148:
inflaton field value than the original mini-universe, because they inflated from regions of the original mini-universe where quantum fluctuation pushed the inflaton value up more than the slow inflation decay rate brought the inflaton value down. Originally there was one mini-universe with a given inflaton value; now there are nine mini-universes that have a slightly larger inflaton value. (Of course, there are also eleven mini-universes where the inflaton value is slightly lower than it originally was.) Each mini-universe with the larger inflaton field value restarts a similar round of approximate self-reproduction within itself. (The mini-universes with lower inflaton values may also reproduce, unless its inflaton value is small enough that the region drops out of inflation and ceases self-reproduction.) This process continues indefinitely; nine high-inflaton mini-universes might become 81, then 729... Thus, there is eternal inflation.
1709:
204:
eternal, and the random noise leads to spacetime being filled with singularities. This was demonstrated by showing that solutions to the
Einstein field equations diverge in a finite time. Their paper therefore concluded that the theory of eternal inflation based on random quantum fluctuations would not be a viable theory, and the resulting existence of a multiverse is "still very much an open question that will require much deeper investigation".
71:'s 2007 paper, "Eternal inflation and its implications", states that under reasonable assumptions "Although inflation is generically eternal into the future, it is not eternal into the past." Guth detailed what was known about the subject at the time, and demonstrated that eternal inflation was still considered the likely outcome of inflation, more than 20 years after eternal inflation was first introduced by Steinhardt.
231:
It's hard to build models of inflation that don't lead to a multiverse. It's not impossible, so I think there's still certainly research that needs to be done. But most models of inflation do lead to a multiverse, and evidence for inflation will be pushing us in the direction of taking the idea of a
147:
field is slow compared to the effect of quantum fluctuation. When a mini-universe inflates and "self-reproduces" into, say, twenty causally-disconnected mini-universes of equal size to the original mini-universe, perhaps nine of the new mini-universes will have a larger, rather than smaller, average
94:
In 1979, Alan Guth introduced the inflationary model of the universe to explain why the universe is flat and homogeneous (which refers to the smooth distribution of matter and radiation on a large scale). The basic idea was that the universe underwent a period of rapidly accelerating expansion a few
199:
In analyzing the Planck
Satellite data from 2013, Anna Ijjas and Paul Steinhardt showed that the simplest textbook inflationary models were eliminated and that the remaining models require exponentially more tuned starting conditions, more parameters to be adjusted, and less inflation. Later Planck
142:
Quantum fluctuations in the hypothetical inflaton field produce changes in the rate of expansion that are responsible for eternal inflation. Those regions with a higher rate of inflation expand faster and dominate the universe, despite the natural tendency of inflation to end in other regions. This
125:
In 1983, Paul
Steinhardt was the first to show that this "new inflation" does not have to end everywhere. Instead, it might only end in a finite patch or a hot bubble full of matter and radiation, and that inflation continues in most of the universe while producing hot bubble after hot bubble along
203:
A 2014 paper by Kohli and Haslam called into question the viability of the eternal inflation theory, by analyzing Linde's chaotic inflation theory in which the quantum fluctuations are modeled as
Gaussian white noise. They showed that in this popular scenario, eternal inflation in fact cannot be
121:
and Paul J. Steinhardt who showed how to end inflation without making empty bubbles and, instead, end up with a hot expanding universe. The basic idea was to have a continuous "slow-roll" or slow evolution from false vacuum to true without making any bubbles. The improved model was called "new
219:
Paul
Steinhardt, who produced the first example of eternal inflation, eventually became a strong and vocal opponent of the theory. He argued that the multiverse represented a breakdown of the inflationary theory, because, in a multiverse, any outcome is equally possible, so inflation makes no
190:
The early calculations derived at the
Nuffield Workshop only focused on the average fluctuations, whose magnitude is too small to affect inflation. However, beginning with the examples presented by Steinhardt and Vilenkin, the same quantum physics was later shown to produce occasional large
166:
In the context of inflation, quantum fluctuations were first analyzed at the three-week 1982 Nuffield
Workshop on the Very Early Universe at Cambridge University. The average strength of the fluctuations was first calculated by four groups working separately over the course of the workshop:
46:
According to eternal inflation, the inflationary phase of the universe's expansion lasts forever throughout most of the universe. Because the regions expand exponentially rapidly, most of the volume of the universe at any given time is inflating. Eternal inflation, therefore, produces a
106:, homogeneous universe observed today. Although the false vacuum could decay into empty "bubbles" of "true vacuum" that expanded at the speed of light, the empty bubbles could not coalesce to reheat the universe, because they could not keep up with the remaining inflating universe.
