2019).
1938:Hill, Kashmir (19 December 2013).
1802:Govind Krishnan V. (3 June 2017).
1504:Beckette, Lois (9 November 2012).
1235:Sabroski, Suzanne J., ed. (2000).
550:General Data Protection Regulation
457:US Department of Homeland Security
25:
938:Privacy laws of the United States
1645:Singer, Natasha (16 June 2012).
1104:The Social Engineering Framework
734:
253:often use IBs to undertake land
2105:"Online Information Broker FAQ"
1909:"Online Information Broker FAQ"
745:needs additional citations for
465:Federal Bureau of Investigation
321:, health care authorities, and
77:used by employers and housing.
45:that specializes in collecting
2199:Beckett, Lois (13 June 2014).
2131:"Privacy Rights Clearinghouse"
1384:. Sage Publications Ltd. (UK).
590:Calls for regulation in the US
507:Interactive Advertising Bureau
1:
1857:Glum, Julia (22 March 2018).
850:. A few of the characters in
636:U.S. Federal Trade Commission
631:on 30 April 2009, H.R. 2221.
563:of data compiled by brokers.
533:Privacy issues and regulation
319:bank card transaction records
1913:Privacy Rights Clearinghouse
934:, a US people-search website
689:Privacy Rights Clearinghouse
625:112th United States Congress
617:111th United States Congress
604:California state legislature
305:, media and court reports,
1129:"Definition of Data Broker"
484:US Federal Trade Commission
2270:
1484:NSW Land Registry Services
1360:Sloan School of Management
237:, government agencies and
29:
702:Professional associations
619:, but failed to pass the
488:Fair Credit Reporting Act
299:user-contributed material
174:products, and preventing
144:, and declining costs of
2070:"Assembly Bill No. 1202"
1608:Federal Trade Commission
1198:10.1108/EUM0000000000838
1154:"Information Consultant"
967:, a social media company
907:Information professional
897:Competitive intelligence
712:professional association
623:. It was revived by the
596:University of California
574:survivors, seniors with
538:Information privacy laws
243:Non-profit organizations
167:Federal Trade Commission
32:Information professional
1672:"Acxiom sales brochure"
961:, an ecommerce platform
303:social networking sites
114:information specialists
71:social networking sites
1888:www.europarl.europa.eu
1425:"Research Specialists"
902:Information consultant
331:social security number
323:Web browsing histories
140:, increasing computer
2249:Business intelligence
1480:"Information Brokers"
1380:Kitchin, Rob (2014).
1100:"Information Brokers"
993:"Information Brokers"
943:Psychological warfare
693:consumer organization
315:terrorist watch lists
209:secondary researchers
188:product registrations
129:in 1979 and the book
2244:Business occupations
2137:on 11 September 2016
1257:Warnken, K. (1981).
1158:ScienceDirect Topics
955:, a US people-search
948:Price discrimination
754:improve this article
621:United States Senate
584:erectile dysfunction
542:in the United States
411:In the United States
41:is an individual or
1382:The Data Revolution
1331:StateUniversity.com
912:Information warfare
691:(PRC), a nonprofit
495:Cambridge Analytica
213:aggregate that data
18:Information brokers
1764:Matsakis, Louise.
1651:The New York Times
1307:on 20 January 2017
1185:Library Management
540:are not as strict
364:, height, weight,
307:voter registration
297:-related records,
282:on a large scale.
251:real estate agents
101:Information broker
2111:on 19 August 2016
2090:Los Angeles Times
1919:on 19 August 2016
1810:on 26 August 2017
1727:Sherman, Justin.
1559:Sherman, Justin.
1270:978-0-8352-1287-8
1106:. 4 December 2020
1071:. 4 February 2019
999:. 6 February 2020
830:
829:
822:
804:
570:include lists of
473:background checks
355:domestic violence
311:most-wanted lists
291:change of address
235:political parties
151:bachelor's degree
75:background checks
16:(Redirected from
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2159:. 27 March 2008.
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892:Background check
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738:
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335:driver's licence
200:online databases
142:processing power
51:geolocation data
21:
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2193:Further reading
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557:federal law
374:advertising
327:credit card
276:ChoicePoint
272:Lexis-Nexis
259:Advertising
106:consultants
39:data broker
2233:Categories
2205:ProPublica
1893:1 December
1746:25 January
1358:(Report).
1242:(Report).
972:References
868:Calculator
856:Snow Crash
847:Durarara!!
810:March 2021
780:newspapers
629:Bobby Rush
544:as in the
515:The Pillar
401:LexisNexis
351:harassment
239:historians
224:statistics
110:librarians
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860:DC Comics
854:'s novel
720:Louisiana
714:based in
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478:In 2012,
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196:copyright
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2254:Research
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2141:20 April
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1949:12 March
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886:See also
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576:dementia
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390:Experian
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561:opt out
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