256:
wavefunction, in fact the theory requires a boundary at the beginning of time. Stated simply
Hawking says that their findings "imply a significant reduction of the multiverse" which as the University of Cambridge points out, makes the theory "predictive and testable" using
129:
Using ideas introduced by
Steinhardt and Vilenkin, Andrei Linde published an alternative model of inflation in 1986 which used these ideas to provide a detailed description of what has become known as the Chaotic Inflation theory or eternal inflation.
236:
According to Linde, "It's possible to invent models of inflation that do not allow a multiverse, but it's difficult. Every experiment that brings better credence to inflationary theory brings us much closer to hints that the multiverse is real."
90:
Inflation, or the inflationary universe theory, was originally developed as a way to overcome the few remaining problems with what was otherwise considered a successful theory of cosmology, the Big Bang model.
138:
New inflation does not produce a perfectly symmetric universe due to quantum fluctuations during inflation. The fluctuations cause the energy and matter density to be different at different points in space.
248:
published a paper in which the need for an infinite multiverse vanishes as
Hawking says their theory gives universes which are "reasonably smooth and globally finite". The theory uses the
820:
Bardeen, James M.; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Turner, Michael S. (1983). "Spontaneous creation of almost scale-free density perturbations in an inflationary universe".
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to define an 'exit plane' from the timeless state of eternal inflation, the universes which are generated on the plane are described using a redefinition of the
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allows inflation to continue forever, to produce future-eternal inflation. As a simplified example, suppose that during inflation, the natural decay rate of the
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Guth's original formulation was problematic, as there was no consistent way to bring an end to the inflationary epoch and end up with the hot,
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the way. Alexander Vilenkin showed that when quantum effects are properly included, this is actually generic to all new inflation models.
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Starobinsky, Alexei A. (1982). "Dynamics of phase transition in the new inflationary universe scenario and generation of perturbations".
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in which space is broken up into bubbles or patches whose properties differ from patch to patch spanning all physical possibilities.
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61:, one of the original researchers of the inflationary model, introduced the first example of eternal inflation in 1983, and
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Albrecht, A.; Steinhardt, P. J. (1982). "Cosmology For Grand Unified Theories With Radiatively Induced Symmetry Breaking".
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energy. Guth coined the term "inflation," and was the first to discuss the theory with other scientists worldwide.
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Both Linde and Guth, however, continued to support the inflationary theory and the multiverse. Guth declared:
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855:
Iijas, Anna; Loeb, Abraham; Steinhardt, Paul (2013). "Inflationary Paradigm in trouble after Planck 2013".
1320:
711:
Hawking, Stephen W. (1982). "The development of irregularities in a single bubble inflationary universe".
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Linde, Andrei. "Inflationary cosmology." Inflationary cosmology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2008. 1–54.
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predictions and, hence, is untestable. Consequently, he argued, inflation fails a key condition for a
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Ijjas, Anna; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Loeb, Abraham (2015). "Mathematical Issues in Eternal Inflation".
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Mukhanov, ViatcheslavF.; Chibisov, G. V. (1981). "Quantum fluctuation and "nonsingular" universe".
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Mukhanov, Viatcheslav F. (1982). "The vacuum energy and large scale structure of the universe".
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instants after the Big Bang. He offered a mechanism for causing the inflation to begin:
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fluctuations that increase the rate of inflation and keep inflation going eternally.
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1016:"Inflation Debate: Is the theory at the heart of modern cosmology deeply flawed?"
462:"Inflationary universe: A possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems"
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1179:
806:
782:
643:"Spectrum of Relict Gravitational Radiation and The Early State of the Universe"
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522:
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Iijas, Anna; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Loeb, Abraham (2014). "Inflationary Schism".
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1101:"Our Universe May Exist in a Multiverse, Cosmic Inflation Discovery Suggests"
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1242:"Taming the multiverse: Stephen Hawking's final theory about the big bang"
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52:
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In 1983, it was shown that inflation could be eternal, leading to a
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538:"Eternally Existing Self-Reproducing Chaotic Inflationary Universe"
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975:
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407:
Guth, Alan H. (2007). "Eternal inflation and its implications".
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Vilenkin, Alexander (1983). "Birth of Inflationary Universes".
689:
See Guth (1997) for a popular description of the workshop, or
701:
eds Hawking, Gibbon & Siklos for a more detailed report
200:
observations reported in 2015 confirmed these conclusions.
1272:, BBC News, 3 August 2011 about testing eternal inflation.
785:(1982). "Fluctuations in the new inflationary universe".
39:
model, which is itself an outgrowth or extension of the
1270:'Multiverse' theory suggested by microwave background
1144:
Hawking, Stephen W.; Hertog, Thomas (27 April 2018).
338:; Siklos, S.T.C., eds. (1983). "Natural Inflation".
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1313:
1210:"Before the Big Bang 5: The No Boundary Proposal"
159:in the context of a model of modified gravity by
208:Inflation, eternal inflation, and the multiverse
151:In 1980, quantum fluctuations were suggested by
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163:to be possible seeds for forming galaxies.
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27:Hypothetical inflationary universe model
1146:"A smooth exit from eternal inflation?"
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1222:from the original on 19 December 2021
7:
1014:Steinhardt, Paul J. (April 2011).
25:
1713:Template:Quantum mechanics topics
1079:The Cyclic Theory of the Universe
1043:10.1038/scientificamerican0411-36
51:, in which only an insignificant
1708:
1707:
1429:Topological quantum field theory
1218:. skydivephil. 7 November 2017.
1414:Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity
1619:Causal dynamical triangulation
1487:Black hole information paradox
1150:Journal of High Energy Physics
940:10.1016/j.physletb.2014.07.012
887:10.1016/j.physletb.2013.05.023
113:" was solved independently by
1:
1585:Wheeler–DeWitt equation
993:10.1088/0264-9381/32/7/075001
1507:Cosmic censorship hypothesis
1326:Batalin–Vilkovisky formalism
768:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90541-X
733:10.1016/0370-2693(82)90373-2
565:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8
259:gravitational wave astronomy
807:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1110
641:Starobinsky, A. A. (1979).
536:Linde, A.D. (August 1986).
523:10.1103/PhysRevLett.48.1220
439:10.1088/1751-8113/40/25/S25
306:Measure problem (cosmology)
65:showed that it is generic.
1761:
1603:Hartle–Hawking state
1502:Bousso's holographic bound
1482:Black hole complementarity
1118:Cho, Adrian (2 May 2018).
344:Cambridge University Press
83:
1699:
1595:Euclidean quantum gravity
1572:Canonical quantum gravity
1522:Gravitational singularity
1492:Black-hole thermodynamics
1376:Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture
80:Development of the theory
1649:Superfluid vacuum theory
1404:2+1D topological gravity
394:10.1103/PhysRevD.27.2848
171:; Starobinsky; Guth and
47:hypothetically infinite
1639:Noncommutative geometry
1386:Weinberg–Witten theorem
1381:Trans-Planckian problem
1246:University of Cambridge
1180:10.1007/JHEP04(2018)147
842:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.679
787:Physical Review Letters
691:The Very Early Universe
487:10.1103/PhysRevD.23.347
340:The Very Early Universe
55:volume ends inflation.
18:Inflationary multiverse
1321:AdS/CFT correspondence
460:Guth, Alan H. (1981).
234:
1735:Inflation (cosmology)
1547:Bosonic string theory
1459:Semiclassical gravity
1356:Holographic principle
1346:Gravitational anomaly
296:Shape of the universe
281:Inflation (cosmology)
250:holographic principle
232:multiverse seriously.
111:graceful exit problem
37:inflationary universe
1580:Loop quantum gravity
1439:Quantum field theory
1084:12 June 2010 at the
195:Further developments
153:Viatcheslav Mukhanov
134:Quantum fluctuations
1449:Bunch–Davies vacuum
1441:in curved spacetime
1341:Faddeev–Popov ghost
1172:2018JHEP...04..147H
1035:2011SciAm.304d..36S
1023:Scientific American
985:2015CQGra..32g5001S
963:Class. Quantum Grav
932:2014PhLB..736..142I
879:2013PhLB..723..261I
834:1983PhRvD..28..679B
799:1982PhRvL..49.1110G
760:1982PhLB..117..175S
725:1982PhLB..115..295H
671:on 15 December 2017
662:1979JETPL..30..682S
628:1982JETP...56..258M
616:Soviet Physics JETP
601:1981JETPL..33..532M
557:1986PhLB..175..395L
515:1982PhRvL..48.1220A
478:1981PhRvD..23..347G
431:2007JPhA...40.6811G
386:1983PhRvD..27.2848V
346:. pp. 251–66.
336:Hawking, Stephen W.
1740:Physical cosmology
1634:Group field theory
1562:Superstring theory
1517:Firewall (physics)
291:Physical cosmology
161:Alexei Starobinsky
63:Alexander Vilenkin
35:is a hypothetical
1722:
1721:
1679:Eternal inflation
1674:Quantum cosmology
1662:
1661:
1454:Hawking radiation
1419:Liouville gravity
1060:on 24 August 2014
822:Physical Review D
748:Physics Letters B
713:Physics Letters B
545:Physics Letters B
509:(17): 1220–1223.
415:(25): 6811–6826.
380:(12): 2848–2855.
374:Physical Review D
353:978-0-521-31677-4
286:Fractal cosmology
240:In 2018 the late
222:scientific theory
86:Bubble nucleation
33:Eternal inflation
16:(Redirected from
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1107:. 18 March 2014.
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1371:Quantum foam
1366:Planck units
1361:IR/UV mixing
1336:Causal patch
1250:. Retrieved
1248:. 2 May 2018
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1624:Causal sets
1474:Black holes
916:: 142–146.
675:31 December
254:no-boundary
173:So-Young Pi
1745:Multiverse
1729:Categories
1689:Multiverse
1531:Approaches
1409:CGHS model
1396:Toy models
1331:CA-duality
1252:15 October
1226:16 October
1163:1707.07702
1156:(4): 147.
1129:15 October
699:0521316774
409:J. Phys. A
312:References
214:multiverse
49:multiverse
1705:See also:
1644:Spin foam
1424:RST model
1188:1029-8479
1105:Space.com
1064:7 October
1001:119321525
976:1408.2249
948:119096427
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870:1304.2785
650:JETP Lett
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276:Cosmology
104:isotropic
69:Alan Guth
1552:M-theory
1512:ER = EPR
1351:Graviton
1220:Archived
1196:13745992
1082:Archived
1051:21495480
895:14875751
447:18669045
265:See also
145:inflaton
75:Overview
43:theory.
41:Big Bang
1215:YouTube
1168:Bibcode
1031:Bibcode
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875:Bibcode
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1254:2020
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